RED WINE TECHNOLOGY
Edited by
A
NTONIOM
ORATAAcademic Press is an imprint of Elsevier
125 London Wall, London EC2Y 5AS, United Kingdom 525 B Street, Suite 1650, San Diego, CA 92101, United States
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom Copyrightr 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website:www.elsevier.com/permissions. This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress ISBN: 978-0-12-814399-5
For Information on all Academic Press publications
visit our website athttps://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals
Publisher: Charlotte Cockle Acquisition Editor: Patricia Osborn Editorial Project Manager: Tasha Frank Production Project Manager: Denny Mansingh Cover Designer: Mark Rogers
Cover Pictures: Courtesy of Rafael Cuerda Garcı´a-Junceda, Winemaker Typeset by MPS Limited, Chennai, India
Contents
List of Contributors
ix
Prologue
xi
1. Grape Maturity and Selection: Automatic
Grape Selection
1
SUSANA RI´O SEGADE, SIMONE GIACOSA, VINCENZO GERBI AND LUCA ROLLE
1.1 Physicochemical Characteristics of Enological
Interest 1
1.2 Vineyard Approaches to Grape Selection and Harvest
Date Determination 3
1.3 Grape Selection in Winery 9
References 13
2. Acidification and pH Control in
Red Wines
17
PIERGIORGIO COMUZZO AND FRANCO BATTISTUTTA
2.1 Importance of Acidic Fraction and pH Control
in Red Wines 17
2.2 Main Organic Acids in Must and Wine 17 2.3 Total Acidity and Wine pH 19 2.4 AcidBase Equilibrium and Wine Buffer Capacity 22 2.5 Traditional Strategies for Chemical Acidification 23 2.6 Traditional Strategies for Chemical Deacidification 25 2.7 New Technologies for pH Control 27 2.8 Laboratory Techniques for Measuring pH and Acidic
Fraction 30
Acknowledgments 32
References 32
3. Maceration and Fermentation: New
Technologies to Increase Extraction
35
ANTONIO MORATA, CARMEN GONZA´ LEZ, WENDU TESFAYE, IRIS LOIRA AND JOSE A. SUA´ REZ-LEPE
3.1 Introduction 35
3.2 Tank Design for Red Winemaking 35 3.3 Vessel Materials in Red Winemaking 36 3.4 Kinetics of Extraction: The Effect of Temperature 38 3.5 Mechanical Processes During Maceration 40 3.6 New Extraction Technologies 44
3.7 Conclusions 47
References 48
4. Use of Non-Saccharomyces Yeasts in Red
Winemaking
51
MAURIZIO CIANI AND FRANCESCA COMITINI
4.1 Introduction 51
4.2 Yeast Ecology of Grape Berry 51 4.3 Controlled Fermentation: The Role of Saccharomyces
Cerevisiae 55
4.4 Non-Saccharomyces Yeasts Features in Red Wine 56
References 64
5. Yeast Biotechnology for Red Winemaking
69
KARINA MEDINA, VALENTINA MARTIN, EDUARDO BOIDO AND FRANCISCO CARRAU
5.1 Introduction 69
5.2 Yeast Diversity in Red Grapes and Musts 70 5.3 Influence of Red Wine Technology on Saccharomyces
Strains 71
5.4 Saccharomyces Cerevisiae and Flavor Compounds 74 5.5 Practical Red Winemaking and Yeast Performance 76
Acknowledgments 80
References 80
Further Reading 83
6. Malolactic Fermentation
85
IRENE GIL-SA´ NCHEZ, BEGON˜A BARTOLOME´ SUA´LDEA AND M. VICTORIA MORENO-ARRIBAS
6.1 Introduction 85
6.2 Lactic Acid Bacteria in Winemaking 85 6.3 Factors Impacting LAB at Winery 87 6.4 Technological Strategies for Managing the MLF
Performance 88
6.5 Impact of MLF on Wine Organoleptic Properties 89 6.6 Production of Off-Flavors by Lactic Acid Bacteria 91 6.7 Implications of LAB and MLF in Wine Safety 93
6.8 Conclusion 94
Acknowledgments 95
References 95
7. Yeast-Bacteria Coinoculation
99
ISABEL PARDO AND SERGI FERRER
7.1 Introduction 99
7.2 Objectives 101
7.3 Interactions Between Wine Microorganisms 107
Acknowledgments 108
References 108
8. Molecular Tools to Analyze Microbial
Populations in Red Wines
115
KAROLA BO¨ HME, JORGE BARROS-VELA´ZQUEZ AND PILAR CALO-MATA
8.1 Introduction 115
8.2 Classical and Phenotypic Methods 116
8.3 DNA-Based Methods 116
8.4 Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption/IonizationTime
of Flight Mass Spectrometry 119 8.5 Microbial Diversity Assessment Through Enzymes
Detection 119
8.6 Culture-Dependent Versus Culture-Independent
Methods 119
8.7 Conclusions 120
References 120
Further Reading 123
9. Barrel Aging; Types of Wood
125
FERNANDO ZAMORA
9.1 Brief Historical Introduction 125 9.2 The Main Tree Species Used in Cooperage 125 9.3 The Main Forests Providing Wood For Cooperage 126 9.4 The Concept of Wood Grain in Cooperage 126 9.5 Obtaining the Staves: Hand Splitting and Sawing 127 9.6 Drying Systems: Natural Seasoning and
Artificial Drying 129
9.7 Assembly and Toasting of the Barrel 129 9.8 Types of Barrels and Barrel Parts 130 9.9 What Happens to a Wine During Barrel Aging 131 9.10 Volatile Substances Released by Oak Wood During
Barrel Aging 132
9.11 Phenolic Compounds Released by Oak Wood During
Barrel Aging 134
9.12 Oxygen Permeability of Oak Wood 136 9.13 Influence of Wood Grain 136 9.14 Influence of Botanical and Geographic Origin 137 9.15 Influence of Natural Seasoning and Artificial Drying 138 9.16 Influence of Toasting Level 139 9.17 Influence of the Repeated Use of Barrels 141 9.18 Barrel Aging Process 143
Acknowledgments 144
References 144
Further Reading 147
10. Emerging Technologies for Aging Wines:
Use of Chips and Micro-Oxygenation
149
ENCARNA GO´ MEZ-PLAZA AND ANA B. BAUTISTA-ORTI´N
10.1 Why Aging Wines in Barrels? 149 10.2 The Micro-Oxygenation Technique 150 10.3 Positive Factors of Using Micro-Oxygenation 151 10.4 The Application of the MOX Technique 152 10.5 The Use of Oak Chips 153
10.6 When and How Use Them 153 10.7 Effect of Adding Oak Chips on Wine Characteristics 153 10.8 Comparing the Effect of Chips or MOX With Aging
Wine in Barrels 155
10.9 The Combined Used of MOX1 Chips 156 10.10 Innovations in MOX and Chips Application 157
References 159
Further Reading 162
11. New Trends in Aging on Lees
163
ANTONIO MORATA, FELIPE PALOMERO, IRIS LOIRA AND JOSE A. SUA´ REZ-LEPE
11.1 Introduction 163
11.2 Use of Non-Saccharomyces Yeasts 166 11.3 Accelerated Aging on Lees 167
11.4 Lees Aromatization 171
11.5 Conclusions 174
References 174
Further Reading 176
12. Evolution of Proanthocyanidins During
Grape Maturation, Winemaking, and Aging
Process of Red Wines
177
ANTO´ NIO M. JORDA˜O AND JORGE M. RICARDO-DA-SILVA
12.1 Proanthocyanidins: Composition, Content,
and Evolution During Grape Maturation 177 12.2 Evolution of Proanthocyanidins During Fermentative
Maceration of Red Wines 183 12.3 Changes on Proanthocyanidins During Red Wine
Aging in Contact with Wood 185
12.4 Final Remarks 189
References 189
13. Wine Color Evolution and Stability
195
MARI´A TERESA ESCRIBANO-BAILO´ N, JULIA´N C. RIVAS-GONZALO AND IGNACIO GARCI´A-ESTE´VEZ
13.1 Introduction 195
13.2 Anthocyanin Stability 195
13.3 Copigmentation 198
13.4 Red Wine Color Evolution 199 13.5 Winemaking Practices for Stabilizing Red Wine Color 201
Acknowledgments 202
References 203
Further Reading 205
14. Polymeric Pigments in Red Wines
207
JOANA OLIVEIRA, VICTOR DE FREITAS AND NUNO MATEUS
Abbreviations 207
14.1 Introduction 207
14.2 Polymeric Pigments in Red Wines 209 14.3 Analysis of Polymeric Pigments 212 14.4 Stability in Solution and Influence in Red Wine Color 213
14.5 Conclusion 215
References 215
15. Spoilage Yeasts in Red Wines
219
MANUEL MALFEITO-FERREIRA
15.1 Introduction 219
15.2 Description of the Main Yeast Genera/Species
Involved in Wine Spoilage 224
15.3 Yeast Monitoring 227
15.4 Control of Yeast Populations in Wines 230
15.5 Future Trends 233
References 233
16. Red Wine Clarification and Stabilization
237
AUDE VERNHET
16.1 Colloids and Colloidal Instabilities in Red Wines 237
16.2 Wine Clarification 240
16.3 Stabilization With Regards to the Crystallization
of Tartaric Salts 245
16.4 Microbiological Stabilization 248
16.5 Conclusion 249
References 249
17. Sensory Analysis of Red Wines for
Winemaking Purposes
253
PABLO OSSORIO AND PEDRO BALLESTEROS TORRES
17.1 Tasting of Grapes 253
17.2 Tasting in the Production of Red Wine 255 17.3 Tasting During Malolactic Fermentation 256
17.4 Conclusions 256
18. Management of Astringency in Red Wines
257
ALVARO PEN˜ A-NEIRA
18.1 Introduction 257
18.2 Astringency in Wines 258
18.3 Influence of Winemaking Technology in Wine
Astringency 261
18.4 Future Outlook 267
References 267
Further Reading 272
19. Aromatic Compounds in Red Varieties
273
DORIS RAUHUT AND FLORIAN KIENE
19.1 Introduction 273
19.2 Selection of Aromatic Compounds With Distinct
Impact 273
19.3 Conclusion 279
References 279
20. The Instrumental Analysis of Aroma-Active
Compounds for Explaining the Flavor of Red
Wines
283
LAURA CULLERE´, RICARDO LO´ PEZ AND VICENTE FERREIRA
20.1 Introduction 283
20.2 Analytes and an Analytical Classification 284 20.3 The Analysis of “Easy” Aroma Compounds 285 20.4 The Specific Analysis of Volatile Phenols 290 20.5 The Analysis of “Difficult” Aroma Compounds
in Red Wine 291
20.6 Final Considerations 300
References 301
21. SO
2in Wines: Rational Use and Possible
Alternatives
309
SIMONE GIACOSA, SUSANA RI´O SEGADE, ENZO CAGNASSO, ALBERTO CAUDANA, LUCA ROLLE AND VINCENZO GERBI
21.1 Sulfur Dioxide: Use in the Winemaking Process
and Legal Limits 309
21.2 Different Forms to Use SO2 311
21.3 SO2Action Mechanisms 314
21.4 SO2Replacement Products for Red Wine Production 318
References 320
22. Red Wine Bottling and Packaging
323
MARK STROBL
22.1 Glass Bottles 323
22.2 Targets Today 323
22.3 Bottling Lines 324
22.4 Hazards in Bottling Red Wine 325
22.5 Closures 333
22.6 Preparing the Wine for Market 334
22.7 Packaging 336
22.8 Economy 337
22.9 Ecology 338
References 338
Further Reading 339
23. Red Winemaking in Cool Climates
341
BELINDA KEMP, KARINE PEDNEAULT, GARY PICKERING, KEVIN USHER AND JAMES WILLWERTH
23.1 Introduction 341
23.2 Cool Climate Grape Varieties in the Northern
and Southern Hemisphere 342 23.3 Chemical Composition of Grapes in Cool and
Warm Climates 342
23.4 Innovations in Cool Climate Winemaking 347 23.5 Making Wine From Red Interspecific Hybrid
and Fungus-Resistant Varieties 349 23.6 Yeast Assimilable Nitrogen 350 23.7 Tannins and Anthocyanin 350
References 353
24. Red Winemaking in Cold Regions With
Short Maturity Periods
357
MA TENGZHEN, KAI CHEN, HAO YAN, HAN SHUNYU AND BI YANG
24.1 Introduction 357
vii
24.2 Wintering Adaptability and Cold Resistance of
Grape Vine 363
24.3 Influence of Low Temperature on Different Tissues
of Grape Vine 364
24.4 Influence of Low Temperature on Grape Cells 364 24.5 The Reasons for Freeze Damage 365
24.6 Maturity Analysis 365
24.7 Anthocyanin Accumulation by Viticulture Process 366
24.8 Winemaking Technology 367 24.9 Final Comments 370 References 370 Further Reading 372