Exploring Attitudes in Travel Behaviour

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(1)Exploring Attitudes in Travel Behaviour. Maria Gabriela Beirão dos Santos. A thesis submitted to Faculdade de Engenharia da Universidade do Porto for the Doctoral Degree in Management and Industrial Engineering. Advisor: José António Sarsfield Pereira Cabral. Faculdade de Engenharia da Universidade do Porto 2011. Thesis co-financed by POCI 2010 and FSE.

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(3) ABSTRACT This dissertation research aims to contribute to the understanding of the attitudinal factors underlying intentions and behaviour in a complex field, such as public transport service. Particularly, the study focused on the role that attitudinal variables play in people’s travel behaviour. This knowledge may be useful for the formulation of strategies and measures aiming to improve the public transport service and the understanding of how people may be influenced towards more sustainable behaviours. Nowadays, sustainability is becoming increasingly important. Individuals’ travel choices may lead to severe environmental problems. This raises awareness about increasing car use and the implications of this in terms of congestion and pollution. Thus, it is necessary to promote sustainable behaviours, which implies understanding travel behaviour and the reasons for choosing a mode of transport instead of another. Most transport behaviours result from complex causes in a dynamic environment. Hence, the conceptual model developed and tested in this study explored the interrelationships between the attitudinal factors, car ownership, travel behavioural intentions and behaviour, by employing structural equation modelling. Through qualitative and quantitative studies eight attitudinal factors hypothesized to impact travel behaviour were identified: need for control, car dependence, status seeking, desire to change transport mode, pro public transport, desire to help the environment, insensitivity to transport cost, and sensitivity to travel stress. The cluster analysis resulted in six segments: Transit Enthusiasts, Anxious Status Seekers, Car-less Riders, Green Cruisers, Frugal Travellers, and Obstinate Drivers. The findings suggest that efforts to encourage public transport should focus on those segments with the greatest potential to increase their frequency of public transport service use, and should target the segments with favourable attitudes towards public transport and environmental awareness. The dissertation research findings have several practical implications for service providers. They highlighted the importance that individuals’ attitudes play in travel behaviour. Attitudes appear to influence behavioural intentions to use the service, actual behaviour and even customers satisfaction with the service. The findings indicate that the factors “level of psychological attachment to car”, “need to be in control”, and “attitude towards public transport” strongly influence travel mode choice intention. Individuals with high need for control appeared as highly dependent on car use on daily basis, and therefore have no intention to use public transport. By contrast, a positive attitude towards public transport and environmental awareness positively influences intention to use public transport.. iii.

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(5) RESUMO A dissertação tem como objectivo contribuir para a compreensão das atitudes subjacentes à intenção e comportamento numa área complexa, tal como o serviço de transportes públicos. Em particular, o estudo centrou-se no papel que as atitudes têm no comportamento face às escolhas de meio de transporte. Este conhecimento pode ser útil para a formulação de estratégias e medidas com o objectivo de melhorar o serviço de transporte público, e para a compreensão de como as pessoas podem ser influenciadas para comportamentos mais sustentáveis. Actualmente, a sustentabilidade ambiental é cada vez mais importante. As escolhas de viagem dos indivíduos podem levar a graves problemas ambientais. Este facto aumenta a consciencialização da utilização do automóvel e as suas implicações ambientais em termos de congestionamento e poluição. Assim, é necessário promover comportamentos sustentáveis, o que implica a compreensão dos motivos que levam a escolher um meio de transporte em vez de outro. A escolha de meio de transporte resulta, na maior parte dos casos, de causas complexas num ambiente dinâmico. Assim, o modelo conceptual desenvolvido e testado neste estudo explorou as relações entre os factores de atitude, possuir automóvel, intenção de escolher um determinado transporte e comportamento, utilizando modelos de equações estruturais. Através de estudos qualitativos e quantitativos oito factores de atitude, que podem influenciar a escolha de transporte foram identificados: necessidade de controlo, dependência do automóvel, procura por status, desejo de mudar o meio de transporte, pró transporte público, sensibilidade ambiental, insensibilidade ao custo do transporte e sensibilidade ao stress de viagem. A análise de clusters originou seis segmentos: Entusiastas do Transporte Público, Aspirantes a Status, Viajantes de Ocasião, Eco-viajantes, Viajantes Frugais, e Condutores Obstinados. Os resultados sugerem que os esforços para incentivar a utilização de transporte público devem focar-se nos segmentos com maior potencial para aumentar a sua frequência de utilização, e nos segmentos com atitudes mais favoráveis ao transporte público e consciência ambiental. Os resultados da dissertação têm várias implicações práticas para os prestadores de serviços. Destaca-se a importância que as atitudes dos indivíduos desempenham na escolha do meio de transporte. As atitudes parecem influenciar, não só mas também, a intenção de utilizar transporte púbico, o comportamento e até mesmo a satisfação dos clientes com o serviço de transporte público. Os resultados indicam que os factores "nível de dependência psicológica do automóvel ", "necessidade de estar em controlo" e "atitude face ao transporte público" influenciam fortemente a intenção de escolha de meio de transporte. Indivíduos com alta necessidade de controlo parecem ser altamente dependentes do automóvel e, consequentemente, não têm a intenção de utilizar os transportes v.

(6) públicos. Em contrapartida, uma atitude positiva em relação ao transporte público e sensibilidade ambiental influenciam positivamente a intenção de utilizar o transporte público.. vi.

(7) RÉSUME Cette recherche de thèse vise à contribuer à la compréhension des facteurs sous-jacents des attitudes intentions et le comportement dans un domaine complexe, comme le service de transport public. En particulier, l'étude a porté sur le rôle que les variables d'attitude jouer dans le comportement des gens Voyage. Ces connaissances peuvent être utiles pour la formulation de stratégies et de mesures visant à améliorer le service de transport public et la compréhension de comment les gens peuvent être influencés vers des comportements plus durables. Aujourd'hui, la durabilité est de plus en plus important. Voyage choix des individus peut conduire à de graves problèmes environnementaux. Cela soulève la sensibilisation à l'utilisation croissante de voitures et les implications de ce en termes de congestion et de pollution. Ainsi, il est nécessaire de promouvoir des comportements durables, ce qui implique la compréhension du comportement Voyage et les raisons de choisir un mode de transport plutôt qu'un autre. Le modèle conceptuel développé et testé dans cette étude explore les relations entre les facteurs comportementaux, possession d'une voiture, Voyage intentions comportementales et le comportement, en utilisant la modélisation par équation structurelle. Une analyse typologique a été effectuée en utilisant les attitudes. Les résultats suggèrent que les efforts visant à encourager les transports publics devrait se concentrer sur les segments les plus susceptibles d'augmenter leur fréquence d'utilisation du service de transport public, et devraient cibler les segments avec des attitudes favorables envers les transports en commun et de sensibilisation à l'environnement. Les résultats de la recherche thèse ont plusieurs conséquences pratiques pour les fournisseurs de services. Ils ont souligné l'importance que les attitudes des individus jouent dans le comportement Voyage. Attitudes semblent influer sur les intentions comportementales à utiliser le service, les comportements et même la satisfaction des clients avec le service. Les résultats indiquent que les facteurs «degré d'attachement psychologique à la voiture», «besoin d'être en contrôle», et «attitude à l'égard des transports publics" forte influence sur l'intention choix Voyage mode. Les personnes ayant des besoins importants pour le contrôle apparaît comme très dépendante sur l'utilisation des voitures sur une base quotidienne, et par conséquent n'ont pas l'intention d'utiliser les transports publics. En revanche, une attitude positive envers les transports en commun et de sensibilisation à l'environnement influe positivement sur l'intention d'utiliser les transports publics.. vii.

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(9) ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to acknowledge the guidance and support of many individuals and organizations who have contributed to this dissertation. I wish to express my deep gratitude to Prof. Sarsfield Cabral for being a wonderful advisor, technical and otherwise, a constant source of encouragement and for taking a keen interest in my career and my life. It was a privilege to work with such a passionate and committed academic and I have always enjoyed the stimulating meetings we have had with good music on the background. I would like to thank STCP and its board for their valuable cooperation in this project. They promptly welcomed this project and placed valuable data and resources at my disposal. STCP support made this research possible. I am deeply grateful for their participation and assistance in the development and administration of the survey instrument. I also wish to thank Faculdade de Engenharia da Universidade do Porto for providing with such good facilities and friendly working environment. I am especially grateful to Lia Patrício for her help, support and encouragement throughout the research work. I wish to thank my parents, as well as my sister, brother and nephews for their encouragement and support for my intellectual pursuits. Also, I would like to thank my friends, especially my dear ‘sisters’. Their devoted love and support made this work possible. And finally, I wish to thank the one that always makes me smile.. This dissertation was funded by the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT) under the Program POCI 2010 and the European Social Fund. Their support is highly acknowledged.. ix.

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(11) To my sister Sofia,. Para a minha irmã Sofia,. Up there,. lá em cima,. the shiniest star.. a estrela mais brilhante.. xi.

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(13) TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. Introduction .................................................................................................... 1 1.1. Empirical ground .................................................................................... 3 1.2. Dissertation Objectives ........................................................................... 6 1.3. Research framework ............................................................................... 7 1.4. Outline of the study............................................................................... 10 1.5. Conclusion and research significance ................................................... 10 2. Literature Review and Conceptual Foundation ............................................ 13 2.1. Attitude and behaviour.......................................................................... 14 2.1.1 The attitude concept ..................................................................... 14 2.1.2 Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) ........................................... 15 2.1.3 Attitude and travel behaviour ...................................................... 17 2.1.4 The use of market segmentation .................................................. 26 2.1.5 The impact of socio-demographic characteristics ....................... 30 2.2. Measurement of service quality, value and customer satisfaction........ 31 2.2.1 Service quality, perceived value and satisfaction ........................ 32 2.2.2 Research on service quality and satisfaction ............................... 36 2.2.3 Service quality and satisfaction within the context of public transport services .................................................................................. 39 2.3. Solution strategies - Travel demand measures...................................... 45 2.4. Conclusion ............................................................................................ 47 3. Conceptual Framework and Methodology ................................................... 49 3.1. Attitudinal data applications in travel behaviour .................................. 49 3.2. The research conceptual model ............................................................. 56 3.3. Research design and methodology........................................................ 59 3.3.1 Qualitative study methodology .................................................... 63 3.3.2 Quantitative study methodology .................................................. 65 4. Qualitative Study .......................................................................................... 73 4.1. Methodology of qualitative study ......................................................... 74 4.2. Sample design and participant selection procedures ............................ 75. xiii.

(14) 4.3. Interviewing procedures and analysis ................................................... 77 4.4. Qualitative study results ........................................................................ 78 4.4.1 Respondents’ evaluations of public transport .............................. 78 4.4.2 Respondents’ evaluations of private car ...................................... 83 4.4.3 Environmental concerns ............................................................... 86 4.4.4 Travel behaviour and future mode choice intention .................... 86 4.5. Discussion of qualitative analysis findings ........................................... 88 4.6. Conclusion of qualitative analysis ........................................................ 93 5. Quantitative Study ........................................................................................ 95 5.1. Sample design and respondents’ profile ............................................... 96 5.2. Survey instrument design and administration ....................................... 99 5.2.1 Survey design and pre test ........................................................... 99 5.2.2 Survey instrument ...................................................................... 100 5.3. Preliminary data analysis .................................................................... 103 5.3.1 Data screening ............................................................................ 103 5.3.2 Descriptive analysis ................................................................... 105 5.4. Model estimation - Analysis of the relationships between attitudes, behavioural intention and behaviour .......................................... 115 5.4.1 Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) ........................................... 115 5.4.2 Test of the measurement model - Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) ................................................................................... 121 5.4.3 Test of the structural model - Analysis of the relationships between constructs .............................................................................. 130 5.5. Regression models .............................................................................. 136 5.5.1 Impact of socio-demographic background variables ................. 136 5.5.2 Analysis of travel behaviour determinants................................. 139 5.5.3 Analysis of the determinants of public transport users satisfaction, behavioural intention and willingness to recommend .... 147 5.6. Cluster Analysis Results ..................................................................... 151 5.6.1 Cluster analysis methodology .................................................... 151 5.6.2 Psychographic profiles of the segments ..................................... 152 5.6.3 Socio-demographic profiles of the clusters ................................ 154. xiv.

(15) 5.6.4 Travel behaviour profiles of the clusters ................................... 155 5.7. Conclusions of quantitative study ....................................................... 158 6. Conclusion and recommendations .............................................................. 163 6.1. Summary of the qualitative study findings ......................................... 165 6.2. Summary of the quantitative study findings ....................................... 167 6.3. Contributions and future research ....................................................... 174 References ...................................................................................................... 178. xv.

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(17) LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1-1: Research stages .............................................................................. 7 Figure 2-1: Relationship between beliefs, attitudes, behavioural intentions and behaviours ............................................................ 16 Figure 2-2: Customer perceptions of quality and customer satisfaction ........ 35 Figure 2-3: Importance – performance grid.................................................... 38 Figure 3-1: General conceptual model structure of causal influences ............ 57 Figure 3-2: Research stages ............................................................................ 59 Figure 3-3: Procedure for developing scales .................................................. 60 Figure 5-1: Mean importance ratings of the 20 service quality attributes .... 105 Figure 5-2: Mean performance ratings of the 20 service quality attributes..................................................................................... 106 Figure 5-3: Disgruntlement measures for the 20 service quality attributes..................................................................................... 107 Figure 5-4: Disgruntlement measures for the 20 service quality attributes by gender .................................................................... 108 Figure 5-5: Importance and performance ratings for a journey to work and for a journey to leisure/shopping ........................................ 109 Figure 5-6: Disgruntlement measures for the 20 service quality attributes by trip motive ............................................................. 110 Figure 5-7: Scatter graph of disgruntlement vs. importance for public transport users ............................................................................ 111 Figure 5-8: Scatter graph of disgruntlement vs. importance for car users.... 111 Figure 5-9: Scatter graph of disgruntlement vs. importance for car and public transport users ................................................................. 112 Figure 5-10: Scatter graph of disgruntlement vs. importance for walkers ..... 112 Figure 5-11: Motives for mode choice by transport mode ............................. 114 Figure 5-12: Flow diagram of the causal structure model of the determinants of travel behaviour ............................................... 133. xvii.

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(19) LIST OF TABLES Table 3-1: Summary of attitudinal data applications in the transport field ............................................................................................... 50 Table 4-1: Age range of the respondents........................................................ 76 Table 4-2: Perceived advantages and disadvantages of public transport and private car............................................................................... 78 Table 4-3: Motivations and barriers to public transport use .......................... 87 Table 5-1: Sample key demographics ............................................................ 97 Table 5-2: Survey instrument ....................................................................... 101 Table 5-3: Satisfaction, service quality, loyalty and behavioural intention to use public transport by travel mode on a journey for work or for leisure/shopping ................................................. 113 Table 5-4: Composition of calibration and holdout samples ....................... 115 Table 5-5: Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) and reliability (Oblimin rotation)....................................................................................... 119 Table 5-6- Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) and reliability (Varimx rotation)....................................................................................... 120 Table 5-7: Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) results (holdout sample) ........................................................................................ 124 Table 5-8: Reliability estimates and average variance extracted ................. 126 Table 5-9: Construct correlations (standardized) ......................................... 128 Table 5-10: CFA results by travel mode ........................................................ 129 Table 5-11: Construct correlations ‒ PT users ............................................... 131 Table 5-12: Construct correlations ‒ Car users .............................................. 131 Table 5-13: Fit indices for SEM model .......................................................... 132 Table 5-14: Total effects for SEM ................................................................. 135 Table 5-15: Indirect effects for SEM ............................................................. 135. xix.

(20) Table 5-16: Multiple regressions with attitudinal factors, and intention to use PT as dependent variables and socio-demographic background variables, and travel motive as independent ........... 137 Table 5-17: Travel Attitudes by Gender ......................................................... 139 Table 5-18: Factor analysis of the importance variables and reliability (Oblimin rotation) ....................................................................... 140 Table 5-19: Factor analysis of the performance variables and reliability (Oblimin rotation) ....................................................................... 141 Table 5-20: Logistic Regression models predicting public transport usage for work and leisure/shopping journeys (N = 2579) ................... 143 Table 5-21: Logistic regression analysis predicting public transport usage for a work journey (N = 1194) .................................................... 145 Table 5-22: Logistic regression analysis predicting public transport usage for a leisure/shopping trip (N = 567) .......................................... 146 Table 5-23: Regression analysis with overall satisfaction as dependent variable (N = 1509) ..................................................................... 148 Table 5-24: Regression analysis with intention to use public transport service as dependent variable (N = 1509) ................................... 149 Table 5-25: Regression analysis with willingness to recommend public transport service as dependent variable (N = 1509) .................... 150 Table 5-26: Cluster Centroids (N = 2778) ...................................................... 152 Table 5-27: Demographic profiles of each segment ....................................... 154 Table 5-28: Selected indicators of travel behaviour ....................................... 156 Table 5-29: Mean values of intention and satisfaction with mode of transport used on regular trip ...................................................... 157 Table 5-30: Summary of key characteristics of the clusters profiles ............. 159. xx.

(21) LIST OF ACRONYMS. CFA. Confirmatory factor analysis. EFA. Exploratory factor analysis. PT. Public transport. SEM. Structural equation modelling. xxi.

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(23) Introduction. 1. “A journey of a thousand miles begins with a single step.”. Chinese Proverb. 1. Introduction The measurement of attitudes and its influence on behaviour have been extensively studied in social sciences. An attitude may be defined as “the evaluation of an object, concept, or behaviour along a dimension of favour or disfavour, good or bad, like or dislike” (Ajzen and Fishbein 2000). Theories and research on attitudinal structure, and the relation between attitude and behaviour are essential for an understanding of the customer’s choice. This knowledge is important in order to develop marketing strategies that improve consumer attitudes towards the service and increase customer usage. In this study the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) developed by Ajzen (Ajzen 1991) is used as the conceptual model framework. This theory has been applied to a large variety of domains with good empirical support (Bamberg et al. 2003a). Very briefly, the TPB theory stipulates that individuals form behavioural intentions based on their attitudes, subjective norms, and perceptions of behavioural control; and these intentions, together with behaviour control, are the immediate determinants of behaviour. Thus, intention is assumed to be the immediate antecedent of behaviour. An intention expresses a person's willingness to perform a certain behaviour and captures motivational factors that influence behaviour. The stronger the intention to perform a certain behaviour the larger the probability that this behaviour will be performed. Thus, consumers’ intentions and willingness to recommend behaviours are a critical goal of every business. Furthermore, understanding how consumer attitudes are formed and how they affect intentions and individuals’ behaviour is valuable in order to develop marketing strategies and measures that improve consumer attitudes towards that service and increase customer usage..

(24) Introduction. 2. Attitudes can be rather complex and are associated with affective (like or dislike, or emotions), cognitive (perceptions or evaluative beliefs), and behavioural (tendency to act in a certain way) components. For example, service quality is viewed as a form of overall attitude because it represents a general, overall evaluation of a product or service (Parasuraman et al. 1988; Zeithaml 1988). It is known that consumers heavily use service quality and satisfaction to infer intentions to use a service (Brown et al. 1993). Thus, assessing and improving quality of service, value and satisfaction is critical to all service providers and these issues have dominated the services literature (Cronin et al. 2000). However, an effective management of service quality requires an understanding of the nature of customer satisfaction, service quality, and value and how these factors interact. These concepts are very important because they drive customer retention and future choice, but they are subjective and occur in the customer’s mind (Rust and Oliver 1994). Thus, behaviour has several determinants, which may be different for different individuals. As different customer segments may have different attitudes and preferences, different marketing strategies and measures should be designed towards specific target groups. Also, the importance given to different aspects of service quality and the evaluations of service performance may vary among different individuals. Furthermore, since all these factors will influence customers’ attitudes towards the service and its usage it is important to understand how customer attitudes are formed and influence behaviour. This dissertation research aims to contribute to the understanding of the factors underlying intentions and behaviour in a complex field such as public transport service. The final goal is to provide some guidance in the design and improvement of transport services in order to increase its usage and promote more sustainable behaviours. The research was based on qualitative and quantitative studies, involving Greater Porto residents, which provide a sound base for the identification of service usage determinants..

(25) Introduction. 3. 1.1. Empirical ground The empirical ground chosen for this research was a public transport service. This field was chosen for several reasons. First, the wealth of literature and research in the customer service arena has not been replicated in the transport field, despite its great importance to transport service providers (Stradling et al. 2007b). Thus, a gap in the literature studying the impact of attitudes on travel behaviour exists. Most transport behaviours result from complex causes in a dynamic environment. Travel behaviour may be modelled as a function of measurable aspects such as the physical characteristics of the system and sociodemographic characteristics. However, many different personal and situational factors may influence behaviour making its prediction difficult. Furthermore, evidence suggests that the amount of travel demanded is heavily influence by one’s attitudes toward travel and not just determined by demographic variables (Mokhtarian et al. 2001). These authors state that it is people’s fundamental need for mobility and other subjective characteristics, combined with external causes that determine travel demand. Furthermore, the changing nature of society and lifestyle patterns generates diversified travel needs. Moreover, the existing literature implies that traveller attitudes and preferences are important components of travel behaviour (Golob 2003; Kuppam et al. 1999; Parkany et al. 2004). The environmental impact of individuals’ travel choices is another key reason for choosing this field. In the last decades the levels of mobility and the use of cars have increased all around the world and this trend is expected to continue (MOTIF 1998; OECD 2001). So, even though travel is necessary in our society, the way we travel leads to severe environmental problems. This raises awareness about increasing car use and the implications of this in terms of congestion and pollution. Thus, the concern for environmental costs is growing and both the individual and society perceive it as a major issue. Since personal transportation is a significant contributor to environmental problems, is necessary to promote sustainable behaviours, which implies understanding travel behaviour and the reasons for choosing one mode of transport over another. Nowadays, one of the key environmental issues is congestion.

(26) Introduction. 4. reduction as it has become a major target for policy-makers and planners. However policy measures to mitigate this problem have had little effect, maybe because there is a wide gap between the policy assumptions and the way individuals perceive them and consequently respond to policy measures (Salomon and Mokhtarian 1997). Travelling contains emotions and many of the travel choices made by people are directly affected by them. In a choice for a transport an individual may try to minimize certain emotions like stress or uncertainty and maximize other emotions such as satisfaction, certainty or pleasure (Grosvenor 2000). It is well known that most people are now highly dependent on car travel, and generally, the car is the most attractive mode of transport (Anable 2005; Hagman 2003; Jensen 1999). Car use has huge advantages over other means of transport. These advantages involve rational aspects, such as speed, comfort, and flexibility, but also affective aspects, such as feelings of sensation, power, freedom, status and superiority (Steg 2005). Thus, attitudes towards transport modes influence mode choice. Furthermore, empirical evidence showed that travel behaviour is influenced not only by attitudes towards public transport, but also by beliefs about whether or not public transportation can fulfil one’s transport needs (Thøgersen 2006). So, policies which aim at increasing public transport usage should promote its image, but at the same time, public transport systems need to become more market-oriented and competitive. This requires an improvement in the quality of the service provided, which can only be achieved by a clear understanding of what most affects individuals’ decisionmaking process to use public transport over other modes of transport. Therefore, it becomes essential to measure the level of service in order to identify the potential strengths and weaknesses of public transport systems. This can provide clues to public transport management in the process of evaluating alternative service improvements aimed at enhancing user satisfaction and increasing market share. However, developing accurate and valid measures of service quality is a complex task, since it deals with perceptions and attitudes. Moreover, studies confirmed that travel behaviour is influenced by the service levels of the transport system, but this dependence is not directly upon the objective service level of public transport, but is.

(27) Introduction. 5. influenced by psychological factors on which the behaviour depends (Fujii and Kitamura 2003). Hence, from a public transport service provider perspective, focusing on the assessment and improvement of the services is becoming increasingly critical as an attempt to address the increasing trend in car usage. This is not an easy task though, because there is an underlying resistance of people to move from private to public transport (STIMULUS 1999). Also, the needs and expectations of users may vary significantly between different segments of the market (Anable 2005; Beirão and Cabral 2008; Jensen 1999). As well, different user segments evaluate the same service quality area differently and their satisfaction may be influenced by different services attributes (Andreassen 1995). Thus, an individual’s travel mode choice for a journey will be affected by her or his responsiveness to service quality attributes and will vary across individuals based on the individual’s characteristics and attitudes as well. Furthermore, if sustainable policies are going to be promoted it is necessary to understand how they will influence individual behaviour. In addition, it is known that different groups react to policies in different ways, which can be influenced by several factors such as personal, situational, and local characteristics. While some groups may react strongly, others may not react at all (Bamberg and Schmidt 1999). Moreover, when defining a sustainable transport policy it is necessary to look at the regional and local levels since individual travel mode choice can be strongly influenced at the local level (Bamberg and Schmidt 1999). Hence, identifying the key factors that determine mode choice would assist in designing the public transport service and developing policies and strategies for attracting customers. Simultaneously, a deeper understanding of how individuals perceived service quality and which services aspects are more important can help public transport service providers to design and deliver services that are more suited to customers’ needs and wants and, therefore increase customer satisfaction. Furthermore, not only may the sociodemographic variables affect preferences and behaviours, but also an individual’s willingness and ability to change, including any resource.

(28) Introduction. 6. constraints and external structural factors. Thus, the methodologies used to identify not only how and what, but why individuals behave as they do have to encompass a number of interrelated factors.. 1.2. Dissertation Objectives Though there are several interrelated objectives for this dissertation, investigating the influence of attitudinal variables on behaviour and how attitudes may be used in a segmentation strategy is the core of this research. The first objective is to conceptually model the relationships among attitudes, behavioural intentions and behaviour. Indeed, given that empirical research showing that a person’s perceptions, attitudes and preferences have a significant impact on all of her or his decisions, the use of attitudinal variables in the estimation of models as explanatory variables is crucial. The next aim is to use attitude heterogeneity to elicit groups of people. Previous empirical research showed that different people have different preferences and attitudes, so from a service provider perspective it is critical to understand how these groups can be targeted and how they may, or may not, be influenced toward more sustainable behaviours. More specifically this led to several research questions, namely: •. How do attitudes influence behavioural intention to use a public transport service?. •. Does intention lead to behaviour? How strong is this relationship?. •. Does environmental awareness affect intention and behaviour?. •. What most affects travellers’ decision to use public transport versus other modes of transportation?. •. How do service quality evaluations influence satisfaction and willingness to recommend?. •. How may individuals be clustered on the basis of attitudinal variables? Which are the characteristics and the profile of each group and how may their behaviour be influenced?.

(29) Introduction. 7. Achieving the above-mentioned objectives aims to contribute to the existing literature by enhancing the understanding of the relationships between attitudes, intentions and behaviour in the travel behaviour field. Answering to the research questions formulated above will be of guidance in the formulation of strategies and measures aiming to improve the public transport service and the understanding of how people may be influenced toward more sustainable behaviours.. 1.3. Research framework The research followed three stages, as shown in Figure 1-1, to address the question previously raised.. Research Design. Qualitative Research. Quantitative Research. Figure 1-1: Research stages. First, an extensive literature review was undertaken covering the different fields related to the problem under study, which will be presented in the literature review in Chapter 2. The literature review showed that despite the abundance of theory studying attitude measurement, the existing research in the transportation service field is limited. Thus, a need for a deep understanding of travel behaviour determinants exists. The research followed the multi-step approach recommended by Churchill (Churchill 1979; Churchill and Iacobucci 2002) for developing attitude measurement scales. The first step involved the definition of the concepts to be measured in the conceptual background, which was followed by a qualitative study to obtain a set of questions potentially relevant for the concepts being measured. Then, in the quantitative study, a survey instrument based on the previous steps was developed and applied to a sample of respondents to purify and validate the measures..

(30) Introduction. 8. As outlined, the initial research stage involved a qualitative study. The qualitative study allowed a deeper and broader understanding of factors affecting public transport service perception and individuals’ attitudes towards transport modes. This study will be described in detail in Chapter 4. The qualitative stage involved 24 in-depth interviews with the general public including car and public transport users. The interviews were transcribed and then analyzed using qualitative methods. The in-depth interviews had several objectives namely: (1) obtaining the aspects underlying individuals’ perceptions of public transport service performance; (2) the motives and constraints behind the decision-making process; and (3) which attitudes may influence travel behaviour. Although the qualitative studies provide a deeper understanding of the factors behind mode choice and service perceptions, they do not allow generalization of the results, due to the small dimension of the sample. One of the major trade-offs between quantitative methods and qualitative methods is a trade-off between breadth and depth (Patton 1990). Quantitative approaches have the advantage of measuring the reactions of many subjects to a limited set of questions allowing the comparison and statistical aggregation of the data. On the other hand, qualitative methods produce a wealth of detailed data on a small number of individuals (Patton 1990). The use of an exploratory qualitative study is valuable to assure that all factors potentially relevant for the phenomenon under study are included in the quantitative analysis. Therefore the qualitative stage was followed by a quantitative study, which will be presented in detail in Chapter 5. The exploratory information obtained from the qualitative phase was used to guide the subsequent quantitative study and served as the basis for questionnaire design. The quantitative phase involved the questionnaire design, pre-test and telephone administration to a sample of 3009 respondents living in the Greater Porto Area. This process allowed obtaining more general results and enabled the researcher to examine and explain the relationships between constructs. The quantitative stage was conducted in several steps. First, through exploratory and confirmatory analysis, the measure instrument was purified and validated. Then the reliability and validity of the scales were assessed..

(31) Introduction. 9. Next, using structural equation modelling, the relationships between constructs, behavioural intentions, and behaviour were analyzed. In addition, to further explore the relationships between multiple explanatory variables and dependent variables regression analysis was performed. The regression methods allow researchers to estimate the magnitude of the effect of the explanatory variables on the outcome variable. Thus, the effect and relative contribution of socio demographic, service quality evaluations and attitudinal factors in explaining mode choice behaviour were examined, as well as if differences in journeys for work or for leisure/ shopping exist. Differences may emerge between different types of journeys since. individuals’. external. constrains. and. expectations. may. differ.. Demographic variables also play an important role in mode choice behaviour and therefore are also included in the models. For the service providers point of view it is very important to evaluate customer satisfaction and behavioural intention determinants. Thus, to ascertain these relationships additional analyses were conducted to investigate the effect of service quality, service satisfaction, and attitudes on intention to use more public transport service and willingness to recommend the service to family or friends. Finally, cluster analysis was performed to elicit groups of homogeneous individuals with similar attitudes among them, but which differ in meaningful ways from other groups. Attitudinal heterogeneity among individuals is expected, hence is necessary to understand how they can be clustered in homogeneous groups and assess each group profile. Market segmentation allows the division of a market into homogeneous groups which may respond in different ways to policies and marketing strategies. Each group may be targeted differently since the segments are created to minimize inherent differences between individuals within each segment and maximize differences between each segment. This may lead to a better service design and therefore higher service quality. Also, it allows for a better understanding of how each group may be influenced, or not, to engage in more sustainable behaviours..

(32) Introduction. 10. 1.4. Outline of the study The content of this study is as follows. Chapter 2 provides an overview of the existent literature analyzing attitudes and behaviour relationships, as well as service quality and satisfaction. Next, Chapter 3 discusses the conceptual model and its underlying hypotheses. Also, it explains the methodology used in the dissertation research including qualitative and quantitative studies. In Chapter 4 the qualitative study is detailed. Chapter 5 presents the main findings of the quantitative study, including the statistical procedures that were undertaken to test each hypothesis. The summary of study findings and the conclusion is given in Chapter 6. In addition, implications and future research possibilities are also discussed in this chapter.. 1.5. Conclusion and research significance This Chapter provided a foundation for the development of this dissertation’s analysis of the influence of attitudes on intentions and behaviour. In particular, we want to identify the role that attitudinal variables play in people’s travel behaviour. The present study was placed in the context of the travel behaviour field. Public transport service was chosen as the empirical ground, due to the complexity of this type of service and the need for a better understanding of attitudes and its influence on behaviour. Public transport is facing increased competition from the private car. Also, concerns about the environmental impact of travel focused attention on how people might be persuaded to shift from private car to other more sustainable forms of transport. So, public transport service providers should determine the factors that influence travellers’ selection of a mode of transport for a specific journey. If travellers’ attitudes determine mode choice as empirical research shows, then service providers should seek to influence travellers’ attitudes toward public transport. In addition, the service must be designed with the level of service quality desired by customers. Thus, the key to growth in public transport usage is understanding travellers’ choice of mode and providing a service with high customer satisfaction levels..

(33) Introduction. 11. Having outlined the central problem dealt within the present research, Chapter 2, which follows, will review the research literature relevant to this research project..

(34) Introduction. 12.

(35) Literature Review and Conceptual Foundation. 13. “Whether you can observe a thing or not depends on the theory which you use. It is the theory which decides what can be observed.”. Albert Einstein (1879-1955). 2. Literature Review and Conceptual Foundation As stated in the previous chapter the main goal of this dissertation research is to understand how individuals’ attitudes and perceptions of a service influence behaviour, using public transport service as empirical ground. As stated in the previous chapter, the study was applied to the travel behaviour field because understanding travel behaviour and the reasons for choosing one mode of transport over another is becoming increasingly critical for public transport service providers. Furthermore, the environmental impact of transport choices is of great importance. The selection of travel modes is one of the most significant environmental decision faced by individuals (Collins and Chambers 2005). Hence, public transport service providers are forced to focus on the monitoring of and improvement in the services provided in an attempt to address the increasing trend in car usage. Several factors, such as perceptions of public transport performance; social pressures and influences; the perception of control over travel options; travel habit; attitudes about travel; and travel mode, which are difficult to measure cannot be disregarded. Also, for each journey, people have the choice among different transport modes, each one having specific characteristics, advantages and disadvantages, and costs. Additionally, the choice of one specific transport mode can vary over time, with the type of journey and situational factors. So while the literature studying and supporting the influence of individuals’ personality, attitudes and perceptions on travel behaviour has grown over the last 30 years, predicting travel behaviour is not easy still. Furthermore, the need for reducing the attractiveness of car use due to environmental problems.

(36) Literature Review and Conceptual Foundation. 14. has increased the interest and need in understanding the attitudes towards public transport and individuals’ perceptions of service quality. Before the qualitative and quantitative studies, previous work on several issues that offer a relevant background to attitudes, intentions and behaviour, especially in the travel behaviour field was reviewed, which provided the basis for the development of the conceptual model and research design.. 2.1. Attitude and behaviour Attitudes have been extensively studied in the social sciences and were found to strongly influence behaviour. Theories and research on attitudinal structure, and the relation between attitude and behaviour are essential to an understanding of the customer’s choice. This knowledge is important in order to develop marketing strategies that improve consumer attitudes towards the service and increase customer usage. Within the travel behaviour context it is important to identify the salient factors that increase the likelihood that an individual choose a public transport service or other environmental friendly travel mode. This implies the identification of not only the socio-economic and demographic variables that could affect preferences and behaviour, but also an individual’s willingness and ability to change, which includes external situational factors and resources constraints.. 2.1.1 The attitude concept A major focus of theory and research in the social and behavioural sciences is the attitude construct (Ajzen 1991). Attitude refers to an evaluative response to some object which disposes a person to behave in a certain way toward it (Bamberg et al. 1999). Fishbein and Ajzen. (1975, p. 6) defined attitude as “a person’s general feelings of favourableness or unfavourableness towards some stimulus object”. Long ago, Allport (1935) stated that attitude is “social psychology’s most indispensable concept”. The object of attitudes may be concrete entities (e.g., a bus), policy initiatives (e.g., increasing fuel taxes), or.

(37) Literature Review and Conceptual Foundation. 15. behaviours (e.g., using public transport). Within attitude theory, beliefs are perceived to determine attitudes. Beliefs have been defined as the perceived probability of a relation between an attitude object and an attribute, and the evaluation of the attribute (Fishbein and Ajzen 1975). So, salient beliefs about the attitude object are important to the attitude. For instance, the extent to which a car is perceived to be a flexible and comfortable travel mode may be important to the attitude toward car use. There are several definitions of attitudes, but the one that achieved widespread adoption is the three-component definition which breaks down attitude into three elements - affective, cognitive, and conative (or behavioural) (Greenwald 1989). Affective attitudes are related to feelings of like or dislike or emotions, cognitive attitudes (or perceptions) are related to evaluative beliefs, thoughts, and ideas about something, and conative (or behaviour) attitudes show the tendency or disposition to act in certain ways toward something.. 2.1.2 Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) Different theoretical perspectives have been used to describe the relation between attitudinal factors and behaviour. The framework proposed by the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) (Ajzen 1991) has been widely used in studies concerned with the prediction of behaviour from attitudinal variables. This theory is an extension of the theory of reasoned action earlier developed by Fishbein and Ajzen (1975). According to the theory of planned behaviour there are three basic determinants to a person’s intention to perform a behaviour, such as, for instance, using public transport: •. attitude toward the behaviour: the individual’s assessment of the expected outcomes of the behaviour, that is, a positive or negative evaluation of the behaviour;. •. subjective norm: the perceived social pressure to perform or not perform the behaviour; and.

(38) Literature Review and Conceptual Foundation. •. 16. perceived behaviour control: the individual’s perception of his ability to perform the given behaviour, that is, the assessment of whether or not the behaviour seems realistic to perform.. A central factor of the model (see Figure 2-1) is the intention construct which reflects a person’s motivational orientation towards a given behaviour. The best predictor of behaviour is behavioural intention (Fujii and Gärling 2003b). Intention is the person’s readiness to perform a given behaviour, that is the effort the individual is willing to put into performing the behaviour. So, a person intends to perform a behaviour when they evaluate it positively, experience social pressure to perform it and believe they have the means and opportunity to do so. Finally, when the opportunity arises, people will then act in accordance to their intentions and perceptions of control over the behaviour. Thus, intention is assumed to be the immediate antecedent of behaviour.. Behavioral Beliefs. Attitude Toward the Behavior. Normative Beliefs. Subjective Norm. Control Beliefs. Perceived Behavioral Control. Behavior. Intention. Actual Behavioral Control. Figure 2-1: Relationship between beliefs, attitudes, behavioural intentions and behaviours (After Ajzen (1991) Source: http://www.people.umass.edu/aizen/tpb.diag.html). The TPB also acknowledges the potential influence of background factors that include a wide variety of cultural, personal and situational factors on behavioural, normative and control beliefs. Beliefs about the consequences of the behaviour (i.e., behavioural beliefs) influence attitude, beliefs about the normative expectations of others (i.e., normative beliefs) influence subjective.

(39) Literature Review and Conceptual Foundation. 17. norms, and beliefs about factors facilitating or inhibiting the behaviour (i.e., control beliefs) influence perceived behaviour control. This theory has been applied to a variety of domains and has received good empirical support (Bamberg et al. 2003a). Moreover, its utility as a conceptual framework for predicting travel-mode choice has also been demonstrated (Bamberg et al. 2003a; Bamberg et al. 2007; Harland et al. 1999; Heath and Gifford 2002; Verplanken B. et al. 1998). Overall, using the TPB framework an intention to choose a particular mode of transport, for example using public transport, is a result of various considerations expressed mainly in an attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behaviour control. The TPB provided the theoretical framework for the development of the model linking attitudes, behavioural intentions and travel mode choice. However due to the complexity and specificities of public transport services its necessary to ascertain which beliefs, which attitudes and which behavioural intentions should be analyzed in this specific context. The review of relevant travel behaviour literature presented in the next sections provided the basis for the development of the model.. 2.1.3 Attitude and travel behaviour Despite the huge amount of research in social psychology relating attitudes and behaviour, the research in transportation behaviour is limited (Parkany et al. 2004). However, the use of attitudinal studies is becoming more prevalent in the study of travel behaviour, although the type of attitudes studied and its influence on the travel mode decision process vary (Parkany et al. 2004). The theory of planned behaviour has been used as the most common model of reference for studies focusing on evaluations of motives behind transport choices (Bamberg and Schmidt 1999; Harland et al. 1999). This theory has been used to investigate both intention to change and current travel behaviour. The effect of subjective influences on travel behaviour, such as attitudes, is difficult to measure and evaluate. In the literature, travel attitudes and behaviour are discussed in various ways. For example, studies using different kinds of attitudes have been used as predictors of car use (Bamberg and.

(40) Literature Review and Conceptual Foundation. 18. Schmidt 2003), restricting car use (Kaiser and Gutscher 2003), changing travel mode (Bamberg 2006; Bamberg et al. 2007), the use of transport modes other than the car (Bamberg and Schmidt 2001; Heath and Gifford 2002), and intention to use a new transport alternative (Fujii and Gärling 2003b). Other studies focused on public transport use and perceptions (Dobson et al. 1978; Fujii and Gärling 2003b; Sunkanapalli et al. 2000; Tardiff 1977), need for time saving and flexibility with sensitivities to cost and stress (Outwater et al. 2003), and approval ratings for new alternatives and perception variables (Golob 2001). More recently research focusing on environmental aspects and its impact on behaviour is emerging, for example, studies on pro-environmental behaviour (Heath and Gifford 2002; Kaiser and Gutscher 2003), environment desires and attitudes (Golob and Hensher 1998; Outwater et al. 2003) and attitudes toward congestion and the environment (Cullinane 1992; Golob and Hensher 1998). Also, the impact of policy measures aiming at changing or reducing car usage has been investigated. Others have investigated the impact of intervention programs (predicting public transport use) (Bamberg and Schmidt 1998; Heath and Gifford 2002) or attitudes toward potential policy changes (Curtis and Headicar 1997; Golob and Hensher 1998; Nilsson and Küller 2000).. Attitude-Behaviour Relationship One issue still under debate in the travel behaviour research is the relationship between attitudes and behaviour. Attitudes and behaviour are mutually dependent on each other, with influences flowing in both directions (Crano and Prislin 2008; Golob 2001). Behavioural experiences influence attitudes, and at the same time strong attitudes have an impact on the decisions people make. For example, the attitude of someone facing a new transport option is dependent on his or her ability to choose the new option, whether or not the individual actually chooses it, and its perceived advantages both to the individual and the society. Tardiff (1977) empirically compared the competing assumptions that transportation behaviour and attitude are in response to one another. The hypothesis of attitudes being a response to behavioural experience.

(41) Literature Review and Conceptual Foundation. 19. is more plausible than the conventional hypothesis that attitudes cause the behaviour. Results indicate that attitudes were influenced by, more than they influence traveller behaviour. The author points out that these findings suggest the relationships between transportation attitudes and behaviour may be more complex than previously hypothesized. This may be in part because many other factors influence behaviour, such as social pressure (Fishbein and Ajzen 1975), personal norm, moral obligation, and perceived behavioural control (Ajzen 1991). However, several studies have found that attitudes influence travel behaviour (Bamberg et al. 2003a; Kuppam et al. 1999; Outwater et al. 2003; Vredin Johansson et al. 2006). In contrast, in a more recent study, Golob (2001) only found causal links from behaviour to attitudes, and no significant effects of attitude on choice. It is expected that attitudes are formed through experience as a result of behaviour, but attitudes may also prompt certain types of behaviour. In fact, several studies have provided evidence on the mutual causality between attitudes, especially perceptions, and behaviour (Dobson et al. 1978; Golob and Hensher 1998; Reibstein et al. 1980).. Habits and travel behaviour Another issue being studied in the literature is the role of past behaviour. When a behaviour is performed many times it may become habitual. According to Verplanken and Aarts (1999, p. 104), habits are “learned sequences of acts that have become automatic responses to specific cues and are functional in obtaining certain end goals or states”. Habitual behaviour can be defined as that which involves little or no deliberation and no formation of intention (Gärling and Axhausen 2003). It is reasonable to expect travel behaviour to have habitual traits, especially car driving (Gärling et al. 2001; Verplanken et al. 1994; Verplanken B. et al. 1998). Several studies have demonstrated the importance of habits for the choice of transport mode (Gärling et al. 2001; Verplanken et al. 1994; Verplanken B. et al. 1998). Since habit has been found to influence travel behaviour, a strong habit to use the car may prevent the consideration of other modes of transport. When people develop car use habits they no longer search for information about alternatives (Verplanken and Aarts 1997). Moreover, the attitude-behaviour link becomes.

(42) Literature Review and Conceptual Foundation. 20. much weaker if car use habits are strong (Verplanken et al. 1994). The way to undoing habitual behaviour and facilitating a change in travel mode is to get people to deliberate their choices once again by interrupting the habit (Bamberg et al. 2003b; Fujii and Kitamura 2003; Gärling and Axhausen 2003). Habits may be interrupted by implementing some changes such as, economic incentives (for example offering a free public transport pass for one month) and alterations of the physical environment. In several studies these types of measures have been found to influence attitude, intention, habit, and/or travel behaviour (Bamberg and Schmidt 2001; Bamberg et al. 2003a; Brown et al. 2003; Fujii and Kitamura 2003; Matthies et al. 2006).. Attitudinal factors explaining travel behaviour Researchers have long understood that psychological factors, which include perceptions, attitudes and habits (Ajzen 1991; Fujii and Gärling 2003b; Jakobsson et al. 2002), affect travel behaviour. Also, studies have suggested that intentions, not just attitudes, are important in understanding behavioural choices (Fujii and Gärling 2003b; Gärling et al. 1998). The literature supporting this has grown over the last decades, although following several distinct paths and applying different methods. A more in-depth review of the most relevant studies for this research project is given below. As mentioned before empirical research has focused on different kinds of attitudes, however understanding attitudes towards different transport modes is very important for public transport service providers attempting to promote the use of their services. More specifically, is critical to understand individuals’ perceptions, attitudes and emotions toward car and public transport, as they are the modes most used. Nowadays most people are highly dependent on car travel, and generally, the car is the most attractive mode of transport (Anable 2005; Hagman 2003; Jensen 1999). But, the car is far more than just a means of transport (Steg 2005). Other motives than just its instrumental functions seem to play an important role, such as feelings of sensation, power, freedom, status and superiority (Jensen 1999; Steg 2005). In the qualitative study undertaken as.

(43) Literature Review and Conceptual Foundation. 21. part of this research it was clear that for some individuals’ the car was seen as an irreplaceable symbol of individual freedom and status, while others saw it more pragmatically as just a mean of transport (Beirão and Cabral 2007). Some people really ‘love’ their car and love driving, whereas others perceived their car as a mode of transport. Also, some evidence has suggested that some people may not always drive out of necessity, but also by choice (Handy et al. 2005; Mokhtarian et al. 2001). Moreover, the perceived benefits of cars depend on the lifestyle and social-spatial relations engaged by the user (Hiscock et al. 2002). Also, the advantages of using a car are immediate to the user, whereas the disadvantages, like car maintenance costs and environmental impacts, are delayed in time (Huey and Everett 1996). In contrast, it appears that the benefits of using public transport related to saving the environment are delayed for the user and the disadvantages of this form of transport, such as waiting time, and crowdedness seem to be experienced more immediately (Huey and Everett 1996). Also, public transport, particularly bus service, may have a negative image, especially among non-users. Studies have showed that, generally, regular bus users have more positive beliefs about the bus service than non-users and perceived fewer barriers to using buses (Anderson and Stradling 2004; Beale and Bonsall 2007; Beirão and Cabral 2007; Ibrahim 2003). People who never use buses or have only used them many years ago, usually have a very negative image of the bus service (Beirão and Cabral 2007). One possible explanation may be their lack of actual knowledge about the bus service. This implies the need to change negative attitudes towards the bus and to overcome perceived barriers to bus use. Furthermore, non-users’ perceptions may be changed without changing the level of service. So, changing the psychological factors may also change travel mode choice, although the level of service remains the same (Fujii and Kitamura 2003). Still, the service must meet the level of service required by non-users in order to alter previous negative perceptions. Thus, travel behaviour is influenced not only by attitudes towards using public transport but also by beliefs about whether or not public transportation can fulfil one’s transport needs (Thøgersen 2006)..

(44) Literature Review and Conceptual Foundation. 22. Both qualitative and quantitative methods have been used in travel behaviour research. Qualitative methods provide valuable insights of the individual’s own explanations of attitudes and perceptions. For example, Guiver (2007) conducted focus groups to discuss bus and car travel, finding that the respondents used different criteria to evaluate each mode, and viewed them differently depending on whether they were users or non-users. When talking about bus travel, respondents focused on worst-case scenarios, however these were not used to describe car travel. Often the worst-case scenarios were related to the physical and emotional experience of using buses and the powerlessness of the passenger was usually highlighted. Interestingly, congestion was one of the effects of car usage most talked about by respondents, but it is referred to as an impedance to car travel not a result of it. A study by Gardner and Abraham (2006) ascertained the reasons for driving to work. Using semi-structured interviews five core motives were identified: journey time concerns, journey-based affect, effort minimization, personal space concerns, and monetary costs. However, the underlying desire for control underpinned many of these motives. Hagman (2003) investigated car users using semi-structured ethnographic interviews and showed that advantages and disadvantages of car use are presented differently. Advantages, such as freedom, flexibility and saving time are always personal and a result of personal experience, as are some of the disadvantages,. such. as. costs.. However,. disadvantages. concerning. environmental impacts are usually presented with references to public discourse. An important aspect of this research is that although respondents seem to agree that car use in general ought to be reduced due to environmental issues, they do not think of reducing their own car use. Although qualitative methods are very valuable, empirical research applying quantitative methods allow the quantification and generalization of results. For example, Outwater et al. (2003) used structural equation modelling to simultaneously identify travel behaviour and the causal relationships between a traveller’s socioeconomic profile and travel attitudes, in the ferry service in San Francisco Bay. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis was performed on 30 variables, including questions related to time spent on.

(45) Literature Review and Conceptual Foundation. 23. travelling, how daily schedules affect travel choices, measures of comfort and stress in travelling and to different modes of travelling. Six attitudinal factors were extracted: desire to help the environment, travellers’ need for timesaving, need for flexibility, sensitivity to travel stress, insensitivity to transportation cost, and sensitivity to personal travel experience. Travel attitudes were also used to segment the market. In a Swedish study, Vredin Johansson et al (2006) also found that attitudes like modal time, cost, flexibility, comfort and being pro-environmentally inclined influence the individual’s choice of travel mode. Koppelman and Lyon (1981) analyzed the choice of travel mode for trips to work or school in two American cities, through the study of attitudinal and behavioural responses. The paper found that feeling measures (affect, personal and social normative beliefs toward bus, car or walk) were significant in the analysis of preference and choice. Psychological stress was not significant, and general public transport service was the most important aspect for both cities. Kitamura, Mokhtarian et al. (1997b) examined the impact of land use and attitudinal orientations on travel behaviour for five diverse San Francisco Bay Area neighbourhoods. Factor analysis was performed on 39 attitude statements relating to urban life and eight factors were extracted: pro-environment, protransit, suburbanite, automotive mobility, time pressure, urban villager, TCM (transportation control measures), and workaholic. The authors assessed the relative contributions of the socio-economic, neighbourhood, and attitudinal variable scores and found that the attitudinal variables explained the highest proportion of the variation in the data. Attitude factors were strongly associated with the travel demand measures and contribute significantly to the models’ explanatory power in addition to the demographic, socio-economic and neighbourhood characteristics variables. Factors representing individuals’ attitudes toward the environment, public transit, automotive mobility, urban forms, and time were strongly associated with the number of trips by travel mode and modal split. The theory of planned behaviour was applied to investigate the effects of an intervention (introduction of a prepaid bus ticket) on increased bus use among college students using a longitudinal study by Bamberg, Ajzen et al. (2003a). The authors found that attitude, subjective norms, and perceptions of.

(46) Literature Review and Conceptual Foundation. 24. behavioural control influence students’ intentions to take the bus to college, and these intentions in turn allowed accurate prediction of behaviour. This intervention proved to be effective, since the proportion of students who rode the bus to campus more than doubled. Also, past behaviour was found to improve prediction of travel mode prior to the intervention, but lost its predictive ability for behaviour following the intervention. Furthermore, the authors investigated if the effect of past on later behaviour is due to habit formation, and used an independent measure of habit which failed to mediate the effects of past on later behaviour. The authors concluded that human social behaviour is largely a reasoned decision, although it may well contain automatic elements. Hence, past behaviour is not always a good predictor of future behaviour. However, if circumstances remain relatively stable past behaviour makes a significant contribution to the prediction of later action. Thøgersen (2006) argues that in order to properly understand travel mode choices, their repetitive nature should be considered as well as their dependence on both motivational factors and personal and external constraints. This author analyzed the everyday use of public transport based on a panel survey with a random sample of about 1300 Danish residents interviewed up to three times in the period 1998-2000. The analysis showed that use of public transport is influenced by attitudes towards doing so, the perceived ability of public transport to cover one’s transport needs, and car ownership. However, these variables’ influence is greatly mitigated when past behaviour is accounted for. The panel analysis revealed a very high temporal stability for public transport behaviour, and that past behaviour is a stronger predictor of current behaviour than any of the previously mentioned antecedents. For individuals without a car, behaviour changes appear more consistent with current attitudes and perception than for car owners. Furthermore, the temporal stability of car owners’ travel behaviour is higher than for non-owners. Research. shows. that. pro-environmental. attitudes. may. influence. behavioural intention to reduce car use. Nowadays, the increase in information about the impact of global warming is making the general public more aware of the environment. However, an individual’s behaviour is not always in conformance with her or his favourable attitudes towards the environment..