Instituto Politécnico de Bragança
III Congresso
Ibero-Americano de
Empreendedorismo, Energia,
Ambiente e Tecnologia
:
Livro de atas
12 a 14 de julho de 2017
III Congresso
Ibero-Americano de Empreendedorismo,
Energia, Ambiente e Tecnologia
:
Livro de atas
12 a 14 de julho de 2017
Título:
III Congresso Ibero-Americano de Empreendedorismo, Energia, Ambiente e
Tecnologia: Livro de atas
Editores:
Américo Vicente Leite
Ana Isabel Pereira
Ângela Paula Ferreira
Artur Jorge Gonçalves
João Paulo Almeida
José Luis Calvo Rolle
Manuel Joaquim Feliciano
Orlando Manuel Soares
Ronney Arismel Boloy
Edição: Instituto Politécnico de Bragança – 2017
Campus de Santa Apolónia
5300-253 Bragança
Portugal
Execução:
Orlando Manuel Soares
ISBN:
978-972-745-230-9
URI:
http://hdl.handle.net/10198/14339
Email: [email protected]
Apoios e Patrocínios:
Social entrepreneurship, psychological coaching as
a developer of competences
Sofia Martins, Ana Galvão and Marco Pinheiro
Instituto Politécnico de BragançaBragança, Portugal [email protected]
Abstract— The objective of the study was to identify psychological and personality traits linked to social entrepreneurship in a sample of higher education students, and to highlight the usefulness of psychological coaching as a catalyst tool for the entrepreneurial psychological characteristics evidenced by students, in order to promote social entrepreneurship.
The existence of social initiatives that aim to promote entrepreneurship is considered of high importance for society, in order to create value. Some authors conclude that social entrepreneurship arose due to the inability of governmental entities to respond to social problems, whether due to budgetary or even political issues.
Social entrepreneurship arises in turbulent contexts of crisis and economic, social and environmental challenges. Despite being considered a new typology of entrepreneurship, social entrepreneurs have been present in society for a long time and can be signaled throughout history, and are motivated by promoting the welfare of society, thus having a social mission.
The Portuguese Entrepreneurial Psychological Traits Inventory and the Big Five Inventory-44 were used as data collection materials on a sample of 224 higher education students.
Our study identified that the students of the sample showed reasonably high scores in both entrepreneurial traits as well as in personality traits.
We concluded that, not withstanding the high scores, only 6 students answered that they were thinking of developing an entrepreneurial project, making the implementation of a psychological coaching program, aiming at enhancing students’ skills and understanding of an entrepreneurial career, pertinent given the present economical situation in Portugal.
Keywords—entrepreneurship; social entrepreneurship; psychological coaching; personality traits.
I. INTRODUCTION
Economists argue that for economic development there must be leaders and entrepreneurs. Thus, entrepreneurship is seen as a promoter of economic development.
"The role of entrepreneurship in economic development involves more than just increasing production and income per capita. It involves initiating and constructing changes in the structure of business and society " [1].
They tell us the evidence that "A good entrepreneur, by adding value to products and services, is constantly concerned with resource management and with the concepts of efficiency and effectiveness. Drucker [2] does not see entrepreneurs as agents of change, but as agents who exploit the opportunities that change creates (in technology, in consumer preference, in social norms, etc.). This defines entrepreneurship: the entrepreneur seeks change, and responds and exploits change as an opportunity. Since Entrepreneurship is a specific domain, there is no absolute paradigm or a scientific consensus.
Among the main theories that approach the entrepreneurship, the economic theory and the behaviorist theory stand out. Richard Cantillon, Jean Baptiste Say and Joseph Schumpeter are evidenced in what concerns the economic theory. In the behavioral theory we highlight professionals in the field of social psychology, work and organizations, who seek to optimize and catalyze the motivation and characteristics of organizational behavior. Among these we highlight Max Weber and David C. McClelland.
Pessoa [3] identifies three main types of entrepreneurs: the entrepreneur (intra-entrepreneur or internal entrepreneur), the start-up entrepreneur (creating new businesses / companies) and the social entrepreneur (entrepreneurs with asocial mission), and which are people who stand out wherever they work.
Social entrepreneurship was initially a derivation of entrepreneurship and was strongly influenced by the actions of private companies in the social and public spheres. However, they assumed their own strategies in a context of growth in the third sector and the need and demand for great impact and effective changes.
The process of social entrepreneurship mainly requires the involvement of the community, government and private sector, based on a model of partnerships. The final result is the promotion of social, cultural, economic and environmental quality of life, with the underlying perspective of sustainability.
III Congresso Ibero-Americano de Empreendedorismo, Energia, Ambiente e Tecnologia
At present, social entrepreneurship presents itself as a developing concept, but with its own characteristics, principles and values, signaling the differences between traditional social management and entrepreneurial management. In this sense, social entrepreneurship emerges as a strategy to solve problems of poverty and social exclusion.
This type of entrepreneurship has all the characteristics of traditional entrepreneurship, that is, it seeks profits, but also helps to solve social problems through its activity. Having as general objectives, the fight against poverty, reduction of inequality and debates to improve the relation with the environment.
The actions of the social entrepreneur begin after the diagnosis of certain local social problems that need the implementation of coping alternatives. These alternatives usually present fundamental characteristics such as: innovation, possibility of achievement, self-management and sustainability, involvement of different segments of society and the population that will receive the action.
This type of entrepreneurship refers us to the concept of Social Responsibility. This is an activity favorable to sustainable development, quality of life at work and society, respect for minorities and the most disadvantaged and vulnerable, equal opportunities, common justice and the promotion of citizenship, and respect for ethical and moral values.
Social responsibility is characterized by producing goods and services that will benefit the community, focusing on the market and the community service according to its mission. The measure of performance used is the return to stakeholders and stakeholders. Social entrepreneurship, on the other hand, produces goods and services aimed at benefiting the local and global community and focuses on finding solutions to the social problems and needs that the community faces. The measure of performance used is the impact and social transformation generated through its action. Social entrepreneurship aims to rescue people from the situation of social risk and promote them, generating social capital, inclusion and social emancipation.
We emphasize as the main interest for this research, the most detailed understanding about the profile of the social entrepreneur, protagonist of the entrepreneurial attitudes, because, as Dolabela [4] emphasizes, entrepreneurship is a way of being.
A. Personality Traits Allocated to the Profile of Entrepreneurs: Skills/Competencies of Social Entrepreneurs
The economist Joseph Schumpeter, designed the earliest references to the entrepreneur’s profile, when in 1911 he published "The Theory of Economic Development". In addition to considering the entrepreneur as the main element for economic development, Schumpeter pointed out a psychological need for the motivations and aptitudes of the entrepreneurs. For the author, "entrepreneurs are a special
type, and their behavior is a special problem, the driving force of a large number of significant phenomena" [5].
Evidence on the profile of entrepreneurs, in the studies consulted, shows agreement on the characteristics of these individuals. We emphasize the following data: entrepreneurs are ambitious; they look for opportunities and strategies capable of allowing them to maximize their potential and surpass their own limits. They are capable of destroying the economic order of a given context by designing, through the creation of new products and services, new forms of organization [5], [6]. They take risks, always based on a previous evaluation or planning for their actions, that is, all their actions, even the most risky ones, seem to have been the result of a systematic and not impulsive or casual action. All this implies creativity, imagination, and organized, systematic and directed thought for the analysis of the logical and concrete elements of a situation.
McClelland [7] relates the entrepreneur to the need for success, recognition, the desire for power and control. In his research, this author defines the need for achievement - a human will to overcome and distinguish himself, encompassing a set of psychological and behavioral characteristics that include, among others, a taste for moderate risk, initiative and a desire for recognition - as the main motivating force of entrepreneurial behavior.
According to Leite [8], of the personal qualities of an entrepreneur, among many, the following stand out: initiative, vision, courage, firmness, decision, attitude of human respect and ability to organize and manage.
The literature review in the area of Organizational Behavior allows us to understand that there are characteristics that stand out, in particular personality characteristics of individuals, that is, skills related to their demonstrated skill or expertise in personal relationships that make them distinct in relation to others and, consequently, capable of performing creative and innovative actions, modifying with this, the contingencies present in the environments in which they are inserted.
For an entrepreneur, the technical, administrative and entrepreneurial skills are considered necessary. To be an entrepreneur, it is not enough to have technical and administrative skills; it is also necessary to have entrepreneurial skills. These skills relate to change management, leadership, innovation, personal control, ability to take risks and vision of the future. With respect to individual processes, one of the fundamental differences between individuals' behavior in organizations can be attributed, as Griffin and Moorhead [9] refer to personality, which is also one of the most behavioral characteristics of the entrepreneur. In this sense, demonstrating the evidence that personality can be translated in descriptive terms and configured from a series of variables, seems opportune to identify among higher education students psychological characteristics linked to social entrepreneurship and to know the relationship between their personality profile and the business characteristics.
III Congresso Ibero-Americano de Empreendedorismo, Energia, Ambiente e Tecnologia
According to Dornelas [6] the characteristics of successful entrepreneurs are: vision; know how to make decisions; being an individuals that makes the difference; know how to exploit opportunities to the fullest; being determined and dynamic; being dedicated; being optimistic and passionate about what they do; being independent and build their own destiny; will to become rich; being team leaders and trainers; being well-connected (networking); being organized; know how to plan; to have knowledge; to assume calculated risks; to create value for society. McClelland [10] identifies three needs / motivations of the entrepreneur: power, affiliation, and success (feeling that one is recognized).
Entrepreneurial skills (interpersonal skills, goal orientation, outcomes, accountability, leadership and persuasion) can be perfectly learned and developed, especially at an early stage in life, and can also be enhanced through psychological coaching.
Motivation, Vision, Creativity and Leadership stand out among the characteristics considered essential for the success of an entrepreneur and their personality traits, noting that successful entrepreneurs demonstrate a high degree of motivation, commitment and persistence to reach the goals.
Galvão and Pinheiro [11], [12], studied how entrepreneurial traits can be measured amongst the Portuguese population, developing an inventory that measures some of the aforementioned traits, but with questions totally adapted to Portuguese language and culture as well as defining the traits according to the interpretation given to them by Portuguese entrepreneurs and business owners.
Rauch and Frese [13] point out that personality traits must be linked to the creation and success of a company. These authors assume that personality traits are directly linked to entrepreneurial behavior, having conducted a test to determine different personality types, called "Big Five personality traits". The Big Five model defines human personality as a hierarchical network of traits, understood theoretically as behavioral predispositions of responses to life situations [14].
The study of previous authors revealed that personality traits that correspond to entrepreneurial tasks - need to achieve goals, innovation, proactivity, stress tolerance, pragmatism and a need to be accepted, among others - predict entrepreneurial behaviors with a more positive relationship than the personality traits that do not correspond to being an entrepreneur.
The social entrepreneur establishes as objective the promotion of the quality of life of the people who are involved, through the resolution of some existing social problem, in detriment of generating financial profit. Social entrepreneurs work implies greater risk, reason why they tend to have greater tolerance in relation to uncertainties, since they work in a more dynamic scenario. They rely mainly on proactivity and innovation in their business, which is of great relevance considering the performance of an idea in a new and unexpected context.
The social entrepreneur has an audacious profile, as any kind of entrepreneur must have. However, he or she exhibits an extra feature: altruism. In addition to thinking about the company's profit, the social entrepreneur shows a concern with others, with impact and social transformation.
From the profile of the social entrepreneur, he stands out as an agent that contributes to social change, with the aim of finding solutions to various community problems, for example, environmental problems. Social entrepreneurs are seen as reforming and audacious agents because their overall goal is not to generate profits and to improve their own financial lives, but rather to find strategies to improve the environment in different contexts, through the development of actions that promote people's quality of life.
B. Psychological Coaching as a Catalyst of Social Entrepreneurship Characteristics
Psychological Coaching, appeared in the early 2000’s, integrated in the Positive Psychology movement, and aims to promote wellness, development of skills and exploration of individual potential, anchored in knowledge and scientific models of Psychology.
Psychological Coaching, at the service of the young entrepreneur, is a process that seeks to optimize and develop competencies, align their professional performance according to the goals of their business, stimulate and accompany their development, both personal and professional, and promote self-motivation, performance and the potential for success. Using the psychological coaching process, entrepreneurial students can also improve the quality of their relationships, plan activities that anticipate results, promote self-confidence and self-esteem.
Psychological Coaching applied to the area of entrepreneurship involves evaluating and analyzing personality traits, personal and professional maturity, the skills evidenced by the young entrepreneur and also those that can be developed, the planning of development actions, training and personal advice to structure the execution of their plans.
The entrepreneur needs to develop three basic competences: vision (related to the ability to dream, imagine and ambition), strategy (bringing together the resources to transform dream, imagination and ambition into a project with a value proposition that the market needs) and execution (implement the business project, set goals and have defined methods to develop the project). In this sense, psychological coaching will catalyze the development of these same key competencies.
Coaching is a process of personal and professional development whose structure and set of tools allow entrepreneurs to improve the performance of their skills and, consequently, to achieve the desired results.
Coaching is an alliance between Coach and Coachee (client) that promotes a process of facilitated learning that helps the client to achieve his or her best, and achieve the goals that he/she wishes in his/her professional and personal
III Congresso Ibero-Americano de Empreendedorismo, Energia, Ambiente e Tecnologia
life. Coaching ensures that the client can do its best by learning and developing the way they want.
The option of a psychological coaching program in the area of social entrepreneurship is an asset for young people who wish to develop skills / competences that have a certain objective and aim to broaden their project vision. The Coaching process will help them in their decision-making.
The choice for an integrative model of psychological coaching has a humanistic basis, based on the works of Maslow [15], Rogers [16] and Goleman, Daniel, Boyatzis, and McKee [17], arguing that individuals have a natural developmental tendency towards optimum functioning and that emotions have an effective influence on economic activity and the leadership of people and teams, being a fundamental part of any process of professional and personal development.
Psychological coaching for entrepreneurs is an assisted process of self-knowledge that leads the young entrepreneur to better understand their strengths and to take advantage of them in support of their projects / business plans.
II. METHODOLOGICAL ASPECTS
A. General Objectives
For this research, we set out three general objectives, through which we intended to measure the entrepreneurial motivation or aptness of higher education students, their personality traits as well as to propose measures to enhance their skills.
The three objectives were defined as:
a. Identify the level of entrepreneurial psychological traits among higher education students;
b. Identify the level of certain personality traits among higher education students; and
c. Identify relationships between the personality profile and the business characteristics evidenced by the students.
B. Population and Sample
The sample was composed out of 224 IPB students (undergraduate and master degrees). The sample was chosen by a non-probabilistic and by convenience selection process.
Of the respondents, 69.6% were female, being the two most represented courses “nursing”, with 55 students (24.6% of the total), and “pharmacy”, with 41 students (18.3% of the total).
C. Type of Study
We performed a descriptive, analytical, exploratory and correlational study of the data, using IBM® SPSS® Statistics, Version 23, for macOS, as analytical tool.
D. Materials
As data collection instrument, a questionnaire composed out of 3 parts was used.
The first part of the questionnaire was a socio-demographic part to gather information about gender, age, course, if they were planning an entrepreneurial project, and other information about the respondents. The second part of the questionnaire was the Portuguese Entrepreneurial Psychological Traits Inventory [12]. The third and final part of the questionnaire was the Big Five Inventory-44 [18], [19].
1) Portuguese Entrepreneurial Psychological Traits Inventory
This inventory, developed, tested and validated by Galvão and Pinheiro [12], is a 16 items, self report inventory measuring three entrepreneurial traits, specifically adapted to the Portuguese language and culture. The three entrepreneurial traits are Pragmatism, with ten items, Comfort (as in “Need for Comfort”), with three items, and Acceptance (as in “Need to be accepted by others”), also with 3 items. The items are answered on a 6-point Likert-type scale.
Each of the traits is measured by the average scoring of its items. Portuguese entrepreneurs, and in particular business owners, score considerably higher averages on the three dimensions, being those scores statistically relevant.
2) Big Five Inventory-44 (BFI-44)
The BFI-44 [18], [19], is a 44-item, self-report inventory, scored one a 5-point Likert-type scale, measuring the Big Five personality traits designed to assess the Big Five Factors of personality: Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Neuroticism, and Openness to Experience. The BFI-44 scales have shown substantial internal consistency, retest reliability and clear factor structure, as well as considerable convergent and discriminant validity with longer Big Five measures. For each of the traits we calculated their average score (total score divided by the number of items per trait), to facilitate comparison between each of the traits.
III. RESULTS
To identify psychological characteristics linked to entrepreneurship among the sample’s respondents, we used the data from the answers to the second part of our questionnaire, the Portuguese Entrepreneurial Psychological Traits Inventory [12] and compared our data with that of previous studies. As only 6 of our sample’s students were thinking of, or developing an entrepreneurial project, we took as comparative sample group of previous research, the group defined as “students without an entrepreneurial project”. The average scores obtained in each of the three dimensions of the inventory, are presented in table 1.
Table 1 - Average scores Portuguese Entrepreneurial Psychological Traits Inventory
Pragmatism Comfort Acceptance
Mean 4.0246 3.9583 4.5342
N 224 224 224
Std. Deviation .62315 .93605 .74020
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Comparing this to the study of Galvão and Pinheiro [12], where the average scores for the comparison group, for respectively pragmatism, comfort and acceptance were 3.1333, 3.1420 and 3.0802, we can affirm that in the present sample entrepreneurial skills are more evident given the higher average scores. These higher scores, however, seem contradictory to the low number of respondents that were working on an entrepreneurial project. We believe that this may be explained by the fact that the majority (57.1%) of the students are from the health courses (nursing, pharmacy, clinical analysis, etc.) and very few from more technological courses. Most entrepreneurial actions in Portugal are promoted in management schools and technology schools, and therefore health students are normally not even aware that entrepreneurship is an option, even if they show entrepreneurial characteristics.
Given that only 6 students were planning or working on an entrepreneurial project, we were not able to test if there was any statistically significant difference between these students and the remaining ones.
To answer to our second objective, the levels personality traits among our sample´s respondents, we used the results from the answers to the BFI-44 by calculating the average scorings for each of the traits. The results are shown in table 2.
Table 2 - BFI-44 average score and SD, minimum and maximum scores
Mean
Std.
Deviation Min. Max. Extraversion 3.2723 .63179 1.63 5.00 Agreeableness 3.7168 .43241 2.44 4.67 Conscientiousness 3.5089 .55990 2.00 5.00 Neuroticism 2.2902 .63505 1.38 5.13 Openness 3.5308 .48027 1.80 4.70
As the original authors have not defined a “norm” for the scorings, we can only conclude that on all traits the average scoring is above midway (2.5 points), with the highest average score for Agreeableness.
Finally, to obtain an answer to our third objective, i.e. to identify possible relationships between the personality profile and the entrepreneurial traits evidenced by the students of the sample, we performed an analysis on the correlation between the 3 dimensions of the Entrepreneurial Psychological Traits Inventory and the 5 dimensions of BFI-44. Given that most of the dimensions presented non-normal data, according to the performed Shapiro-Wilk tests, we opted for Spearman’s correlation tests. The results are presented in table 2.
Table 3 - Correlation between Entrepreneurial and Personality Traits
Extraver. Agreeab. Conscien. Neurotic. Openess
Pragmatism .326** .155* .230** -.145* .298**
Comfort .118 .223** .140* .102 .000
Acceptance .190** .261** .305** .004 .277**
Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
From the presented correlation coefficients we can conclude that there are statistically significant relations between several entrepreneurial and personality traits, namely Pragmatism and all five personality traits, between Comfort and Agreeableness and Conscientiousness and between Acceptance with the measured personality traits for the exception of Neuroticism.
These results make us conclude that in our sample higher entrepreneurial traits are statistically related to higher personality traits, being a possible indicator for the existence of higher social concerns among the more entrepreneurial students, making them potential candidates for social entrepreneurs. This conclusion, although still preliminary, is reinforced by the fact that the personality trait with the highest score is Agreeableness, a necessary trait for higher social concerns.
IV. DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS
Although the students of the sample present high average scorings, in what concerns their entrepreneurial traits, only 6 of the students answered that they are thinking of developing an entrepreneurial project. This makes us conclude that for reasons that we cannot affirm from our study, something is holding the students from exploring an entrepreneurial route. This may be caused by the fact that the majority of the students are from areas where in Portugal little or no entrepreneurship initiatives are being carried out (health services). Also, cultural aspects may explain the low levels of entrepreneurial drive or willingness, as entrepreneurship in Portugal is still seen as a big risk [12].
As such, we propose the implementation of entrepreneurship training programs for health students of the IPB, to better analyze their entrepreneurial drive. For the ones that would effectively show entrepreneurial capabilities, a psychological coaching program, available to students during the last year of their degree, could be implemented to help them to further explore their entrepreneurial capabilities and vocation.
In a second moment a plan could be outlined with sessions to develop the skills inherent to a young person who wishes to opt for a social entrepreneurship project. In this program the students will also learn how to develop strategies to deal with business challenges, specially as health related issues are very much in line with several efforts taking place in the social entrepreneurship field.
In the course of the psychological coaching process, cognitive, behavioral, imaging and problem solving techniques will be used in a combined way, aiming at the achievement of SMART objectives by the students.
The coach will work with these young entrepreneurs as an advisor to self-discovery and help in order to evidence a clearer view of themselves and raising fundamental characteristics to determine the success of their project / business.
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V. CONCLUSIONS
From the profile of the social entrepreneur, he stands out as an agent that contributes to social change, with the aim of finding solutions to various community problems, for example, environmental problems. Social entrepreneurs are seen as reforming and audacious agents because their overall goal is not to generate profits to improve their own financial lives, but rather to find strategies to improve the environment in different contexts, through the development of actions that promote people's quality of life.
Social entrepreneurship is a mixture of science and art, rationality and intuition, idea and vision, social sensitivity and responsible pragmatism, utopia and reality, innovative force and practicality. One of the characteristics of the social entrepreneur is to subordinate the economic to the human, the individual to the collective and carries itself a great "dream of transformation of the current reality".
Social entrepreneurs create social values through innovation and the strength of financial resources, regardless of their origin, always aiming at social, economic and community development.
The option of a psychological coaching program in the area of social entrepreneurship is an asset for young people who wish to develop skills / competences that have a certain objective and aim to broaden their projects’ vision. The coaching process will help them in their decision-making.
Coaching for entrepreneurs is an assisted process of self-knowledge that leads the young entrepreneur to better understand their strengths and to take advantage of them in support of their projects / business plans.
As in our sample the students show reasonably high values in what concerns their entrepreneurial characteristics, but even so very few are working on entrepreneurial projects, the implementation of training courses and coaching sessions, may help several students, specially the ones from the health courses, to decide their near future career path, namely one of entrepreneurship.
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