T O W A R D S AN E R R O R - B A S E D A N A L Y S I S OF A S S E R T I V E , N O N - A S S E R T I V E A N D N E G A T I V E F O R M S IN E N G L I S H T e s e s u b m e t i d a a U n i v e r s i d a d e F e d e r a l de S a n t a C a t a r i n a para a o b t e n ç ã o do g r a u de M E S T E E E M L E T R A S . R i t a de C a s s i a M o u v a D u a r t e d o s S a n t o s J a n e i r o - 1982
M E S T R E E M L E T R A S
E s p e c i a l i d a d e L í n g u a I n g l e s a e L i t e r a t u r a C o r r e s p o n d e n t e e a p r o v a d a em sua f o r m a final pelo P r o g r a m a de Põs- G r a d u a ç ã o . S H i La r i o B o h ji, D r . C o o r d e n a d o r do C u r s o A p r e s e n t a d a p e r a n t e a C o m i s s ã o E x a m i n a d o r a c o m p o s t a dos p r o f e s s o r e s .
a El i e z e r ,
A m e u o r i e n t a d o r , P r o f e s s o r M a r t i n B y g a t e, p or sua v a l i o sa o r i e n t a ç ã o . Ã U n i v e r s i d a d e F e d e r a l de S a n t a C a t a r i n a , e s p e c i a l m e n t e ao C u r s o d e M e s t r a d o em L e t r a s . Ao P r o f e s s o r D a v i d B a r l o w, p e l o e s t i m u l o e c o l a b o r a ç ã o . R P r o f e s s o r a Mari-a d a s V i t ó r i a s de L i m a R o o h a, p e l o i n c e n t i v o . fi P r o f e s s o r a E s t h e r D i n i z , por sua a j u d a na p r o g r a m a ç ã o dos d a d o s . Ao D e p a r t a m e n t o de L e t r a s E s t r a n g e i r a s M o d e r n a s da U n i v e r s i d a d e F e d e r a l da P a r a í b a . A t o d o s q ue c o n t r i b u í r a m p ar a a r e a l i z a ç ã o d e s t e t r a b a lho.
Page A B S T R A C T ... R E S U M O ... I N T R O D U C T I O N ... 1 -f I - C h a p t e r ONE 1. C O N S I D E R A T I O N S ON S E C O N D / F O R E IGN L A N G U A G E L E A R N I N G ... 4 1.1. The L e a r n e r ' s L a n g u a g e ... 11 1.2. The I m p o r t a n c e of E r r o r s ... 14 II - C h a p t e r TWO 2. C H A R A C T E R I S T I C S OF N O N - AS S ERTI V E , A S S E R T I V E AND N E G A T I V E F O R M S ... 23 2.1. A s s e r t i v e and N o n - A s s e r t i v e s e n t e n c e s . . 23 2.2. A s s e r t i v e , N o n - A s s e r t i v e and N e g a t i v e F o r m s ... 25 2.3. ANY v e r s u s S O M E ... 27 2.3.1. P o s i t i v e and N e g a t i v e O r i e n t a t i o n 31 2.3.2. ANY in A f f i r m a t i o n s ... 33 2. 3. 3 . SO M E a nd ANY in N e g a t i o n s and Q u e s t i o n s ... ... 35 2 . 3. 4 . I n h e r e n t n e g a t i v e s and ANY. . . . 38
T r a n s f e r ...45 2 .4 . 2 . M e a n i n g d i f f e r e n c e s of N O T . . . A N Y and NO 47 111 - C h a p t e r T H R E E 3. A N A L Y S I S OF S T U D E N T RES P O N S E S IN THE C O M P R E H E N S I ON A N D USE OF S O M E / A N Y / N O F O R M S AN D T H E I R C O M P O U N D S 54 3.1. E x p e r i m e n t a l p r o c e d u r e s . . . ... 54 3 .1 . 1 . The I n f o r m a n t s ... . . . 55 3 .1 . 2 . The T e s t ... 55 3.2. A n a l y s i s of S t u d e n t E r r o r s ... 57 3 . 2. 1 . R e s u l t s ... 60 3 . 2. 2 . A n a l y s i s of S t u d e n t E r r o r s for Each R u l e ... 63 C O N C L U S I O N ...88 B I B L I O G R A P H Y ... 93 A P P E N D I X I ...97 A P P E N D I X II ... 100
T h i s s t u d y c o n s i d e r s so me t h e o r e t i c a l a s p e c t s i n v o l v e d in the use of A s s e r t i v e , N o n - A s s e r t i v e and N e g a t i v e f o r m s of E n g l i s h . It a n a l y s e s m a i n c u r r e n t s of t h o u g h t c e n t e r i n g a r o u n d the t h e o r i e s of E r r o r A n a l y s i s and C o n t r a s t i v e A n a l y s i s . A p r a t i c a i a i m of this w o r k , h o w e v e r has b e en to i d e n t i f y s t r a t e g i e s t ha t B r a z i l i a n s t u d e n t s u t i l i z e to m a s t e r t h e s e E n g l i s h f o r m s . To a c h i e v e this, p r a t i c a i t e s t s w e r e a p p l i e d to a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e n u m b e r of s t u d e n t i n f o r m a n t s at P a r a T b a F e d e r a l U n i v e r s i t y w h o s t u d y E n g l i s h for p r o f e s s i o n a l p u r p o s e s . T h e c o m p u t e r i z e d a n a l y s i s of the t e s t r e s u l t s c o m e out as a c o n t r i b u i t i o n to the t e a c h i n g of E n g l i s h as a f o r e i g n 1 a n g u a g e in B r a z i 1.
O p r e s e n t e e s t u d o a b o r d a a l g u n s a s p e c t o s t e ó r i c o s do uso das f o r m a s " A s s e r t i v e " , " N o n - A s s e r t i v e " e " N e g a t i v e "
da l í n g u a I n g l e s a , ao m e s m o t e m p o que a n a l i s a as p rinci pais c o r r e n t e s de p e n s a m e n t o que r e g e m as t e o r i a s da Anãlij se de E r r o s e A n á l i s e C o n t r a s t i v a . Um o b j e t i v o p r á t i c o d e s t e t r a b a l h o , no e n t a n t o , i_ d e n t i f i c a as e s t r a t é g i a s que e s t u d a n t e s b r a s i l e i r o s u t i l i z am na a q u i s i ç ã o d e s t a s f o r m a s i n g l e s a s . Para isto, t e s tes f o r a m a p l i c a d o s a um n ú m e r o r e p r e s e n t a t i v o de a l u n o s da U n i v e r s i d a d e F e d e r a l da P a r a T b a , que e s t u d a m o i d i o m a i n g l ê s p a r a fins p r o f i s s i o n a i s . A a n a l i s e f e i t a a p a r t i r dos r e s u l t a d o s estatísti_ cos dos t e s t e s , d a d o s po r c o m p u t a d o r , é c o n s i d e r a d a uma c o n t r i b u i ç ã o p a ra o e n s i n o da l í n g u a I n g l e s a c om o l í n g u a e s t r a n g e i r a no B r a s i l .
The c a u s e of l e a r n i n g d i f f i c u l t i e s has a l w a y s been a s o u r c e of w o r r y to l i n g u i s t s , p s y c h o l i n g u i s t s and t e a c h e r s . D i s c o v e r i n g the s o u r c e of s u c h p r o b l e m s - has been a f a c t o r of m a j o r i m p o r t a n c e in the s t u d y of the a c q u i s i t i o n of a f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e e s p e c i a l l y in r e l a t i o n to l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g . H a v i n g this in m i n d , we t h o u g h t t ha t the m a i n p u r p o s e of o u r s t u d y s h o u l d f o c u s on the r e a s o n s w h y B r a z i l i a n s t u d e n t s f r o m U n i v e r s i d a d e F e d e r a l da P a r a i b a (m a j o r i n g in E n g l i s h ) , e r r in t h e i r p r o d u c t i o n of N o n - A s s e r t i v e , A s s e r t i ve and N egati ve F o r m s . The s o u r c e of t h e s e e r r o r s m a y be r e v e a l e d t h r o u g h E r r o r A n a l y s i s and w h e n e v e r i n t e r f e r e n c e f r o m P o r t u g u e s e is s u s p e c t e d , C o n s t r a s t i v e A n a l y s i s will be a l so used. Th e s e l i n g u i s t i c a p p r o a c h e s will be u t i l i s e d in an a t t e m p t to e x p l a i n the " u n a c c e p t a b l e " s e n t e n c e s p r o d u c e d by o u r s t u d e n t s w h e n u s i n g s u c h f o rms. T h r o u g h the a n a l y s i s of the e r r o r s of s t u d e n t s we m a y be a b l e to d e t e c t s o me of the c a u s e s r e s p o n s i b l e f or the
o c c u r r e n c e of s uc h e r r o r s as we k n o w t h a t the e r r o r s are "an i n d i c a t i o n of the d i f f i c u l t i e s " s t u d e n t s face w h e n l e a r n i n g a f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e .
O u r a n a l y s i s will be b a s e d on the a s s u m p t i o n that the s t r u c t u r e of E n g l i s h in r e l a t i o n to N o n - A s s e r t i ve f o r m s as
t h a t d i f f e r s in m a n y r e s p e c t s f r o m P o r t u g u e s e . A f t e r this d i s c u s s i o n we h op e to i d e n t i f y a n u m b e r of s t r a t e g i e s w h i c h m a y be h e l p f u l to the s t u d e n t in l e a r n i n g t h e s e s p e c i f i c i tems and a l s o to m o d i f y or s u g g e s t t e c h n i q u e s in the m e t h o d o l o g i c a l f i e l d that s e r v e t o w a r d s p r o d u c i n g a m o r e r e a l i s t i c a p p r o a c h to the t e a c h i n g of E n g l i s h by p r o v i d i n g i m p r o v e d c o m m u n i c a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s in the c l a s s r o o m .
The f i r s t c h a p t e r of this d i s s e r t a t i o n will be d e v o t e d to a s u m m a r y of the m a i n c u r r e n t s of t h o u g h t c e n t e r i n g a r o u n d the t h e o r i e s of E r r o r A n a l y s i s and C o n t r a s ti ve A n a l y s i s , the aim b e i n g to m a k e use of the t h e o r i e s for a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the m a t e r i a l s t u d i e d .
The s e c o n d c h a p t e r will p r e s e n t the t h e o r e t i c a l f o u n d a t i o n s for the use of N o n - A s s e r t i v e , A s s e r t i v e and Negati ve f o r m s b a s e d on the g r a m m a t i c a l p o i n t s r a i s e d by a u t h o r s s uc h as Q u i r k , G r e e n b a u m , L e e c h , S v a r t v i k , Kl i ma , B o l i n g e r and o t h e r s , the o b j e c t b e i n g to p r o v i d e an o v e r a l l v i e w of the s y n t a c t i c and s e m a n t i c uses of such forms.
In the t h i r d c h a p t e r , we will p r e s e n t the e x p e r i m e n t a l p r o c e d u r e s we h a v e used. T e s t s will be a p p l i e d to s t u d e n t s w h o are c u r r e n t l y m a j o r i n g in E n g l i s h at P a r a i b a F e d er a l
U n i v e r s i t y w h o are in the 5th, 6th and 7th s t a g e s of the c o u r s e .
In o r d e r to p r o v i d e a m e a n s to fo c u s on the a b i l i t y of s t u d e n t i n f o r m a n t s to p r o d u c e N o n - A s s e r t i v e , A s s e r t i v e and N e g a t i v e fo r m s in E n g l i s h , the t e s ts will be d r a w n up c e n t e r i n g
on s p e c i f i c p o i n t s r e l a t e d to t h e s e f o r m s . T h e s e t e s t s will be b a s e d on r u l es e s t a b l i s h e d by the a u t h o r s a l r e a d y p r e s e n t e d in c h a p t e r two w h o m , we fe e l , are r e c o g n i z e d as l e a d i n g a u t h o r i t i e s in the f i e l d of E n g l i s h g r a m m a r . We will a l s o a t t e m p t to a n a l y s e the r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d f r o m o u r t e s t s a n d a ls o the e r r o r s m a d e by the s t u d e n t s in r e l a t i o n to the t a r g e t r u l e s a l r e a d y p r e s e n t e d and the
l i n g u i s t i c t h e o r y r e s p o n s i b l e f or the e x p l a n a t i o n of the c a u s e s of t h e s e e r r o r s .
F i n a l l y c o n c l u s i o n s will be a t t e m p t e d f o l l o w i n g the a p p l i c a t i o n of the t h e o r y of E r r o r A n a l y s i s w h i c h m a y or m a y n ot c o n f i r m o u r h y p o t h e s e s .
C O N S I D E R A T I O N S ON S E C O N D / F O R E I G N L A N G U A G E L E A R N I N G
T h e r e h a v e b e e n m a n y s t u d i e s c o n c e r n i n g s e c o n d and f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e a c q u i s i t i o n . M a n y r e s e a r c h e s p r o p o s e t ha t the l e a r n e r c r e a t e s for h i m s e l f a c e r t a i n n u m b e r of h y p o t h e s e s a b o u t the g r a m m a r of the t a r g e t l a n g u a g e w h i c h are t e s t e d
w h e n e v e r he t r i e s to s h o w his '‘c o m p e t e n c e " in the l a n g u a g e , a c q u i r e d . A c c o r d i n g to S e l i n k e r ( 1 9 7 4 : 3 1 ) the l e a r n e r is also a bl e to d i s c o v e r new s t r a t e g i e s for his c o m m u n i c a t i o n in the t a r g e t l a n g u a g e w h e n t h o s e h y p o t h e s e s do not a p p l y and s uc h a p r o c e s s o p e r a t e s e i t h e r c o n s c i o u s l y or u n c o n s c i o u s l y r e v e a l i n g his l a n g u a g e s y s t e m .
Th is idea has b e e n s h a r e d by l i n g u i s t s w h o h a v e been a t t r a c t e d to the p r o b l e m of s e c o n d and f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e l e a r n i n g . F o r s o m e ti m e , s t u d i e s h a v e been m a d e a b o u t the p r o c e s s of a c q u i r i n g a "new" l a n g u a g e and m a n y c o n c l u s i o n s h a v e b e e n r e a c h e d w i t h the h e l p of p s y c h o l o g i c a l t h e o r i e s in an a t t e m p t to e x p l a i n the s t r a t e g i e s e m p l o y e d by the l e a r n e r w h o a c q u i r e s a f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e . T r a d i t i o n a l l y , C o n t r a s t i v e A n a l y s i s was a p p l i e d to l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g and a c q u i s i t i o n as a w a y to p r e d i c t the l e a r n e r ' s d i f f i c u l t i e s . L a d o ( 1 9 5 8 : 1 - 8 ) , the g r e a t d e f e n d e r of C o n t r a s t i v e A n a l y s i s , a r g u e s that a c o m p a r i s o n b e t w e e n n a t i v e a nd f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e is n e c e s s a r y in o r d e r to f in d o u t
c o m p a r i s o n w o u l d p r e d i c t the l e a r n e r ' s d i f f i c u l t i e s in the f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e b e i n g a c q u i r e d . He a l s o b e l i e v e s t h a t " those e l e m e n t s t h a t are s i m i l a r to his (the l e a r n e r ' s ) n a t i v e
l a n g u a g e will be s i m p l e f o r him, and t h o s e e l e m e n t s t h a t are d i f f e r e n t will be di f f i cul t . In this w a y , C o n t r a s t i v e A n a l y s i s a c c o u n t s f o r the p r e d i c t i o n and d e s c r i p t i o n of the l e a r n e r ' s d i f f i c u l t i e s .
J o h a n s s o n ( 1 9 7 5 : 3 2 2 - 3 2 3 ) p o i n t s o u t t h a t C o n t r a s t i v e A n a l y s i s c an o n l y p r e d i c t s o me of the l e a r n i n g p r o b l e m s and s u c h p r e d i c t i o n s are o f t e n a m b i g u o u s , d e p e n d i n g on the
l i n g u i s t i c m a n n e r u s e d to d e s c r i b e the n a t i v e and f o r e i g n
l a n g u a g e s . C o n t r a r y to the idea t h a t not all d i f f i c u l t i e s the l e a r n e r m a y h a v e r e s u l t f r o m i n f l u e n c e s of the m o t h e r t o n g u e , J o h a n s s o n a t t r i b u t e s m a n y l e a r n e r ' s e r r o r s to " c o m p l e x i t i e s w i t h i n the f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e . " He a l s o a g r e e s t h a t the
s t r a t e g i e s f o r l e a r n i n g a f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e m a y be i n d e p e n d e n t of the s t r a t e g i e s u s e d by the l e a r n e r in the a c q u i s i t i o n of his n a t i v e l a n g u a g e . C o n t r o v e r s i e s a b o u t the e f f i c a c y of C o n t r a s t i v e A n a l y s i s h a v e b ee n r a i s e d . T r a n - T h i - C h a u ( 1 9 7 5 : 1 2 4 ) o b s e r v e s t h a t C o n t r a s t i v e A n a l y s i s i g n o r e s m a n y of th e f a c t o r s w h i c h a f f e c t the l e a r n e r ' s p e r f o r m a n c e su c h as his i n d i v i d u a l s t r a t e g i e s and p r o c e d u r e s . J o h a n s s o n ( o p . c i t . ) g o e s on to say that e r r o r s c a u s e d by su c h f a c t o r s are n o t p r e d i c t e d by C o n t r a s t i v e A n a l y s i s a l o n e s i n c e such t h e o r y c a n n o t p r e d i c t e r r o r s c a u s e d by i n t e r f e r e n c e w i t h i n the t a r g e t l a n g u a g e (i.e. ^ R o b e r t L a d o , L i n g u i s t i c A c r o s s C u l t u r e s , p. 2.
i n t r a l i n g u a l i n t e r f e r e n c e ) .
It m a y s e e m e v i d e n t t h a t C o n t r a s t i v e A n a l y s i s , t r a d i t i o n a l l y u s e d , does not m a k e use of p s y c h o l o g i c a l c o n c e p t s in the e x p l a n a t i o n of the l e a r n e r ' s d i f f i c u l t i e s .
We p e r c e i v e t h at t h e r e h a v e b e e n m a n y d i v e r g e n c e s a m o n g the l i n g u i s t s c o n c e r n i n g the a c q u i s i t i o n of the "new l a n g u a g e " a nd t h a t t h e i r o b j e c t i v e of s t u d y has c h a n g e d . R e s e a r c h in this a r e a has r e s u l t e d in g r e a t e r e m p h a s i s b e i n g p l a c e d on the a p p l i c a t i o n of the t h e o r y of E r r o r A n a l y s i s to t h e s t u d y of f o r e i g n or s e c o n d l a n g u a g e a c q u i s i t i o n . In o t h e r w o r d s , no l o n g e r do l i n g u i s t s u n i v e r s a l l y a g r e e t h a t the C o n t r a s t i v e A n a l y s i s of two or m o r e l a n g u a g e s w o u l d n e c e s s a r i l y i d e n t i f y the m a j o r a r e a s of d i f f i c u l t y for
s t u d e n t l e a r n e r s , but m a n y l i n g u i s t s n o w feel t h a t the
a n a l y s i s of s t u d e n t s ' e r r o r s w o u l d p r o v i d e a m e a n s of g a i n i n g a m o r e i n s i g h t f u l u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the n a t u r e and c a u s e of s t u d e n t e r r o r s as n o t all m a j o r a r e a s of d i f f i c u l t y are due to i n t e r l i n g u a l i n t e r f e r e n c e . C o r d e r ( 1 9 7 5 : 4 1 0 ) c o n s i d e r s l a n g u a g e l e a r n i n g as " f u n d a m e n t a l l y a f o r m of c o g n i t i v e l e a r n i n g . " T h a t is, the l e a r n e r us e s his c o g n i t i v e c a p a c i t i e s in the p r o c e s s of l e a r n i n g a l a n g u a g e as he does in o t h e r c o g n i t i v e l e a r n i n g . He a l s o b e l i e v e s t h a t l a n g u a g e is a " c r e a t i v e a c t i v i t y " for the l e a r n e r c r e a t e s a l a n g u a g e s y s t e m for h i m s e l f s h a r i n g the p r o p e r t i e s of the t a r g e t l a n g u a g e and s uc h p r o c e s s is
c o n t i n u o u s t h r o u g h the w h o l e p r o c e s s of l e a r n i n g .
e r r o r s as b e i n g e v i d e n c e of the l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s w h i c h ma y be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h d i f f e r e n c e s in m a t u r a t i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t , m o t i v a t i o n and l e a r n i n g s i t u a t i o n s , and t ha t s u c h e r r o r s s h o u l d no t be e x p l a i n e d t h r o u g h c o m p a r i s o n w i t h the n a t i v e l a n g u a g e . In t h is w a y , a n a l y s i s of l e a r n e r s ' e r r o r s m a y re ve a l an i n d i c a t i o n of his c o m p e t e n c e in the l a n g u a g e b e i n g a c q u i r e d , his m a j o r a r e a s of d i f f i c u l t y and p e r h a p s s o m e of the p s y c h o l o g i c a l reasons f o r su c h d i f f i c u l t i e s . Th is v i e w is s h a r e d by o t h e r l i n g u i s t s and it s u p p o r t s the t h e o r y o f E r r o r A n a l y s i s w h i c h "aims at 2 s y s t e m a t i c a l l y d e s c r i b i n g a nd e x p l a i n i n g s u c h e r r o r s . " T h r o u g h E r r o r A n a l y s i s , says J o h a n s s o n ( 1 9 7 5 : 2 4 8 ) , c o n s i d e r a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n ma y be o b t a i n e d c o n c e r n i n g the l e a r n e r ' s d i f f i c u l t i e s at v a r i o u s s t a g e s of l e a r n i n g s i n c e it is p o s s i b l e to i d e n t i f y t h o s e a re a s in w h i c h the t a r g e t l a n g u a g e r u l e s h a v e or h a v e not b e e n i n t e r n a l i z e d . C o r d e r ' s (1975) v i e w is that "the s t r u c t u r e of e v e r y l a n g u a g e is sui g e n e r i s and t h e r e f o r e is to be d e s c r i b e d in 3
its own t e r m s . " If this is in f a c t tr u e , a c o m p a r i s o n of l a n g u a g e s w o u l d be of l i m i t e d va l u e . This o p i n i o n w o u l d a p p e a r to contrast with t h at of C h o m s k y a n d o t h e r p o s t s t r u c t u r a l i s t s w h o d e v e l o p e d the idea of s e e k i n g u n i v e r s a l f e a t u r e s in h u m a n l a n g u a g e a nd a l s o e x p l a i n i n g the "1e a r n i n g p r o c e s s ( i n c l u d i n g f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e l e a r n i n g ) in p s y c h o l o g i c a l 2
S t i g J o h a n s s o n , "The Uses of E r r o r A n a l y s i s " (I),
E n g l i s h L a n g u a g e T e a c h i n g J o u r n a l , p. 247. 3
S . P . C o r d e r , " E r r o r A n a l y s i s , I n t e r l a n g u a g e a n d S e c o n d L a n g u a g e A c q u i s i t i o n , " L a n g u a g e T e a c h i n g o f L i n g u i s t i c s , p . 202.
t e r m s c l o s e l y r e l a t e d to the p r o p e r t i e s of the h u m a n m i n d. F r o m t h e s e c o n c l u s i o n s , C o r d e r sees " l a n g u a g e a c q u i s i t i o n as a p r o b l e m of c o g n i t i v e l e a r n i n g as the p o s s e s s ion of k n o w l e d g e of a c e r t a i n k i n d ( c o m p e t e n c e ) r a t h e r th an as a s e t of d i s p o s i t i o n s to r e s p o n d in a c e r t a i n w a y to 4 e x t e r n a l s t i m u l i . " It is a v i e w that has b e e n a p p l i e d by s o m e l i n g u i s t s to s e c o n d and f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e a c q u i s i t i o n . No l o n g e r is B e h a v i o u r i s m the b a si s f or all l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g m a t e r i a l s and t e c h n i q u e s . M o r e and m o r e e m p h a s i s in b e i n g p l a c e d on c o g n i t i v e or m e n t a l i s t t e c h n i q u e s and s t r a t e g i e s of 1earn i n g .
The use of E r r o r A n a l y s i s is m a i n l y b a s e d u po n the a s s u m p t i o n t h a t e r r o r s o c c u r in r e l a t i o n to the d e g r e e of l e a r n i n g d i f f i c u l t y and t h e y m a y not be l i n k e d to d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n the n a t i v e and the f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e s .
The c o n s i d e r a t i o n of such v i e w s as t h e s e has led us to c o n c l u d e th a t b o t h C o n t r a s t i v e and E r r o r A n a l y s e s h a v e t h e i r own l i n g u i s t i c v a l u e . E r r o r A n a l y s i s is b r o a d e r in its t r e a t m e n t of the l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s . As C o r d e r (1975) e m p h a s i z e s "the l e a r n e r is a n a t i v e s p e a k e r of his o w n pe c ul ia r l a n g u a g e c o n s t r u c t i n g for h i m s e l f a g r a m m a r of the t a r g e t 5 l a n g u a g e on the b a s i s of the l a n g u a g e he is e x p o s e d t o . " An i n v e s t i g a t i o n of f a c t o r s i n d i c a t i n g the l e a r n e r ' s " c o m p e t e n c e " 4 S . P . C o r d e r , " E r r o r A n a l y s i s , I n t e r l a n g u a g e a n d S e c o n d L a n g u a g e A c q u i s i t i o n , " L a n g u a g e T e a c h i n g o f L i n g u i s t i c s 3 p. 203. ^ ib id, p. 2 0 2.
a nd " p e r f o r m a n c e " s e r v e to p r o v i d e i n s i g h t f u l a n a l y s i s of his l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s . J o h a n s s o n ( 1975) p r e s e n t s the "weak v e r s i o n " of C o n t r a s t i v e A n a l y s i s "as p a r t of the e x p l a n a t o r y s t a g e in E r r o r A n a l y s i s " w h i c h m a y be u s e d to " e x p l a i n c e r t a i n d i f f i c u l t i e s r a t h e r th a n to p r e d i c t t h e m . " E x p l a n a t o r y h y p o t h e s e s m a y thus be f o r m u l a t e d but l i t t l e v a l u e is p l a c e d on the a b i l i t y of C o n t r a s t i v e A n a l y s i s to p r e d i c t e r r o r s . We h a v e o b s e r v e d t h a t l i n g u i s t s s o m e t i m e s p r e s e n t E r r o r A n a l y s i s as an " a l t e r n a t i v e " to C o n t r a s t i v e A n a l y s i s . It is i m p o r t a n t to n o t e , h o w e v e r , t ha t t h e s e i d e as v i e w l a n g u a g e l e a r n i n g f r o m d i f f e r e n t a s p e c t s w h i c h m a y or m a y not be m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e . C o n t r a s t i v e A n a l y s i s is b a s e d on the v i e w t h a t s t u d e n t s ' e r r o r s are c a u s e d by i n t e r f e r e n c e w i t h the m o t h e r t o n g u e (the s t r o n g v e r s i o n ) . E r r o r A n a l y s i s , on the o t h e r s i d e , sees e r r o r s as b e i n g the p r o d u c t of s t u d e n t s ' h y p o t h e s e s in an a t t e m p t to use the l a n g u a g e he is t r y i n g to
l e a r n .
B o t h c o n c e p t s h a v e an important rol e in o ur s t u d y . The l a n g u a g e of the l e a r n e r or as S e l i n k e r l abel s i t "i nterl anguage" will be o u r p r i m a r y i n t e r e s t in this d i s s e r t a t i o n t h r o u g h w h i c h we will a t t e m p t to i d e n t i f y the s o u r c e s of s t u d e n t s ' e r r o r s . T h is is n o t to i m p l y t h a t we shall b a s e o u r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o l e l y on the c o n c l u s i o n s of the p r o p o n e n t s of E r r o r A n a l y s i s . We m a i n t a i n the v i e w t h a t C o n t r a s t i v e g S t i g J o h a n s s o n , "Uses of E r r o r A n a l y s i s and C o n t r a s t i v e A n a l y s i s ( I I ) , " E n g l i s h L a n g u a g e T e a c h i n g J o u r n a l, p. 333.
A n a l y s i s can a l s o be r e v e a l i n g as it p r o v i d e s a b a s i s for i d e n t i f y i n g e r r o r s f o r m u l a t e d f r o m the s t u d e n t s ' f i r s t l a n g u a g e , d e p e n d i n g u p o n the type of e r r o r u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n . T h u s , w e m a y i d e n t i f y by m e a n s of C o n t r a s t i v e A n a l y s i s c e r t a i n m i s u s e s of the l a n g u a g e s y s t e m b e i n g l e a r n t . We are a l s o i n t e r e s t e d in d i s c o v e r i n g the p o s s i b l e c a u s e s of o u r s t u d e n t s ' " d e v i a n t s t r u c t u r e s " p a r t i c u l a r l y in the use o f S 0 M E - A N Y - N 0 f o r m s by r e l a t i n g t h e m to p r o b l e m s of the t a r g e t l a n g u a g e i t s e l f ( E n g l i s h ) , or s e i n g t h e m as a r e s u l t of f i r s t l a n g u a g e i n t e r f e r e n c e - P o r t u g u e s e in o u r case. 1.1. The L e a r n e r ' s l a n g u a g e W h e n one is l e a r n i n g a f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e , the l a n g u a g e he s p e a k s or w r i t e s m a y c o n t a i n u t t e r a n c e s c o n s i d e r e d " u n a c c e p t a b l e " or " e r r o n e o u s " in r e l a t i o n to the r u l es of the t a r g e t l a n g u a g e . T h is a s p e c t of the l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s , s i m i l a r in m a n y r e s p e c t s to the l e a r n i n g of the n a t i v e l a n g u a g e , i n d i c a t e s t h a t e r r o r s a re n e c e s s a r y in the a c q u i s i t i o n of l a n g u a g e . T h r o u g h the l e a r n e r ' s e r r o r s we m a y be a b l e to g r a s p n o t o n l y t h a t c e r t a i n r u les of the t a r g e t l a n g u a g e h a v e n o t been m a s t e r e d b ut a l s o d i s c o v e r the s o u r c e of such
d e v i a n c e s w h e n e v e r p o s s i b l e .
m a t e r i a l s a nd in the p l a n n i n g of c o u r s e s as t h e y r eveal to the t e a c h e r p r i m e a r e a s of d i f f i c u l t y e n c o u n t e r e d by the l e a r n e r . It is n e c e s s a r y to p o i n t out, h o w e v e r , t h a t e r r o r s b e c o m e r e l e v a n t w h e n t h e y are s e e n as p a r t of the s y s t e m of the s e c o n d or f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e l e a r n e r . The l e a r n e r ' s c o m p e t e n c e in the f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e d e s e r v e s s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n b e c a u s e it m a y i n d i c a t e his s t r a t e g i e s f o r l e a r n i n g the l a n g u a g e s y s t e m . C o r d e r ( 1975) s u g g e s t s t h a t "the l e a r n e r c r e a t e s a l a n g u a g e s y s t e m for h i m s e l f t h a t can be u s e d f o r a r a n g e of c o m m u n i c a t i v e p u r p o s e s . " ^ He l a b e l s the l e a r n e r ' s l a n g u a g e " t r a n s i t i o n a l c o m p e t e n c e " w h i c h s t a n d s f or an i n t e r m e d i a t e s t a g e b e t w e e n two l a n g u a g e s ( m o t h e r and t a r g e t l a n g u a g e s ) , s i m i l a r in s o m e r e s p e c t s to S e l i n k e r ' s ( 1974) 11 i nterl a n g u a g e " — an i n t e r m e d i a t e s t a g e b e t w e e n the n a t i v e a n d t a r g e t l a n g u a g e s . H o w e v e r , a l t h o u g h v a r i o u s t e r ms h a v e b e e n u s e d to d e s c r i b e the l a n g u a g e of f o r e i g n l e a r n e r s it a p p e a r s t h at m o s t l i n g u i s t s w o u l d a g r e e t h a t the n ew l a n g u a g e s y s t e m is, as C o r d e r (1975) s u g g e s t s , "a s y s t e m in i t s e l f and t h a t it s h o u l d O be s t u d i e d in its o wn t e r m s . " T h e n e w l a n g u a g e e v o l v e s g r a d u a l l y , the l e a r n e r a s s i m i l a t i n g new s t r u c t u r e and
^ S . P . C o r d e r , "The L a n g u a g e of S e c o n d - L a n g u a g e L e a r n e r s , " T h e M o d e r n L a n g u a g e J o u r n a l , p. 410. O S . P . C o r d e r , " E r r o r A n a l y s i s , I n t e r l a n g u a g e and S e c o n d L a n g u a g e A c q u i s i t i o n , " L a n g u a g e T e a c h i n g o f L i n g u i s t i c s , p. 202.
v o c a b u l a r y and at the s a m e time m a k i n g his own h y p o t h e s e s for r u l es of the n e w s y s t e m . S u c h h y p o t h e s e s m a y be m o d i f i e d as the s t u d e n t l e a r n s by e x p l i c i t e x p l a n a t i o n f r o m his t e a c h e r or by his own r e a l i z a t i o n and c o r r e c t i o n of e r r o r s .
N e m s e r ( 1 9 7 4 : 5 5 ) d e f i n e s l e a r n e r ' s l a n g u a g e as an “a p p r o x i m a t i v e s y s t e m " w h i c h is s e en as a " l i n g u i s t i c d e v i a n t s y s t e m " e m p l o y e d by the l e a r n e r w h e n he uses the t a r g e t
l a n g u a g e . S u c h a s y s t e m a p p r o x i m a t e s the t a r g e t l a n g u a g e in p r o p o r t i o n to the l e a r n e r b e c o m i n g i n d e p e n d e n t of i n t e r f e r e n c e w i t h the m o t h e r t o n g u e . He also s u g g e s t s that the l e a r n e r \ s
l a n g u a g e has an o r g a n i z e d s t r u c t u r e b u t it is a l w a y s c h a n g i n g b e c a u s e n e w e l e m e n t s a p p e a r d u r i n g the p r o c e s s of l e a r n i n g . The l e a r n e r th e n t r i e s to a c h i e v e c o m p e t e n c e a l t h o u g h such c o m p e t e n c e is s a i d to be d i s t i n c t f r o m n a t i v e - t y p e c o m p e t e n c e (i.e. i n t e r l a n g u a g e ) . The l e a r n e r ' s l a n g u a g e ( i n t e r l a n g u a g e ) is s a i d to h a v e s i m i l a r i t i e s to bo t h the t a r g e t l a n g u a g e a nd his m o t h e r t o n g u e . His m a s t e r y of the f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e is in a c o n s t a n t s t a t e of e v o l u t i o n . This " d y n a m i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c " r e s u l t s in the f o r m a t i o n of h y p o t h e s e s a b o u t the t a r g e t l a n g u a g e w h i c h the l e a r n e r c r e a t i v e l y e m p l o y s w h e n he t r i e s to c o m m u n i c a t e . The n a t u r e of t h e s e h y p o t h e s e s , a c c o r d i n g to C o r d e r ( 1 9 7 5 : 4 1 0 - 4 1 3 ) , d e p e n d s on s e v e r a l f a c t o r s such as the l e a r n e r ' s " c o g n i t i v e s t r u c t u r e s " i n c l u d i n g t h o s e of the m o t h e r t o n g u e , his age, a nd the l i n g u i s t i c e n v i r o n m e n t he is e x p o s e d to, w h i c h c o u l d be n a t i v e - s p e a k e r - l i k e , a c l a s s r o o m s i t u a t i o n and
O
S . P . C o r d e r , " E r r o r A n a l y s i s , I n t e r l a n g u a g e and S e c o n d L a n g u a g e A c q u i s i t i o n , " L a n g u a g e T e a c h i n g o f L i n g u i s t i c s , p. 202.
so on. C o r d e r se e s the l i n g u i s t i c s e t t i n g as " c r u c i a l " in i n f l u e n c i n g the n a t u r e of the h y p o t h e s e s the l e a r n e r will f o r m u l a t e and use ..
S u c h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the " i n t e r l a n g u a g e s y s t e m " m u s t be " g o a l - o r i e n t e d ." The l e a r n e r s h o u l d be h e l p e d by the t e a c h e r s to c o r r e c t l y a p p l y s uc h h y p o t h e s e s r e l a t i n g to the t a r g e t l a n g u a g e c o r r e s p o n d i n g to the v a r i o u s s t a g e s he
p r o g r e s s e s t h r o u g h in the p r o c e s s of l e a r n i n g w i t h the aim of r e a c h i n g a level of m a s t e r y of the t a r g e t l a n g u a g e t h a t will s a t i s f y the l e a r n e r ' s r e q u i r e m e n t s .
1.2. T he i m p o r t a n c e of e r r o r s
H a v i n g b r i e f l y c o n s i d e r e d the n a t u r e of the l e a r n e r ' s l a n g u a g e , we shall now f o c u s o u r a t t e n t i o n on the i m p o r t a n c e o f e r r o r s in the l e a r n e r ' s a c q u i s i t i o n o f a f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e .
The d e f i n i t i o n and c a t e g o r i z a t i o n of e r r o r s h a v e long b e e n a s u b j e c t of d e b a t e . This task b e c o m e s d i f f i c u l t b e c a u s e it is not e a s y to d e t e r m i n e w h a t is a c c e p t a b l e or not by a n a t i v e s p e a k e r . T h e r e are n u m e r o u s i n s t a n c e s o f n a t i v e s p e a k e r s f a i l i n g to a g r e e as to w h e t h e r an u t t e r a n c e is a c c e p t a b l e or not. N e v e r t h e l e s s , L y o n s s t a t e s that: An a c c e p t a b l e u t t e r a n c e is o n e th a t has b e e n or m i g h t be p r o d u c e d by a n a t i v e s p e a k e r in s o m e a p p r o p r i a t e c o n t e x t and
The d e g r e e o f a c c e p t a b i l i t y is o f t e n h a r d to d e c i d e upon. It s e e m s to be s o m e t h i n g s u b j e c t i v e . C o r d e r ( 1 9 7 4 : 1 2 7 ) c l a s s i f i e s the l e a r n e r ' s u t t e r a n c e s as b e i n g " c o v e r t l y
e r r o n e o u s " t h a t is, " s u p e r f i c i a l l y w e l l - f o r m e d u t t e r a n c e s " but n o t e x p r e s s i n g the l e a r n e r s ' real i n t e n t i o n s and " o v e r t l y
e r r o n e o u s " w h i c h r e f e r s to " s u p e r f i c i a l l y d e v i a n t f o r m s " in t e r m s of the t a r g e t l a n g u a g e . He a l so c a l l s o u r a t t e n t i o n to the d i f f i c u l t y of i d e n t i f y i n g an e r r o r w h i c h s e e m s to d e p e n d 1 m a i n l y on o u r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the l e a r n e r ' s m e a n i n g . It is i m p o r t a n t to r e c o g n i z e t ha t the m e r e use of a c c e p t a b l e s e n t e n c e s d oe s not n e c e s s a r i l y i n d i c a t e the l e a r n e r ' s m a s t e r y of the l a n g u a g e s y s t e m b e c a u s e t he y m a y o n l y be a r e p e t i t i o n of w h a t the l e a r n e r h e a r s . This d oe s not
n e c e s s a r i l y i n d i c a t e w h a t rul es are e m p l o y e d by the l e a r n e r . S e e n in this w a y , C o r d e r ( 1 9 7 4 : 2 5 ) e m p h a s i z e s t h a t e r r o r s m a y r ev e al t h e s e r u l e s and s t r a t e g i e s u s e d by the l e a r n e r in his d i s c o v e r y of the "new" l a n g u a g e p r o v i d i n g e v i d e n c e of his l a n g u a g e s y s t e m at a . p a r t i c u l a r s t a g e of his d e v e l o p m e n t .
It has b e e n s u g g e s t e d t h a t e r r o r s m a d e by s e c o n d l a n g u a g e l e a r n e r s are s y s t e m a t i c and t h a t t he y m a y r eveal the s y s t e m of the f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e b e i n g a c q u i r e d . A d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n " e r r o r s " and " m i s t a k e s " is then n e c e s s a r y . S o m e e r r o r s are e r r o r s of c o m p e t e n c e , i.e. w h i l e " n o n - c o m p e t e n c e 9 In T r a n - T h i - C h a n , " E r r o r A n a l y s i s , C o n t r a s t i v e A n a l y s i s a n d S t u d e n t s ' P e r c e p t i o n ; A S t u d y of D i f f i c u l t y in S e c o n d -L a n g u a g e -L e a r n i n g , " I R A H , p. 122.
e r r o r s " are c o n s i d e r e d to be " m i s t a k e s " (due to m e m o r y l a p s e s a nd are s e e n as ' l ap s es of p e r f o r m a n c e ' ) . M i s t a k e s are then u n s y s t e m a t i c w h i l e e r r o r s of c o m p e t e n c e are s y s t e m a t i c o nc e t h e y r ev e al the l e a r n e r ' s k n o w l e d g e of the t a r g e t l a n g u a g e . C o n s e q u e n t l y , s y s t e m a t i c e r r o r s reveal the l e a r n e r ' s
" t r a n s i t i o n a l c o m p e t e n c e . "
It has b e e n p o i n t e d out, h o w e v e r , t h a t the p r o b l e m does n o t c o n s i s t s i m p l y of c l a s s i f y i n g the l e a r n e r ' s e r r o r s b u t r a t h e r of d i s t i n g u i s h i n g b e t w e e n a m i s t a k e and an e r r o r . t F r o m the t e a c h i n g p o i n t of v i e w e r r o r s m a y s h o w the l e a r n e r ' s p r o g r e s s t o w a r d s the l a n g u a g e b e i n g a c q u i r e d , w h a t e l s e n e e d s to be a c q u i r e d and w h a t s t r a t e g i e s he is e m p l o y i n g
( t h o u g h it has b e e n s a i d by D u l a y and B u r t ( 1 9 7 5 : 2 5 ) such s t r a t e g i e s are in p r i n c i p l e the s a m e as t h o s e of m o t h e r t o n g u e ) . It is w o r t h i l l u s t r a t i n g s o me of the c u r r e n t s w h i c h a t t e m p t to c l a s s i f y the l e a r n e r ' s e r r o r s w h i l e d i s c o v e r i n g t h e i r p o s s i b l e c a u s e s . S o m e l i n g u i s t s p l a c e p r i m e i m p o r t a n c e on m o t h e r t o n g u e i n t e r f e r e n c e f a v o u r i n g of c o u r s e the C o n t r a s t i v e A n a l y s i s p r o p o s a l s . S h e e n ( 1 9 8 0 : 1 0 6 ) , s t u d y i n g F r e n c h - C a n a d i a n s t u d e n t s at U n i v e r s i t y l e v e l , c o n c l u d e d t h a t 6 0% of t h e i r e r r o r s w e r e due to i n t e r f e r e n c e f r o m m o t h e r t o n g u e .
One e x a m p l e of s u c h e r r o r s is the u t t e r a n c e "I h a v e 15 y e a r s " w h i c h is c l e a r l y c l a s s i f i e d as b e i n g due to F r e n c h
i n t e r f e r e n c e "J'ai 15 a n s . " In ou r own t e a c h i n g e x p e r i e n c e t h e s e s a m e e r r o r s are f r e q u e n t . B r a z i l i a n s t u d e n t s l e a r n i n g
E n g l i s h use the s a m e E n g l i s h u t t e r a n c e c o r r e s p o n d i n g to "Eu t e n h o 15 an o s . "
C o r n u ^ m a y be too d o g m a t i c w h e n he says t h a t "a s p e a k e r o f a s e c o n d l a n g u a g e n e v e r e s c a p e s the i n f l u e n c e of his m o t h e r t o n g u e . " C o n t r a r y to this v i e w , s t u d i e s m a d e by D u l a y a nd B u r t r ev e al t h a t the s a m e t yp e s of e r r o r s b e i n g m a d e by b o t h f i r s t and s e c o n d or f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e 1 e a r n e r s — the " d e v e l o p m e n t a l s t r u c t u r e s of the f i r s t l a n g u a g e l e a r n e r s are s i m i l a r to t h o s e of s e c o n d l a n g u a g e l ea r ne r s. " This do e s not s e e m to s u p p o r t the b a s i c s t a t e m e n t s w h i c h r e f e r to e r r o r s 1 b e i n g due to i n t e r f e r e n c e of the f i r s t l a n g u a g e ( i n t e r l i n g u a l i n t e r f e r e n c e ) c a u s e d by d i f f e r e n c e s e x i s t i n g b e t w e e n f i r s t and s e c o n d l a n g u a g e s . S t u d y i n g S p a n i s h c h i l d r e n l e a r n i n g E n g l i s h , D u l a y and B u r t ( o p . c i t . ) f o u n d t ha t the t y p e of i n t e r f e r e n c e c a u s e d by h a b i t s or t r a n s f e r f r o m the n a t i v e l a n g u a g e into the t a r g e t l a n g u a g e does n o t a p p e a r in t h e s e c h i l d r e n ' s a c q u i s i t i o n of E n g l i s h . T h e s e l i n g u i s t s s e e m to a c c e p t t h a t the p r o c e s s of t r a n s f e r e n c o u n t e r e d does not n e c e s s a r i l y i m p l y th a t the
' s p e e c h p r o d u c t ' is i d e n t i c a l f o r f i r s t a nd s e c o n d l a n g u a g e l e a r n e r s . T h e y s e e m to b e l i e v e t h a t S p a n i s h c h i l d r e n l e a r n i n g E n g l i s h c r e a t e d i f f e r e n t r u l e s t h an t h o s e c r e a t e d by n a t i v e s p e a k i n g c h i l d r e n . It is e x p e c t e d then t h at the p a t t e r n s of the l a n g u a g e a l r e a d y e x i s t i n g in the l e a r n e r s ' f i r s t l a n g u a g e c o u l d be t r a n s f e r r e d to the s e c o n d l a n g u a g e in the a c q u i s i t i o n p r o c e s s . If s u ch p a t t e r n s d i f f e r f r o m the s e c o n d l a n g u a g e the r e s u l t is " i n t e r l i n g u a l i n t e r f e r e n c e "; if t h e y are the
^ In R o n a l d S h e e n , "The I m p o r t a n c e of N e g a t i v e T r a n s f e r in the S p e e c h of N e a r - B i l i n g u a l s , " Iral.
s a m e the r e s u l t e x p e c t e d is i m m e d i a t e t r a n s f e r . On the o t h e r h a n d , R i c h a r d s ' ( 1 9 7 4 : 1 7 2 - 1 8 2 ) s t u d y of J a p a n e s e , C h i n e s e , F r e n c h and o t h e r s p e a k e r s l e a r n i n g E n g l i s h e n c o u n t e r e d v a r i o u s e r r o r s not due to i n t e r f e r e n c e f r o m t h e i r n a t i v e l a n g u a g e b u t due to w h a t he c a l l s " o v e r g e n e r a l i z a t i o n , i g n o r a n c e of r u le r e s t r i c t i o n s , i n c o m p l e t e a p p l i c a t i o n of r u l e s and f a l s e c o n c e p t s f o r m a t i o n . " T h e s e e r r o r s are m a i n l y due to i n t e r f e r e n c e of r u l e s , i t e m s , etc. w i t h i n the t a r g e t l a n g u a g e (i n t r a l i n g u a l i n t e r f e r e n c e ) . T h e y are c a l l e d
" i n t r a l i n g u a l and d e v e l o p m e n t a l e r r o r s . " “I n t r a l i n g u a l “ e r r o r s a re t h o s e b a s e d on h y p o t h e s e s f o r m u l a t e d by the l e a r n e r on the b a s i s of w h a t he has o b s e r v e d in the new l a n g u a g e and
" d e v e l o p m e n t a l " e r r o r s reveal the l e a r n e r t r y i n g to f o r m u l a t e h y p o t h e s e s in t h e t a r g e t l a n g u a g e f r o m his r e s t r i c t e d e x p e r i e n c e . O v e r g e n e r a l i z a t i o n , says R i c h a r d s ( o p . c i t . ) , a c c o u n t s f o r the p r o c e s s in w h i c h the l e a r n e r c r e a t e s i l l - f o r m e d s t r u c t u r e s b a s e d on o t h e r s t r u c t u r e s of the t a r g e t l a n g u a g e . O v e r g e n e r a l i z a t i o n o c c u r s w h e n a rule is a p p l i e d m o r e than it s h o u l d be or w h e n t h e r e is i n a d e q u a t e a p p l i c a t i o n of the r ul e s. An e x a m p l e of this m i g h t be the g e n e r a l i z i n g of the r e g u l a r p a s t t e n s e 'e d ' i n f l e c t i o n to i r r e g u l a r v e r b s ( b u y e d , g o e d , e t c . . . ) — a p h e n o m e n o n also o b s e r v e d w h e n c h i l d r e n l e a r n E n g l i s h as t h e i r n a t i v e l a n g u a g e . S u c h e r r o r s m a y r e s u l t f r o m a n a l o g y w i t h o t h e r s i m i l a r rule r e s t r i c t i o n s . S i m i l a r l y , t h e y can be f o u n d in "I m a d e h i m to do it;" the p r e p o s i t i o n w h i c h is u s e d w i t h c e r t a i n v e r b s is e x t e n d e d e r r o n e o u s l y by a n a l o g y . This e x a m p l e a l s o a c c o u n t s for the s e c o n d t yp e of e r r o r s
p r e s e n t e d by R i c h a r d s r e f e r r i n g to d e v i a n t s t r u c t u r e s w h i c h are the p r o d u c t of w r o n g a p p l i c a t i o n of g r a m m a t i c a l ru l es . He o b s e r v e s t h a t this is a t y p e of g e n e r a l i z a t i o n b e c a u s e the l e a r n e r uses an a l r e a d y a c q u i r e d ru l e in a "new" s i t u a t i o n . R i c h a r d s ' t h i r d ty pe of e r r o r d ea l s w i t h ’' i n c o m p l e t e a p p l i c a t i o n of r u l e s " w h i c h s h o ws t he d e v i a n t s t r u c t u r e s b e i n g a p r o d u c t of the l e a r n e r s ' d e v e l o p m e n t t o w a r d s p r o d u c i n g the a c c e p t a b l e u t t e r a n c e s . A c c o r d i n g to him this is p r e s e n t in q u e s t i o n s : e.g. "Do y o u r e a d m u c h ? Yes, I r ea d m u c h " w h e r e the i n f l u e n c e of the q u e s t i o n is c l e a r l y p r e s e n t on the a n s w e r .
The f o u r t h type of d e v e l o p m e n t a l e r r o r s s h o w s that " f a l s e h y p o t h e s e s " d e r i v e f r o m the l e a r n e r ' s k n o w l e d g e o f the t a r g e t l a n g u a g e . T h e y s e e m to be a n o t h e r k in d of
g e n e r a l i z a t i o n . T h e l e a r n e r s p r o d u c e u t t e r a n c e s of the type "He is speaks F r e n c h " a nd "it was h a p p e n e d " w h i c h s e e m to be due
to m i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t e n s e m a r k e r s . R i c h a r d s s u g g e s t s th a t such e r r o r s are c a u s e d by c o n t r a s t i v e t e a c h i n g m e t h o d s .
All t h e s e t y p es o f e r r o r s reveal s o m e of the
s t r a t e g i e s e m p l o y e d by the l e a r n e r in his a c q u i s i t i o n p r o c e s s . T h u s , w h a t s e e m s to be e v i d e n t is t ha t m o t h e r t o n g u e i n t e r f e r e n c e s h o w the a r e a s of d i f f i c u l t y in f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e l e a r n i n g but " m u t u a l i n t e r f e r e n c e of i t em s w i t h i n the t a r g e t l a n g u a g e " is al s o r e s p o n s i b l e f o r m a n y of the l e a r n e r s ' e r r o r s ( R i c h a r d s , 1 9 7 4 : 1 8 2 ) . S e l i n k e r ' s ( 1 9 7 4 : 3 6 ) p r o p o s a l of " f o s s i 1 i z a t i o n " a u g m e n t s R i c h a r d s ' e f f o r t s to d e s c r i b e the n a t u r e of the l e a r n e r ' s i n t e r l a n g u a g e .
To use S e l i n k e r ' s w o r d s on " f o s s i 1 i z a t i o n ," we say: F o s s i l i z a b l e l i n g u i s t i c p h e n o m e n a are l i n g u i s t i c i t e m s , r u l e s and s u b s y s t e m s w h i c h s p e a k e r s of a p a r t i c u l a r n a t i v e l a n g u a g e will t en d to k e ep in t h e i r i n t e r l a n g u a g e r e l a t i v e to a p a r t i c u l a r t a r g e t l a n g u a g e , no m a t t e r w h a t the age of the l e a r n e r or a m o u n t o f e x p l a n a t i o n a nd i n s t r u c t i o n he r e c e i v e s in the t a r g e t l a n g u a g e . S u c h p h e n o m e n a o c c u r in te r m s of the f o l l o w i n g p r o c e s s e s b r i e f l y d e s c r i b e d : (a) " l a n g u a g e t r a n s f e r " o c c u r s w h e n c e r t a i n p a t t e r n s of the n a t i v e l a n g u a g e are p r e s e n t in the t a r g e t l a n g u a g e of the l e a r n e r ; (b) " t r a n s f e r of t r a i n i n g " w h e n t h e s e p a t t e r n s ( " f o s s i l i z a b l e i t e m s " ) r e s u l t f r o m t e a c h i n g p r o c e d u r e s ; (c) " s t r a t e g i e s of s e c o n d l a n g u a g e l e a r n i n g " r e f e r to the l e a r n e r ' s r e a c t i o n to the l i n g u i s t i c m a t e r i a l he is l e a r n i n g ; (d) " s t r a t e g i e s of s e c o n d l a n g u a g e c o m m u n i c a t i o n " deal w i t h the l e a r n e r ' s a p p r o a c h to c o m m u n i c a t i n g w i t h n a t i v e s p e a k e r s of the l a n g u a g e s t u d i e d ; and f i n a l l y (e) " o v e r g e n e r a l i z a t i o n of t a r g e t l a n g u a g e l i n g u i s t i c m a t e r i a l " o c c u r s w h e n the " f o s s i l i z a b l e i t e m s " are a p r o d u c t of o v e r g e n e r a l i z a t i o n of the r u les of the t a r g e t
1a n g u a g e . T h e s e f i v e p r o c e s s e s c e n t e r a r o u n d bo t h s e c o n d and f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e l e a r n i n g a nd t h e i r c o m b i n a t i o n r e v e a l s w h a t S e l i n k e r c a l ls " f o s s i l i z e d i n t e r l a n g u a g e c o m p e t e n c e . " It s e e m s e v i d e n t th a t the s t u d y of the l e a r n e r ' s ^ L . S e l i n k e r , " I n t e r l a n g u a g e , " E r r o r A n a l y s i s : P e r s p e c t i v e s o n S e c o n d L a n g u a g e A c q u i s i t i o n , p. 36.
l a n g u a g e s y s t e m , e s p e c i a l l y e r r o r s and s t r a t e g i e s s h o u l d r eveal the n a t u r e and p s y c h o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s of s e c o n d and f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e l e a r n i n g .
F r o m o u r l i m i t e d e x p e r i m e n t a l s t u d y we w i s h to base o u r f i n d i n g s u p o n the t h e o r e t i c a l f o u n d a t i o n s p r e s e n t e d he r e in t e r ms of (i) i d e n t i f y i n g the p o s s i b l e s o u r c e s of our
s t u d e n t s ' e r r o r s ; ( i i ) c l a s s i f y i n g the s a m e e r r o r s ; ( i i i ) a c c o u n t i n g to s o m e e x t e n t for c o n f l i c t s t h a t m a y o c c u r in l a n g u a g e l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s in r e l a t i o n to the f o r m s in q u e s t i o n . F r o m the f o r e g o i n g we f i n d t h a t a g r e a t deal of a t t e n t i o n in r e c e n t y e a r s has c e n t e r e d a r o u n d f a c t o r s of l e a r n i n g a " n e w l a n g u a g e . " This in i t s e l f r e p r e s e n t s a r a d i c a l c h a n g e f r o m the m o r e t r a d i t i o n a l v i e w in w h i c h p r i m e i n t e r e s t w a s on the t e a c h i n g of the l a n g u a g e . M u c h i n t e r e s t is n o w c e n t e r e d a r o u n d f a c t o r s w h i c h m o t i v a t e p u p i l s to learn. W h a t e v e r m e t h o d is u s e d in t e a c h i n g its e f f e c t i v e n e s s will d e p e n d to a l a r g e e x t e n t on the d e g r e e o f m o t i v a t i o n p u p i l s h a v e f o r l e a r n i n g the t a r g e t l a n g u a g e . E r r o r s m a y o r m a y no t c o n t r i b u t e to i n c r e a s i n g the m o t i v a t i o n of the s t u d e n t s . If the s t u d e n t r e a l i z e s by his e r r o r s t h a t he has f o r m u l a t e d w r o n g h y p o t h e s e s in the
l a n g u a g e , h y p o t h e s e s t h a t h a v e to be c h a n g e d , and if this r e s u l t s in his s u c c e s s f u l y r e f o r m u l a t i n g his h y p o t h e s e s , his m o t i v a t i o n m a y be i n c r e a s e d . On the o t h e r h a n d , if e r r o r s are c o n t i n u a l l y r e p e a t e d and the s t u d e n t f a i l s to u n d e r s t a n d w h y he has e r r e d , his m o t i v a t i o n to c o n t i n u e to l e a r n the
In the f o l l o w i n g c h a p t e r s we shall a t t e m p t to
i d e n t i f y the m a i n d i f f i c u l t i e s p u p i l s h a v e in l e a r n i n g the use of A s s e r t i v e , N o n - A s s e r t i v e and N e g a t i v e F or m s in E n g l i s h . W e - shall a t t e m p t to p i n - p o i n t the m o s t i m p o r t a n t a r e a s of d i f f i c u l t y , u t i l i z i n g c o n t r a s t i v e or e r r o r a n a l y s e s t e c h n i q u e s to a c h i e v e t h i s , a n d if p o s s i b l e , c o n c l u d e w i t h r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s t h a t will l e a d to i m p r o v e d l e a r n i n g or t e a c h i n g t e c h n i q u e s th a t in tu r n will m a i n t a i n or i m p r o v e the s t u d e n t s m o t i v a t i o n to m a s t e r the f o r e i g n L a n g u a g e . F i r s t h o w e v e r , we shall c o n s i d e r the m a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of E n g l i s h S O M E / A N Y / N O Forms.
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of N o n - A s s e r t i v e , A s s e r t i v e a n d N e g a t i v e For m s
A p a r t f r o m J e s p e r s e n a nd P a l m e r et al , l i n g u i s t s p r i o r to K l i m a did n o t g e n e r a l l y w o r r y a b o u t s e t t i n g c r i t e r i a f o r the s t u d y of n e g a t i o n . K l i m a ' s N e g a t i o n -in E n g l i s h has b r o u g h t new c o n c e p t s to this a s p e c t of l a n g u a g e s t r u c t u r e .
F r o m his w o r k , the s t a t u s o f n e g a t i o n r a t h e r than b e i n g s i m p l y c o n s i d e r e d as o p p o s e d to i n t e r r o g a t i v e and a f f i r m a t i v e f or m s is s e e n as a p r o c e s s in its o wn r ight. S i n c e we k n o w that the s t u d y of n o n - a s s e r t i v e (ANY and c o m p o u n d s ) , a s s e r t i v e (SOME and c o m p o u n d s ) and n e g a t i v e f o r m s (NO and c o m p o u n d s ) is
c l o s e l y l i n k e d to n e g a t i o n f a c t o r s r e l a t i n g to n e g a t i o n will be c o n s i d e r e d h e r e , w h e n e v e r t h e y are n e c e s s a r y to c l a r i f y the use of such f or m s . 1. A s s e r t i v e and N o n - a s s e r t i v e s e n t e n c e s Q u i r k et al ( 1 9 7 2 : 5 3 ) e x e m p l i f y a s s e r t i v e s e n t e n c e s as t h o s e w h i c h s t a t e an i d ea v e r y d e f i n i t e l y . A s e n t e n c e s u ch as S h e w e n t to s c h o o l . is an a s s e r t i v e , w h i l e s e n t e n c e such as
D i d s h e g o to t h e m o v i e s ?
is n o n - a s s e r t i v e . N o n - a s s e r t i v e s e n t e n c e s can be d i v i d e d into i n t e r r o g a t i v e s a n d n e g a t i v e s . The a u t h o r s c o n s i d e r t h a t the i n t e r r o g a t i v e has a c l o s e r r e l a t i o n s h i p to the n e g a t i v e and thus^ t h e y f o r m p a r t o f the s a m e s u b s y s t e m - - N o n - A s s e r t i o n . T h e y p r e s e n t a d i a g r a m w h i c h s h o w s this r e l a t i o n s h i p : S e n t e n c e a s s e r t i o n n o n a s s e r t i o n --positive and d e c l a r a t i v e A n t e r r o g a ti ve posi ti ve ne g a t i ve - negative T hi s r e l a t i o n s h i p is p r i m a r i l y b a s e d on simi 1 a r i t i e s i n form. For e x a m p l e , w h e r e a s the use of t he a u x i l i a r y " d o " is not o b l i g a t o r y f o r p o s i t i v e s e n t e n c e s it m a y be o b l i g a t o r y for n o n - a s s e r t i v e ( i n t e r r o g a t i v e a nd n e g a t i v e ) f or m s. S i m i l a r l y , S O M E is g e n e r a l l y d e s c r i b e d as a p p e a r i n g in a s s e r t i v e s e n t e n c e s and A N Y in o t h e r s . Q u i r k et al ( 1 9 7 2 : 5 4 ) p r e s e n t the f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e s in w h i c h S O M E a p p e a r s in an a s s e r t i v e s e n t e n c e and ANY in the c o r r e s p o n d i n g q u e s t i o n and n e g a t i v e : H e o f f e r e d h e r s o m e c h o c o l a t e s D i d he o f f e r h e r a n y c h o c o l a t e s ? H e d i d n ' t o f f e r h e r a n y c h o c o l a t e s . It is i n t e r e s t i n g to o b s e r v e t ha t S O M E m a y a l s o o c c u r in n e g a t i v e , i n t e r r o g a t i v e and n e g a t i v e - i n t e r r o g a t i v e
s e n t e n c e s and a l s o A NY m a y a p p e a r in a f f i r m a t i v e ones. B ut t he i n f o r m a t i o n f o c u s d i f f e r s : H e d i d N O T o f f e r h e r s o m e c h o c o l a t e s . H a s s o m e b o d y - p ho ne ? A n y o n e c a n d o t h i s f o r me. T h e s e t y p e s of s e n t e n c e s will be t r e a t e d in detail l a t e r . Q u i r k et al call o u r a t t e n t i o n to ' t e c h n i c a l use' of 1 the t e r m 'a s s e r t i o n ':- - i n o r d i n a r y s p e e c h , n e g a t i v e s e n t e n c e s can be s e e n as a s s e r t i o n s : . 'I d i d n o t s t e a l i t 1 w a s h i s c o n s t a n t a s s e r t i o n . 2. A s s e r t i v e , N o n - A s s e r t i v e and N e g a t i v e F o r m s Q u i r k et al ( 1 9 7 2 : 2 1 9 ) c l a s s i f y a s s e r t i v e , non- a s s e r t i v e and n e g a t i v e w o r d s as: A s s e r t i v e s : m u c h , m a n y , m o r e , m o s t . . . l i t t l e , les s, l e a s t , few, f e w e r , f e w e s t , s e v e r a l , e n o u g h o n e S o m e g r o u p : s o m e b o d y , s o m e o n e , s o m e t h i n g N o n - A s s e r t i ves : A n y g r o u p : a n y b o d y , a n y o n e , a n y t h i n g e i t h e r
O u r m a i n c o n c e r n h e r e will be the S O M E - g r o u p , A N Y - g r o u p a nd N o - g r o u p . T he o t h e r a s s e r t i v e w o r d s will o n l y be c o n s i d e r e d in this w o r k , if t h e y h e l p to e x p l a i n the use of the S O M E , ANY and NO g r o u p s .
Q u i r k et al ( i b i d : 2 2 3 ) c o n s i d e r t ha t a s e n t e n c e c o n t a i n i n g o n e a s s e r t i v e f o r m m a y h a v e two c o r r e s p o n d i n g n e g a t i v e s . We h av e , We h a v e h a d s o m e l u n c h . We h a v e n ' t h a d a n y l u nc h. We h a v e h a d n o l u n c h . F r o m t h e s e e x a m p l e s , we o b s e r v e that: (a) ANY o c c u r s in n o n - a s s e r t i v e s e n t e n c e s , b u t it m a y n o t be p r e s e n t in the c o r r e s p o n d i n g a s s e r t i v e s . K l i m a ' s s e n t e n c e s i l l u s t r a t e this c h a r a c t e r i s t i c : a) T h e r e w a s n ' t any s n o w f a l l i n g a n y w h e r e else. b)j?There w a s n ' t any s n o w f a l l i n g s o m e w h e r e else. c) * T h e r e was a ny s n o w fa 1 1 i n g a n y w h e r e el se. d) Not e v e n t h e n did a n y s n o w fall a n y w h e r e else. e) * Ev e n t h e n any s n o w fell a n y w h e r e else.
d) s u g g e s t s t h a t a c o n s t i t u e n t c o n t a i n i n g N OT ANY s e e m s to c o n t r a d i c t the c o n s t i t u e n t S O M E , the r e s u l t b e i n g a s e m a n t i c a l l y a w k w a r d s e n t e n c e . (b) ANY b e i n g n o n - a s s e r t i v e o c c u r s in s e n t e n c e s s h o w i n g a n e g a t i v e f o r m NOT or a ny o t h e r , n e g a t i ve f o r m : a) I h a v e not t r a v e l l e d a n y w h e r e y e t . b) Not m a n y of the r e f u g e e s h a v e an yt h i ng y e t . E a c h of t he a b o v e s e n t e n c e s h a v e s e v e r a l n o n- a s s e r t i v e f o r m s , h o w e v e r , t h e y are d e t e r m i n e d by the p r e s e n c e o f " N O T " in the s e n t e n c e s .
c) The p r e s e n c e of two n e g a t i v e s in the s a m e
s e n t e n c e o n l y a p p l i e s to " s p e c i a l c a s e s " in w h i c h one n e g a t i v e e l i m i n a t e s the o t h e r c a u s i n g the
1 2
r e s u l t to be p o s i t i v e . T h a t is,
— *"I c a n ' t not o b e y y o u "
which c o r r e s p o n d s to the p a r a p h r a s e s :
— "I h a v e to o b e y y ou".
1 2 This s p e c i a l n e g a t i o n will not be t r e a t e d here . Nor will n e g a t i o n su c h as "No one n e v e r s a i d n o t h i n g " w h i c h is
3. ANY v e r s u s S O M E L ik e Q u i r k et al , Z a n d v o o r t ( 1972 :1 69) c o n s i d e r s that A N Y f r e q u e n t l y a p p e a r s in n e g a t i v e , i n t e r r o g a t i v e and c o n d i t i o n a l c o n t e x t s . He a l s o s t a t e s t h a t ANY is " n e g a t i v e or n o n - c o m m i t t a l " w h i l e S O M E is " p o s i t i v e " in m e a n i n g a l t h o u g h it is i n d e f i n i t e . Z a n d v o o r t g i v e s no c l e a r i n d i c a t i o n however, of r u l es t h a t d e t e r m i n e the use of S O M E or ANY.
Q u i r k et al ( 1 9 7 2 : 2 2 3 ) a f f i r m t ha t t h o u g h n e g a t i v e , i n t e r r o g a t i v e and c o n d i t i o n a l c l a u s e s are " s u p e r f i c i a l "
m a r k e r s of n o n - a s s e r t i o n , t h e y do n ot e s t a b l i s h the S O M E - A N Y use. Q u i r k et al s e e m to go f u r t h e r t h a n Z a n d v o o r t w h e n th ey s t a t e t h a t the S O M E - A N Y c h o i c e is c o n d i t i o n e d by the "deep b a s i c m e a n i n g of the w h o l e s e n t e n c e . F or e x a m p l e ,
F r e u d p r o b a b l y c o n t r i b u t e d m o r e t h a n a n y o n e to t he u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f d r e a m s .
The a u t h o r s go on to e x p l a i n t h a t the b a s i c m e a n i n g of the a b o v e e x a m p l e is n e g a t i v e and n o n - a s s e r t i v e and th e y say t h a t this can be s e e n in the p a r a p h r a s e , w h i c h m i g h t be c o n s i d e r e d to be the “d e e p " m e a n i n g of the s e n t e n c e , N o b o d y c o n t r i b u t e d m o r e to t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f d r e a m s t h a n F r e u d , w h e r e "than A N Y O N E " is r e p l a c e d by " N O B O D Y " in the c o n v e r s e s e n t e n c e . O b v i o u s l y h o w e v e r , t h e r e are s o m e d i v e r g e n c e s a m o n g
a u t h o r s c o n c e r n i n g S O M E - A N Y c h o i c e . S o m e of them a s s u m e t h at it b e l o n g s to s y n t a x w h i l e o t h e r s a f f i r m it b e l o n g s to the l e x i c o n . We w o u l d be i n c l i n e d to a c c e p t the s e c o n d a r g u m e n t s i n c e we m a y h a v e s e n t e n c e s in w h i c h the p r e s e n c e of S O M E - A N Y is n o t d e t e r m i n e d by a n e g a t i v e or a q u e s t i o n . For e x a m p l e , (a) D i d n ' t y o u p u b l i s h s o m e p o e t r y b a c k in 1 9 1 6 ? w h i c h g i v e s the i d ea of (b) I s n ' t it t ru e t h a t y o u p u b l i s h e d s o m e p o e t r y b a c k in 1 9 1 6 ? and (c) D i d n ' t y o u p u b l i s h a ny p o e t r y b a c k in 1 9 1 6? s e e m s to s i g n i f y (d) Is it true t h at y o u d i d n ' t p u b l i s h a ny p o e t r y b a c k in 1 9 1 6 ?
The use of S O M E in (a) and (b) a b o v e has p o s i t i v e c o n n o t a t i o n s i m p l y i n g th at the s p e a k e r t h i n k s the w r i t e r did p u b l i s h w h e r e a s in (c) and (d) " A N Y " has n e g a t i v e c o n n o t a t i o n s s u g g e s t i n g u n e x p e c t e d a b s e n c e w h i l e S O M E s e e m s to m a r k
u n e x p e c t e d p r e s e n c e .
O b v i o u s l y t h e n , to c o n s i d e r t h a t S O M E is r e s t r i c t e d to p o s i t i v e s t r u c t u r e s and ANY to n e g a t i v e s t r u c t u r e s is to
o v e r - s i m p l i f y the ac t u a l o c c u r r e n c e of t h e s e fo rms.
T h e r e are h o w e v e r c e r t a i n e n v i r o n m e n t s in w h i c h the S O M E - A N Y c h o i c e a p p e a r s to d e p e n d on s y n t a c t i c f a c t o r s w i t h i n the s e n t e n c e , the c h o i c e of one or the o t h e r b e i n g o b l i g a t o r y and n o t o p t i o n a l . For e x a m p l e ,
n e g a t i v e : J o h n h a s n o t a n y m o n e y * J o h n h a s n o t s o m e m o n e y
It is i m p o r t a n t to n o t e h o w e v e r t h a t S O M E - A N Y < r e s t r i c t i o n s on the b a s i s of s t r u c t u r e are c o m p a r a t i v e l y rare in E n g l i s h . The g r e a t m a j o r i t y of s t r u c t u r e s ( n e g a t i v e ,
i n t e r r o g a t i v e , c o n d i t i o n a l , c o m p a r a t i v e ) o f f e r an o p t i o n b e t w e e n S O M E and A NY (and t h e i r c o m p o u n d s ) , the c h o i c e b e i n g m a d e on s e m a n t i c g r o u n d s r a t h e r than s y n t a c t i c .
L a k o f f ( 1 9 6 9 : 6 0 9 ) also e x p l a i n s the use of S O M E and ANY as n o t o n l y d e p e n d i n g on “s u p e r f i c i a l s y n t a c t i c f a c t o r s " ( n e g a t i v e s , q u e s t i o n s , and so on) b ut al so on p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s w h i c h do not h a v e l i n k s w i t h s y n t a x . S u ch p r i n c i p l e s are o b s e r v e d w h e n c o m p a r i n g some of his e x a m p l e s : I f y o u e a t s o m e s p i n a c h 3 I ’ll g i v e y o u t e n d o l l a r s . I f y o u e a t a n y s p i n a c h 3 I ’ll g i v e y o u t e n d o l l a r s .
The d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e s e two s e n t e n c e s lies of c o u r s e , in the p r e s e n c e of S O M E and ANY. The f i r s t s e n t e n c e
