3- OBJETIVOS 3.1 Geral
6.4 Considerações Evolutivas
Em contraste aos encéfalos de mamíferos ancestrais, que além de pequenos, possuíam telencéfalos praticamente lisos (Rowe et al., 2011), encéfalos de mamíferos modernos podem variar mais de 100.000 vezes em massa (Count, 1947), mas não de modo uniforme. Assim, seres de diferentes classes podem ter volumes encefálicos diferentes, bem como outros aspectos morfológicos (p.ex. sulcos e giros e razão entre massa encefálica e número de neurônios e células da glia) (Pillary e Manger, 2007; Herculano-Houzel et al., 2014).
Quando se fala em centros subcorticais, os resultados revelaram que os núcleos dopaminérgicos A8, A9 e A10 do sagui são, de um modo geral, similares ao que já foi descrito em outras espécies de mamíferos, sugerindo que essas estruturas têm se mostrado filogeneticamente conservadas entre as espécies.
Com base nos estudos realizados em outros animais, principalmente reportando-se aos diversos da ordem Rodentia, foi possível deduzir que, embora se perceba diferenças fenotípicas acentuadas, a complexidade nuclear dos centros dopaminérgicos analisados parece ser capaz de mudar entre as diferentes ordens, mas não dentro dela mesma. Deste modo, autores sugeriram que para a ordem Rodentia, por exemplo, as variações fenotípicas, de hábitos de vida e características evolutivas não conduzem à variação dos núcleos dopaminérgicos (Manger, 2005). Certamente, isso será algo a ser discutido dentro da ordem dos primatas, principalmente quando estudos semelhantes a esse forem realizados.
7. CONCLUSÕES
A partir dos resultados deste trabalho, com relação aos núcleos dopaminérgicos A8, A9 e A10, foi possível concluir que:
1. A imunoistoquímica para TH, juntamente com a técnica de Nissl, são eficientes no que se refere à delimitação dos neurônios dopaminérgicos dispostos na porção dien-mesencefálica, assim como na delimitação dos núcleos e na caracterização citoarquitetônica;
2. Os núcleos dopaminérgicos A8, A9 e A10 são, respectivamente: zona retrorubral (RRF), substância negra pars compacta (SNc) e área tegmentar ventral (VTA);
3. O complexo SNC/A9 foi dividido em: SNCD, SNCV, SNCL e SNCM. Já o complexo VTA/A10 foi divido em: VTAR, PBP, PN, PIF, IF, Cli/RLi. Com relação à RRF/A8, a disposição dos seus neurônios não permitiu uma subdivisão;
4. Os núcleos dopaminérgicos A8, A9 e A10 do sagui se apresentam semelhantemente aos núcleos estudados em outras espécies, seja de roedores, seja de primatas. Havendo apenas divergências quanto à morfologia neuronal e arborização dendrítica dentro de cada subnúcleo, quando comparado com outros estudos em outras espécies.
8. PERSPECTIVAS
O sagui (Callithrix jacchus), há algum tempo, vem sendo utilizado como modelo experimental no Programa de pós graduação em Psicobiologia da UFRN. Conforme mencionado, diversos trabalhos já foram desenvolvidos com este animal e, atualmente, encontra-se em andamento alguns estudos cujo objetivos consistem em abordar aspectos relacionados à plasticidade e envelhecimento de centros subcorticais, sobretudo relacionando-os com o sistema de temporização circadiana. Outrossim, encontram-se em andamento estudos que buscam maiores esclarecimentos acerca das projeções tálamo-corticais.
Este trabalho mostrou a proximidade existente entre os núcleos dopaminérgicos do mesencéfalo do sagui (Callithrix jacchus) e de outros animais (primatas ou não) estudados. Porém, lançou a perspectiva de aprofundamento de estudos, no sentido de esclarecer ainda mais algumas lacunas existentes.
Diante do exposto, é eminente a necessidade de continuidade de pesquisas referentes ao sistema dopaminérgico deste animal. Eis algumas possibilidades:
1. Caracterização neuroquímica dos núcleos dopaminérgicos; 2. Estudo morfométrico e/ou estereológico desses núcleos;
3. Estudo de caráter funcional que busque evidenciar a importância das subdivisões nucleares encontradas e relacioná-las com respostas biológicas/comportamentais;
4. Estudos hodológicos;
5. Estudos filogenéticos que busquem comparar a apresentação destes núcleos entre indivíduos da mesma ordem (Primatas);
9. REFERÊNCIAS1
Abbot, D.H., Barnett, D.K., Colman, R.J., Yamamoto, M.E., Schultz-Darken, N.J., 2003. Aspects of Common sagui basic biology and life history important for biomedical research. Comp. Medic. 53, 339- 350.
Annett, L.E., Rogers, D.C., Hernandez, T.D., Dunnett, S.B., 1992. Behavioural analysis of unilateral monoamine depletion in the marmoset. Brain 115 (3), 825–856.
Araújo, D.P., Lobato, R.F.G., Cavalcanti, J.R.L.P., Sampaio, L.R.L., Araújo, P.V.P., Silva, M.C.C., Neves, K.R.T., Sousa, F.C.F., Vasconcelos, S.M.V., 2011. The contributions of antioxidant activity of lipoic acid in reducing neurogenerative progression of parkinson s disease: a review. Int. J. of Neurosci. 121, 51-57.
Baltanás, F.C.,Curto, G.G., Gómez, C., Díaz, D., Murias, A.R., Crespo, C., Erdlyi, F., Szabó, G., Alonso, J.R., Weruaga, E., 2011. Types of cholecystokinin-containing periglomerular cells in the mouse olfactory bulb. Journal of Neuroscience Research 89, 35-43.
Barrot, M., 2014. The ventral tegmentum and dopamine: a new wave of diversity. Neuroscience 282, 243-247.
Bhagwandin, A., Fuxe, K., Bennett, N.C., Manger, P.R., 2008. Nuclear organization and morphology of cholinergic, putative catecholaminergic and serotonergic neurons in the brains of two species of African mole-rats. J. Chem. Neuroanat. 35, 371-387.
Bentivoglio, M., Morelli, M., 2005. The organization and circuits of mesencephalic dopaminergic neurons and the distribution of dopamine receptors in the brain. In: Dunnett, S.B. et al., Handbook of Chemical Neuroanatomy. Vol. 21, ed Elsevier, pp. 1– 107.
Ben-Jonathan, N., Hnasko, R., 2001. Dopamine as a prolactin (PRL) inhibitor. Endocr. Rev. 22, 724-763.
Bernstein, A.I., Stout, K.A., Miller, G.W., 2014. The vesicular monoamine transporter 2: An underexplored pharmacological target. Neurochemistry International 73 (2014) 89–97
Bertler, A., Rosengren, E., 1959. Occurrence and distribution of dopamine in brain and other tissues. Experientia 15,10-11.
Besharse, J.S., Iuvone, P.M., Pierce, M.E., 1988. Regulation of rhythmic photoreceptor metabolism: a role for post-receptoral neurons. Prog. Ret. Res., 7, 21–61.
Bihel, E., Pro-Sistiaga, P., Letourneur, A., et al. 2010. Permanent or transient chronic ischemic stroke in the non-human primate: behavioral, neuroimaging, histological, and immunohistochemical investigations. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 30, 273-285.
Björklund, A., Dunnett, S., 2007a. Fifty years of dopamine research. Trends Neurosci. 30, 185-187.
Björklund, A., Dunnett, S., 2007b. Dopamine neuron systems in the brain: an update. Trends Neurosci. 30, 194-202.
Blum, M., 1998. A null mutation in TGF-alpha leads to a reduction in midbrain dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra. Nat. Neurosci. 1: 374 – 377.
Bux, F., Bhagwandin, A., Fuxe, K., Manger, P.R., 2010. Organization of cholinergic, putative catecholaminergic and serotonergic nuclei in the diencephalon, midbrain and pons of sub-adult male giraffes. J. Chem. Neuroanat. 39, 189-203.
Clarke, H.F., Cardinal, R.N., Rygula, R.,Hong, Y.T., Fryer, T.D., Sawiak, S.J., Ferrari, V., Cockcroft, G., Aigbirhio, F.I., Robbins, T.W., Roberts, A.C., 2014. Orbotofrontal
dopamine depletion upregulates caudate dopamine and alters behavior via changes in feinforcement sensitivity. J. Neurosci. 34(22), 7663-7676.
Carlsson, A., Lindqvist, M., Magnusson, T., 1957. 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanyne and 5- hydroxytryyptophan as reserpine antagonists. Nature 180, 1200.
Carlsson, A., Lindqvist, M., Magnusson, T., Waldeck, B., 1958. On the presence of 3- hydroxytyramine in brain. Science 127, 471.
Carrion Jr., R., Patterson, J.L., 2012. An animal model that reflects human dis-ease: the common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus). Curr. Opin. Virol. 2(3), 357–362.
Cavalcante, J.S., Pontes, A.L.B., Engelberth, R.C.G.J., Cavalcante, J.C., Nascimento Jr., E.S., Borda, J.S., Pinato, L., Costa, M.S.M.O., Toledo, C.A.B., 2011. 5-HT1B receptor in the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the commom marmoset (Callithrix jacchus). Neurosci Let. 488, 6-10.
Cavalcanti, J.R.L.P., Soares, J.G., Oliveira, F.G., Guzen, F. P., Pontes, A.L.B., Sousa, T.B., Cavalcante, J.S., Nascimento Jr, E.S., Cavalcante, J.C., Costa, M.S.M.O., 2014. A cytoarchitectonic and TH-immunohistochemistry characterization of the dopamine cell groups in the substantia nigra, ventral tegmental area and retrorubral field in the rock cavy (Kerodon rupestris). J. Chem. Neuroanat. 55, 58-66.
Chen, X., Xu, L., Radcliffe, P., Sun, B., Tank, A. W., 2008. Activation of tyrosine hydroxylase mRNA translation by cAMP in midbrain dopaminergic neurons. Mol. Pharmacol. 73, 1816-1828.
Chinta, S.J., Andersen, J.K., 2005. Dopaminergic neurons. Int. J. Biochem. Cell B. 37, 942-946.
Cho, Y.T., Fudge, J.L., 2010. Heterogeneous dopamine populations project to specific subregions of the primate amygdale. Neuroscience 165, 1501-1518.
Chowdhury, R., Lambert, C., Dolan, R. J., Duzel, E., 2013. Parcellation of the human substantia nigra based on anatomical connectivity to the striatum. Neuroimage 81(1), 191-198.
Chudasama, Y., Robbins, T.W., 2004. Psychopharmacological approaches to modulating attention in the five-choice serial reaction time task: implications for schizophrenia. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 174, 86–98.
Cippola-Neto, J., Skorupa, A.L., Ribeiro-Barbosa, E.R., Bartol, I., Mota, S.R., Castro Afeche, S., Delagrange, P., Guardiola- Lemaitre, B, Canteras, N.S., 1999. The role of the retrochiasmatic area in the control of pineal metabolism. Neuroendocrinology 69, 97–104.
Cohen, J.Y., Haesler, S., Vong, L., Lowell, B.B., Uchida, N., 2012. Neuron-type- specific signals for reward and punishment in the ventral tegmental area. Nature 482, 85–88.
Count, E.W., 1947. Brain and body weight in man: their antecedents in growth and evolution. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 46, 993–1122.
Dahlström, A., Fuxe, K., 1964. Evidence for the existence of monoamine containing neurons in the central nervous system. I. Demonstration of monoamines in the cell bodies of brain stem neurons. Acta Physiol. Scand. Suppl. 232, 1–55.
Da Silva, J.N., Fuxe, K., Manger, P.R., 2006. Nuclear parcellation of certain immunohistochemically identifiable neuronal systems in the midbrain and pons of the Highveld molerat (Cryptomys hottentotus). J. Chem. Neuroanat. 31, 37-50.
Djamgoz, M. B., Hankins, M.W., Hirano, J., Archer, S.N., 1997. Neurobiology of retinal dopamine in relation to degenerative states of the tissue. Vision Res. 37, 3509– 3529.
Dwarika, S., Maseko, B.C., Ihunwo, A.O., Fuxe, K., Manger, P.R., 2008. Distribution and morphology of putative catecholaminergic and serotoninergic neurons in the brain of the greater canerat, Thryonomys swinderianus. J. Chem. Neuroanat. 35, 108-122.
Fallon, J.H., Moore, R.Y., 1978. Catecholamine innervation of the basal forebrain. IV. Topography of the dopamine projection to the basal forebrain and neostriatum. J. Comp. Neurol. 180, 545–580.
Fallon, J.H., Opole, I.O., Potkin, S.G., 2003. The neuroanatomy of schizophrenia: circuitry and neurotransmitter systems. Clin. Neurosci. Res. 3, 77-107.
Fields, H.L., Hjelmstad, G.O., Margolis, E.B., Nicola, S.M., 2007. Ventral tegmental area neurons in learned appetitive behavior and positive reinforcement. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 30, 289–316.
François, C., Yelnik, D., Tandé, D., Agid, Y., Hirsh, E.C., 1999. Dopaminergic cell group A8 in the monkey: anatomical organization and projections to the striatum. J. Comp. Neurol. 414, 334-347.
Freeman, M.E., Kanyicska, B., Lerant, A., Nagy, G., 2000. Prolactin: structure, function and regulation of secretion. Physiol. Rev.80(4), 1525-1631.
Fu, Y., Yuan, Y., Halliday, G., Rusznák, Z., Watson, C., Paxinos, G., 2012. A cytoarchitetonic and chemoarchitetonic analysis of the dopamine cell groups in the susbstantia nigra, ventral tegmental area, and retrorubral field in the mouse. Brain Struc. Funct. 217, 591-612.
Gnanalingham, K.K., Smith, L.A., Hunter, A.J., et al., 1993. Alterations in striatal and extrastriatal D-1 and D-2 dopamine receptors in the MPTP-treated common marmoset: an autoradiographic study. Synapse 14, 184-94.
Genain, C.P., Hauser, S.L., 1997. Creation of a model for multiple sclerosis in Callithrix jacchus marmosets. J. Mol. Med. 5, 187-197.
German, D.C., Manaye, K.F., 1993. Midbrain dopaminergic neurons (Nuclei A8, A9 e A10): three-dimensional reconstruction in the rat. J. Comp. Neurol. 331, 297-309.
German, D.C., Schlusselberg, D.S.,Woodward, D.J., 1983. Three-dimensional computer reconstruction of midbrain dopaminergic neuronal populations: from mouse to man. J. Neural Transm. 57:243–254.
Goodman, R.L., 1996. Neural systems mediating the negative feedback actions of estradiol and progesterone in the ewe. Acta Neurobiol. Exp. 56, 727-741.
Goodman, R.L., Jansen, H.T., Billings, H.J., Collen, L.M., Lehman, M.N., 2010. Neural systems mediating seasonal breeding in the ewe. J. Neuroendocrinol. 22, 674-681.
Goole, J., Amigui, K., 2009. Levodopa delivery systems for the treatment of Parkinson’s disease: an overview. Int. J. Pharm. 380, 1-15.
Gravett, N., Bhagwandin, A., Fuxe, K., Manger, P.R., 2009. Nuclear organization and morphology of cholinergic, putative catecholaminergic and serotonergic neurons in the brains of the rock hyrax, Procavia capensis. J. Chem. Neuroanat. 38, 57-74.
Grimm, J., Mueller, A., Hefti, F., Rosenthal, A., 2004. Molecular basis for catecholaminergic neuron diversity. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 38, 13891- 13896.Halbach, O. B., Dermietzel, R., 2006. Neurotransmitter and Neuromodulators. 2ª ed. Wiley – VCH, Germany.
Hegarty, S. V., Sullivan, A. M., O’Keeffe, G. W., 2013. Midbrain dopaminergic neurons: a review of the molecular circuitry that regulates their development. Developmental Biology 379, 123-138.
Herculano-Houzel, S., Manger, P.R., Kass, J.H., 2014. Brain scaling in mammalian evolution as a consequence of concerted and mosaic changes in numbers of neurons and average neuronal cell size. Front. Neuroanat. 12(8), 1-28..
Itoh, K., Konish, A., Nomura, S., Mizuno, N., Nakamura, Y., Sugimoto, T., 1979. Application of coupled oxidation reaction to electron microscopic demonstration of horseradish peroxidase: cobalt-glucose oxidase method. Brain Res. 175, 341-346.
Iuvone, P.M., Tosini, G., Pozdeyev, N., Haque, R., Klein, D.C., Chaurasia, S.S., 2005. Circadian clocks, clock networks, arylalkylamine N-acetyltransferase and melatonin in the retina. Prog. Retin. Eye Res., 24, 433–456.
Iwanami, A., Yamane, J., Katoh, H., et al. 2005. Establishment of graded spinal cord injury model in a non-human primate: the common marmoset. J. Neurosci. Res. 80, 172-81.
Jaber, M., Jones, S., Giros, B., Caron, M.G., 1997. The dopamine transporter: a crucial component regulating dopamine transmission. Mov. Disord. 12, 629-633.
Jones, H.M., Pilowski, L.S., 2002. Dopamine and antipsychotic drug action revisited. Br. J. Psychiatry 181, 271-275.
Kandel E.R., Schwartz, J.H., Jessell, T.M., 2000. Disorders of mood: depression, mania and anxiety disorders. In: Kandel E.R., Schwartz, J.H., Jessell, T.M., Principles of neural science. 4ª ed. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1216-1219.
Karasawa, N., Hayashi, M.,Yamada, K., Nagatsu, I., Iwasa, M., Takeuchi, T., Uematsu M., Watanabe, K., Onozuka, M., 2007. Tyrosine Hydroxylas (TH)-and Aromatic-L- Amino Acid Decarboxylase (AADC)- Immunoreactive Neurons os the common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus)Brain: an immunohistochemical analysis. Acta Histochem. Cytochem. 40 (3): 83-92.
Kelly, P.H., Seviour, P.W., Iversen, S.D., 1975. Amphetamine and apomorphine responses in the rat following 6-OHDA lesions of the nucleus accumbens septi and corpus striatum. Brain Res. 94,507–522.
Kendall, A.L., Rayment, F.D., Torres, E.M., et al. 1998. Functional integration of striatal allografts in a primate model of Huntington’s disease. Nat. Med. 4, 727-729.
Kruger, J.L., Patzke, N., Fuxe, K., Bennett, N.C., Manger, P.R., 2012. Nuclear organization of cholinergic, putative catecholaminergic, serotonergic and orexinergic systems in the brain of the African pygmy mouse (Mus minutoides): organizational complexity is preserved in small brains. J. Chem. Neuroanat. 44, 45-56.
Lammel, S., Lim, B.K., Malenka, R.C., 2014. Reward and aversion in a heterogeneous midbrain dopamine system. Neuropharmacology 76, 351-359.
Liang, C.L., Sinton, C.M., German, D.C., 1996. Midbrain dopaminergic neurons in the mouse: co-localization with calbidin D-28k and calretinin. Neuroscience 75, 523-533.
Lima, R.R.M., Pinato, L., Nascimento, R.B,S., Engerlberth, R.CG.J., Nascimento Júnior, E.S., Cavalcante, J.C., Britto, L.R.G., Costa, M.S.M.O., Cavalcante, J.S., 2012. Retinal projections and neurochemical characterization of the pregeniculate nucleus of the common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus). J. Chem. Neuroanat. 44, 34-44.
Limacher, A.M., Bhagwandin, A., Fuxe, K., Manger, P.R., 2008. Nuclear organization and morphology of cholinergic, putative catecholaminergic and serotonergic neurons in the brain of the Cape porcupine (Hystrix africaeaustralis): increased brain size does not lead to increased organizational complexity. J. Chem. Neuroanat. 36, 33-52.
Loughlin, S.E., Fallon, J.H., 1984. Substantia nigra and ventral tegmental area projections to cortex: topography and collateralization. Neuroscience 11, 425–435.
Lawlor, P.A., During, M.J., 2004. Gene therapy in Parkinson’s disease. Expert Rev. Mol. Med. 6, 1–18.
Manger, P.R., 2005. Stablishing order at the systems level in mammalian brain evolution. Brain Res. Bull. 66, 282–289.
Mansfield, K., 2003. Marmoset models commonly used in biomedical research. Comp. Med. 53, 383-92.
Margolis, E,B., Lock, H., Hjelmstad, G.O., Fields, H.L., 2006. The ventral tegmental area revisited: Is there an electrophysiological marker for dopaminergic neurons? J. Physiol. 577, 907–924.
Marín, F., Herrero, M.T., Vyas, S., Puelles, L., 2005. Ontogeny of tyrosine hydroxylase mRNA expression in mid- and forebrain: neuromeric pattern and novel positive regions. Dev. Dyn. 234, 709–717.
Marshall, V., Grosset, D., 2003. Role of dopamine transporter imaging in routine clinical practice. Movement Disord. 18, 1415-1423.
Maseko, B. C., Bourne, J. A., Manger, P. R., 2007. Distribution and morphology of cholinergic, putative catecholaminergic and serotonergic neurons in the brain of the Egyptian rousette flying fox, Rousettus aegiptiacus. J. Chem. Neuroanat. 34, 108-127.
Maseko, B. C., Patzke, N., Fuxe, K., Manger, P. R., 2013. Architectural organization of the African elephant diencephalon and brainsten. Brain Behav. Evol. 82, 83-128.
Mclean, C.J., Baker, H.F., Ridley, R.M., et al. 2000. Naturally occurring and experimentally induced beta-amyloid deposits in the brains of marmosets (Callithrix jacchus). J. Neural Transm. 107, 799-814.
McRitchie, D.A., Cartwright, H., Pond, S.M, Van der Schyf, C.J., Castagnoli Jr, N., Van der Nest, D.G., Halliday, G.M., 1998. The midbrain dopaminergic cell groups in the baboon Papio ursinus. Brain Res. Bull. 47, 611-623.
McRitchie, D.A., Hardman, C. D., Halliday, G. M., 1996. Cytoarchitectural distribution of calcium binding proteins in midbrain dopaminergic regions of rats and humans. J. Comp. Neurol. 364, 121-150.
Mink, J.W., 1996. The basal ganglia: focused selection and inhibition of competing motor programs. Prog. Neurobiol. 50,381–425.
Moon, D.J., Maseko, B.C., Ihunwo, A.O., Fuxe, K., Manger, P.R., 2007. Distribution and morphology of catecholaminergic and serotonergic neurons in the brain of the highveld gerbil, Tatera braintsii. J. Chem. Neuroanat. 34, 134-144.
Moore, K.E., Lookingland, K.J., 2000. Dopaminergic neuronal systems in the hypothalamus. In: Meador-Woodruff JH, ed. Psychopharmacology. On-line ed., www.acnp.org. The American College of Psychoneuropharmacology; 1–14.
Nagatsu, T., Levitt, M., Udenfriend, S., 1964. Conversion of L-tyrosine to 3,4- dihydroxyphenylalanine by cell-free preparations of brain and sympathetically innervated tissues. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 14, 543-549.
Nagatsu, T., Ichinose, H., 1999. Molecular biology of catecholamine-related enzymes in relation to Parkinson’s disease. Cell. Mol. Neurobiol. 19, 57-66.
Nagatsu, T., Stjarne, L., 1998. Catecholamine synthesis and release: overview. Adv. Pharmacol. 42, 1-14.
Nemoto, C., Hida, T., Arai, R., 1999. Calretinin and calbidin-D28k in dopaminergic neurons of the rat midbrain: triple-labeling immunohistochemical study. Brain Res. 846, 129-136.
Newman, J.D., Kenkela, W.M., Aronoffa, E.C., Bockb, N.A., Zametkinc, M.R., Silva, A.C., 2009. A combined histological and MR1 brain atlas of the common marmoset monkey, Callithrix jacchus. Brain Res Rev. 62: 1-18.
Nicola, S.M., Taha, S.A., Kim, S.W., Fields, H.L., 2005. Nucleus accumbens dopamine release is necessary and sufficient to promote the behavioral response to reward- predictive cues. Neuroscience 135, 1025–1033.
Nq, J., Heales, S.J.R., Kurian, M.A., 2014. Clinical features and pharmacotherapy of childhood monoamine neurotransmitter disorders. Pediatri. Drugs 16:275–291.
Okano, H., Hikishima, K., Iriki, A., Sasaki, E., 2012. The common marmoset as a novel animal model system for biomedical and neuroscience research applications. Seminars in Fetal & Neonatal Medicine 17, 336-340.
Ono, Y., Nakatani, T., Sakamoto, Y., Mizuhara, E., Minaki, Y., Kumai, M., Hamaguchi, A., Nishimura, M., Inoue, Y., Hayashi, H., Takahashi, J., Imai, T., 2007. Differences in neurogenic potential in floor plate cells along an anteroposterior location: midbrain dopaminergic neurons originate from mesencephalic floor plate cells. Development 134, 3213–3225.
Paxinos, G, Watson, C., 2007. The rat brain in stereotaxic coordinates. 2ª Ed. Academic Press, San Diego.
Pierse, R.C., Kumaresan, V., 2006. The mesolimbic dopamine system: the final common pathway for the reinforcing effect of drugs of abuse. Neurosci. Biobehav. R. 30, 215-238.
Pakkenberg, B., Moller, A., Gundersen, H. J., Mouritzen Dam, A., Pakkenberg, H., 1991. The absolute number of nerve cells in substantia nigra in normal subjects and inpatients with Parkinson's disease estimated with an unbiased stereo-logical method. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 54, 30–33.
Pieters, R.P., Gravett, N., Fuxe, K., Manger, P.R., 2010. Nuclear organization of cholinergic, putative catecholaminergic and serotonergic nuclei in the brain of the eastern rock elephant shrew, Elephantulus myurus.J. Chem. Neuroanat. 39, 175-188.
Pillay, P., Manger, P.R.., 2007. Order-specific quantitative patterns of cortical gyrification. Eur. J. Neurosci. 25, 2705–2712.
Pinato, L., Allemandi, W., Abe, L., Frazão, R., Cruz-Rizzolo, R., Cavalcante, J.S., Costa, M.S.M.O., Nogueira, M.A., 2007. A comparative study of cytoarchitectureand
serotonergic afferents in the suprachiasmatic nucleus of primates (Cebus paella and Callithrix jacchus) and rats (Wistar and Long Evans Strains). Brain Res. 1149, 101-110.
Prakash, N., Wurst, W., 2006. Development of dopaminergic neurons in the mammalian brain. Cell. Mol. Life Sci. 63, 187-206.
Pritchard, A.L., Ratcliffe, F., Sorour, E., Haque, S., Holder, R., Bentham, P., Lendon, C.L., 2009. Investigation of dopamine receptors in susceptibility to behavioural and psychological symptoms in Alzheimer’s disease. Int. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry 26, 257-60.
Roeper, J., 2013. Dissecting the diversity of midbrain dopamine neurons. Trends Neurosci. 36(6), 336-342.
Rowe, T.B., Macrini, T.E., Luo, Z.X., 2011.Fossil evidence on origin of the mammalian brain. Science 332, 955–957.
Santana, M. B., Halje, P., Simplício, H., Richter, U., Freire, M., Petersson, P., Fuentes, R., Nicolelis, M., 2014. Spinal cord stimulation alleviates motor déficits in a primate modelo f Perkinson Disease. Neuron 84, 716-722.
Sanchez-Catalan, M.J., Kaufling, J., Georges, F., Veinante, P., Barrot, M., 2014. The antero-posterior heterogeneity of the ventral tegmental área. Neuroscience 282, 198- 216.
Schofield, S.P.M., Dixson, A.F., 1982. Distribution of catecholamine and indoleamine neurons in the brain of the common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus). J. Anat. 134(2),315- 338.
Sesack, S.R., Carr, D.B., 2002. Seletive prefrontal cortex inputs to dopamine cells: implications for schizophrenia. Physiol. Behav. 77, 503-517.
Shih, M.C., Amaro Jr, E., Ferraz, H.B., Hoexter, M.Q., Goulart, F.O., Wagner, J., Lin, L.F., Fu, Y.K., Mari, J.J., Lacerda, A.L.T., Tufik, S., Bressan, R.A., 2006.
Neuroimagem do transportador de dopamina na doença de Parkinson. Arq. Neuropsiquiatr. 64, 628-634.
Smeets, W.J.A.J., González, A., 2000. Catecholamine systems in the brain of vertebrates: new perspectives through a comparative approach. Brain Res. Rev. 33, 308- 379.
Smith, Y., Kieval, J.Z., 2000. Anatomy of the dopamine in the basal ganglia. Trends Neurosci. 23 (suppl), S28-S33.
Sousa, T.B., Santana, M.A.D., Silva, A.M., Guzen, F.P., Oliveira, F.G., Cavalcante, J.C., Cavalcante, J.S., Costa, M.S.M.O., Nascimento Júnior, E.S., 2013. Mediodorsal thalamic nucleus receives a direct retinal input in a marmoset monkey (Callithrix jacchus): a subunit B cholera toxin study. Ann. Anat. 195, 32-38.
Stephan, H., Baron,G., Schwerdtfeger, W.K., 1980. The brain of the common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus): a stereotaxic atlas. Springer-Verlag, Berlim.
Stochi, F., 2009. The hypothesis of genesis of motor complications and continuous dopaminergic stimulation in the treatment of Parkinson’s disease. Parkinsonism Relat. Disord. 15, 9-15.
Tardif, S.D., Mansfield, K.G., Ratnam, R., Ross, C.N., Ziegler, T.E., 2011. The marmosetas a model of aging and age-related diseases. ILAR J. 52 (1), 54–65.
Tardif S, Balesk K, Williams L, Moeller E L, Abbott D, Schultz-Darken N, Mendoza S, Mason W, Bourgeois S, Ruiz J., 2006. Preparing new world monkeys for laboratory research. Ilar Journ. 47, 307-315.
Tillet, Y., Batailler, M., Thiéry, J., Thibault, J., 2000. Neuronal projections to the lateral retrochiasmatic area of sheep with especial reference to catecholaminergic afferents: immunohistochemical and retrograde tract-tracing studies.J. Chem. Neuroanat. 19, 47- 67.
Walton, M.E., Croxson, P.L., Ruschwort., M.F.S., Bannerman, D.M., 2005. The mesocortical dopamine projection to anterior cingulated cortex plays no role in guiding effort-related decisions. Behav. Neurosci. 119, 323-328.
Wise, R.A., 2004. Dopamine, learning and motivation. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 5, 483-494.
Wise, R.A., Koob, G.F., 2014. The development and maintenance of drug addiction. Neuropsychopharmacology 39, 254–262.
Yamamoto, K., Vernier, P., 2001. The evolution of dopamine systems in chordates. Front. Neuroanat. 5, 1-21.
Yuasa, S., Nakamura, K., Kohsaka, S., 2010. Stereotaxic atlas of the marmoset brain. National Institute of Neuroscience. Volume1, Japan.
Zahm, D.S., 2010. Pharmacotherapeutic approach to the treatment of addiction: persistent challenges. Missouri Med 107, 276–280.