Gender and leadership in the tourism sector: The case of
the restaurants industry in the city of Aveiro, Portugal
PEDRO SIMÃO * [ pedro.simao@ua.pt ]
ZÉLIA BREDA ** [ zelia@ua.pt ]
Abstract | Gender inequality is still a reality in today’s world. Men still take most of the decisions in the family context, while women often do not take part in the decision-making process. In the tourism sector the reality is similar. While most of the jobs are seasonal or part-time, those are mainly occupied by women. On the other hand, men hold the majority of leadership roles in tourism enterprises. Several authors have already studied gender differences in the tourism sector but there is not much evidence with regards to restaurants industry. Therefore, this paper aims to contribute to the literature, by identifying the main barriers for gender equality in leadership positions in this subsector. Data was collected through a survey questionnaire targeting leaders and employees of restaurants located in the city of Aveiro (Portugal), and it was analyzed through content and statistical analyses. Findings show that men occupy most of the leadership positions. Men are perceived as authoritarian, respectable, knowledgeable and manipulative, and women are seen as organized, creative, comprehensive and responsible. Keywords | Gender equality, Leadership, Tourism, Restaurants industry, Aveiro. Resumo | A desigualdade de género é ainda uma realidade no contexto atual. Os homens ainda tomam a maioria das decisões no contexto familiar, especialmente no que se refere aos processos de tomada de decisão. No sector do turismo, a situação é semelhante. A maioria dos empregos são sazonais ou a tempo parcial, e enquanto estes são geralmente ocupados por mulheres, os homens ocupam a maioria dos cargos de liderança. Alguns autores têm procurado estudar as desigualdades de género no turismo, no entanto existe pouca evidência em relação ao nível do sector da restauração. Este artigo procura, portanto, contribuir para a literatura existente, ao identificar as principais barreiras à igualdade de género nos cargos de liderança neste subsector. Um estudo empírico foi realizado na cidade de Aveiro, em Portugal, e foram reco-lhidos dados através da realização de um questionário dirigido aos gestores/proprietários e funcionários dos restaurantes situados na cidade. Os dados foram analisados através de análise de conteúdo e análise estatística. Os resultados mostram que os homens ocupam a maioria dos cargos de liderança, sendo estes percecionados como autoritários, respeitáveis, conhecedores e manipuladores, enquanto as mulheres são vistas como organizadas, criativas, completas e responsáveis. Palavras-chave | Igualdade de género, Liderança, Turismo, Sector da restauração, Aveiro.
* Master in Tourism Management and Planning from the University of Aveiro, Student of the Advanced Training Course in Tourism at the University of Aveiro.
** PhD in Tourism from the University of Aveiro. Assistant Professor at the University of Aveiro, and Integrated Member of the Research Unit Governance, Competitiveness and Public Policies (GOVCOPP).
1. Introduction Tourism is a multidisciplinary sector, where both capital and human resources are crucial for its devel-opment. Most tourism businesses (around 99%) are Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs), representing a decisive role in this industry (Observatory of Euro-pean SMEs, 2003). With regards to employment, the tourism sector directly employs over 14 million peo- ple in Europe (Eurostat, 2010). Therefore, organiza-tions and managers must be able to recruit, develop and maintain a committed and competent workforce to stay competitive in a competitive environment (Nickson, 2007).
However, findings show that employment is unevenly distributed gender-wise. According to Costa, Carvalho and Breda (2011), women are overrepresented in the majority of the lower level positions in this sector. On the other hand, men hold most leadership positions in tourism enterprises, making it almost impossible for women to move vertically and to reach management positions (Hem-mati, 2000). It is fundamental to understand why these disparities exist and why are women clearly discriminated against. Some studies have already focused on specific tourism subsectors, such as the hotel industry (Kara, 2012; Möller, 2012), but there is no evidence on studies conducted on the restaurants industry. This work aims to understand the differences between male and female leadership, as well as the main differences and barriers that prevent women from progressing in their careers. The paper starts by in-troducing conceptual references on gender, sex and leadership, which provide a solid basis for explain-ing the main barriers for women’s discrimination, and then presents the reality of the tourism sector, in a gender perspective, in order to enhance the conclusions of this study.
. Gender and sex
The amount of studies related to gender stud-ies is constantly increasing. However, according to Henderson (1994), some authors fail to provide their own definition of gender, while others mistake it with sex. Therefore, this introductory section aims to con-tribute to distinguish both concepts. On one hand, sex “refers to the biological characteristics that categorize someone as either female or male […] according to certain identifiable physical features which are fixed” (Reeves & Baden, 2000, p. 30). It is clearly biologically determined, universal and mate-rialized throughout time (Butler, 1993; Haig, 2004; Mediterranean Institute of Gender Studies, 2009). Basically, sex refers to the physical aspects that distinguish men and women. There is a consensus in the literature concerning this term. On the other hand, the literature does not present a universal and precise definition of gender. Some- times it is used to define the concept of sex, there-fore creating some inconsistencies in the definition of gender (Henderson, 1994). Udry (1994) mentions that gender is the combination between biological sex and individual behaviour. The World Health Or-ganization (WHO, 2012) clarifies that it “refers to the socially constructed roles, behaviours, activities and attributes that a given society considers appropriate for men and women”. Possibly, the clearest defini- tion is the one provided by Swain (1995, pp. 258-259): “a system of culturally constructed identities, expressed in ideologies of masculinity and femininity, interacting with socially structured relationships in divisions of labour and leisure, sexuality and power between women and men”. It is evident that gender is crucial in order to un-derstand the differences between men and women (Alarcon & Ferguson, 2011). Based on the literature, we may conclude that gender may be defined as the socio-cultural characteristics that exist in a specific society and that an individual acquires in order to distinguish men from women.
. Main barriers for women’s empowerment There are a number of aspects that may explain the discrimination that women suffer in the tourism sector. One reason that is clear in most employment positions is the gender pay gap. Skalpe (2007) ex-plains that women in Norway, who are represented in top positions, are paid 20% less than men holding the same positions. In Spain, however, the difference is only around 6.7% in favour to men, but these disparities may vary according to region (Bullón, 2009; Pozo, Soria, Ollero & Lara, 2012). In Portugal, men may earn 80% more than women in roles that require the same amount of skills, qualifications and training (González, Santos, & Santos, 2005). The type of contract held is also a factor of dis-crimination. According to Costa et al. (2011), women are overrepresented in part-time jobs, and they do not have the same opportunities as men to hold full-time positions. Generally speaking, part-time jobs do not require specific knowledge about the workplace and leaders are not willing to provide that informa-tion. Also, part-time jobs are a way for women to provide a source of income to the household and also to conciliate work and family (Jordan, 1997).
Thrane (2008) mentions that marriage, maternity leaves and the traditional labour divisions in the households prevent women from occupying full time jobs. Women are usually the food providers and they are responsible for the children upbringing (Wilkin-son & Pratiwi, 1995). Sometimes they also have to resort to external services, such as day care centres, babysitters, nursery homes or even other relatives, to take care of their children, while they are contribut-ing for the family income (Torres & Silva, 1998). It is very hard for women to focus in all of these activities at the same time and also achieve higher roles in a competitive business.
One important aspect, that most of the times is not mentioned, is the stereotype created by the society, which reinforces these disparities. The Equal-ity and Human Rights Commission (EHRC, 2010) concluded that 75% of all employed women end
up in jobs known as the five C’s: cleaning, catering, caring, cashiering and clerical. Costa et al. (2011) refer to these jobs as being gendered, i.e. considered appropriate for women. The EHRC (2010), however, verified that women are starting to emerge in the labour market and their relevance in businesses and in competitive environments is increasing. The ethnicity, nationality and social class may be directly related with gender disparities (Ferguson, 2007). Women who are not part of a society tend to be excluded and deprived from critical information regarding the planning and development stages. Smith (2009) suggests that equality measures, at business or governmental levels, would allow women to reach leadership positions, leading to more effec-tive answers towards the battle against the economic recession. Chapman and Randell (2011, p. 6) state that “when women are supported and empowered, all society benefits”, leading to the creation of better techniques, innovation and entrepreneurship. Men and women have different work patterns. Thrane (2008) concluded that women tend to be more productive over time, but Sinclair (1997) suggested that this is not as valued as the work experience itself. Women are also more sympathetic and kind, which may help when complicated situ-ations emerge in the workplace (Rudman & Glick, 2001). The academic qualifications are changing, and nowadays women are better qualified than men, providing them with a great asset when enter-ing the labour market (Costa, Carvalho, Caçador & Breda, 2012a). To conclude, productivity levels and the amount of opportunities would increase if women were more directly involved at all levels (Berg, 2011). Accord-ing to Hausman, Tyson and Zahidi (2012) there are four critical aspects that must be considered when promoting women’s empowerment: (i) economic participation and opportunities; (ii) educational ca-pability; (iii) political empowerment; and (iv) health and survival. When all these criteria are met, women have better opportunities to achieve higher roles, not only in businesses but in the society as well.
. Leadership and gender
In order to be competitive and to meet the market’s needs, businesses need someone to be in charge of the decision-making and decision-taking processes. There is no single definition for leadership, as it is a multidisciplinary subject. But one of the most recent, and possibly clearest, definition identi-fies leadership as “a process on which an individual influences a group of individuals in order to achieve a common objective” (Northouse, 2012, p. 3). How- ever, this study will not focus on providing a con-sensual definition because, according to Gill (2006), it is more important to respond to the demanding, turbulent and chaotic market demands than to focus on an universal definition for leadership. Leadership styles may vary from person to per-son, and gender may be also responsible for different traits. There is a growing need to understand gender in a leadership perspective, in order to verify the most frequent behaviours each gender possesses (Patterson, Mavin, & Turner, 2012). Women who achieve leadership roles need to be exceptional and
capable of leading with enormous social and psycho-logical pressure (Buckmaster, 2004). There is a huge need to understand the main attributes each gender has, in order to comprehend the leadership styles and decisions in a business context (Hoyt, 2012).
Table 1 shows the main attributes according to gender. It must be taken into consideration that these traits were taken from a diversity of case stud-ies and they may vary from place to place or even according to the local culture and social aspects (Simão, 2013). Nonetheless, men can be consid-ered as more focused on controlling and resorting to short-time measures, while women focus more on building strong and efficient teams, rewarding and encouraging the subordinates to achieve and surpass the established objectives. Women who are more authoritative, assertive or powerful may not succeed and are considered as aggressive, resulting in a decrease of group motivation (Mkhize, 2011). Eagly and Carly (2003) explain that no matter how different the leadership styles can be accord-ing to gender, this does not explain why there are constant disparities between men and women. On Table 1 | Qualities of male and female leaders
a similar study, Powell, Butterfield and Bartol (2008) showed that women on leadership positions who expressed similar behaviours to those of men would increase group productivity, motivation and would be more beneficial for a group.
Women are also leaders and they should be able to provide their own ideas in any context. Therefore, Young (2011) suggests that stakeholders should study young women leaders in order to comprehend their exact behaviour and leadership skills. It is clear that the higher the hierarchical level the fewer women are represented (Hanashiro, Nassif, Nassif, Carvalho, & Bido, 2005). Belasen and Frank (2012) defend that women’s ability to adapt is fundamental in order they can able to become successful leaders. However, Patterson et al., (2012) refer that their subordinates do not expect them to be good lead-ers and they may not react well due to low levels of credibility.
Ertac and Gurdal (2012) concluded that women are not risk-takers. However, their emotional be-haviour may change and they may take different approaches according to the problems they face (Camilleri, 2007). Local networks may provide a boost in women’s confidence and place them in higher roles, allowing them to access various spon-sors and entities which will help them increase credibility and competitiveness (Ely, Ibarra, & Kolb, 2011).
To sum up, Oakley (2000), as well as Macarie Hintea and Mora (2011), provide a number of causes that disallow women from reaching leadership posi-tions:
– Society’s beliefs related to the woman’s and man’s role;
– Marriage and children;
– Lack of benefits and facilities for working women;
– Typical myth or men’s prejudices;
– Domination of men’s values in organizational cultures; – Lack of training conditions and difficult contribu-tions towards career development; – Promotion policies that benefit men; – Compensation practices that do not help wom-en; – Behavioural double binds (no-win situations); – Communication styles (women are
underval-ued); – Subordinates prefer male leadership styles; – Women’s underrated power in higher positions. Therefore, women need to develop their own be-haviours and beliefs in order to earn their credibility in competitive environments such as the restoration sector (Trinidad & Normore, 2005). Next chapter tries to explain the close relationship between tourism enterprises and gender.
. Tourism businesses and gender
Tourism is a growing industry and it employs a vast number of people. However, most jobs do not require many qualifications and women are over-represented in this sector (Obadic & Maric, 2009; Santos & Varejão, 2006). However, it is very difficult for women to obtain crucial job opportunities since there is a lack of opportunities for vertical mobility (Costa et al., 2011; Hemmati, 2000). According to Santos and Varejão (2006), there are four specific aspects about the tourism sector and its employ-ment, namely: (i) the majority of jobs are hold by women; (ii) there are low academic levels; (iii) job distribution is mostly concentrated at the basis of the job pyramid; and (iv) a high portion of the contracts are temporary.
According to the European Commission (EC, 2003) and the Observatory of European SMEs (2003), 99,8% of all businesses are Small and Me-dium Enterprises (SMEs). In the tourism sector the number may be even higher since most businesses employ less than ten people. Some of these busi-nesses are known as family businesses and they may be crucial for women to hold leadership roles in this
sector (Ferguson, 2007, 2010). Vadnjal and Zupan (2009) explain that in family businesses, women can develop entrepreneurial skills while holding specific roles that would belong to men otherwise. Skalpe (2007) explains that women have flexible working hours and in these enterprises they can reach leader-ship roles in an easier way.
By taking part in any higher ranks, women can become decision-makers and decision-takers, participating in both the planning and the develop-ment stages of a specific business or area. Women’s capability to interact with people provides an excel-lent asset to their career aspirations (Purcell, 1997; Sinclair, 1997). Their long term decisions and their ability to motivate their subordinates are critical for the growth and survival of tourism enterprises (Ladkin & Weber, 2011).
Gender still represents a barrier for women’s maturity in tourism businesses. However, women are able to implement high quality and competitive levels in any tourism enterprise, provided that they are given the respective opportunity (Testa & Sipe, 2012). . Methodology In order to support the literature review, an em- pirical study was conducted in order to analyse gen-der differences amongst leaders in the restaurants industry. The first stage consisted in defining the geo-graphical area and the population of the study. The area considered for this study was the city centre of Aveiro, specifically in the parishes of Vera-Cruz and Glória (which constitute the central part of the city). As far as the population is concerned, the study was limited to restaurants (other establishments serving food, such as bars, discotheques, cafés, among oth-ers, were excluded from as their relevance for the tourism sector is not as high as restaurants).
In order to obtain access to data related to all restaurants of the city, the Gabinete de Atendimento
Integrado (GAI) and the Associação de Hotelaria, Restauração e Similares de Portugal (AHRESP) were contacted. The first entity did not provide any data and the second one only provided information about its associates. Therefore, it was necessary build a database of all restaurants based on secondary data (mostly available in websites) and fieldwork The data collection method had to take into con-sideration the low qualifications of the restaurants’ workers. A survey questionnaire was administered to both employees and leaders, aiming to understand if there are gender differences in the restaurants industry and to provide information about the main leadership traits concerning men and women. The questionnaires were similar, although leaders had to provide further information about their businesses.
All restaurants located in the city centre of Aveiro were contacted (n=68), but only 56 agreed to par-ticipate. The response rate was 82%, representing 83 managers (all leaders were interviewed, and in some establishments, with shared management, more than one manager was surveyed) and 155 em-ployees (which constitute 50% of all the employees of the surveyed restaurants). The SPSS software was used to perform statistical analysis; and qualitative data was treated though content analysis.
. Analysis and discussion of results
The results of this study are presented into three different sections: enterprises, employees and leaders. In this last topic, a comparison regarding employees and leaders are explored so that the different perspectives can be compared. Also, in-formation concerning leader’s perspective towards women are mentioned. The main traits that leaders should possess are analysed in the perspective of employees and leaders, in order to understand what should be done to promote the success of busi- nesses. These leadership traits, along with the lead-ers’ perspectives, provide this study with possible
gender equality measures to be taken in account in the restaurants industry. Enterprises Results show that all restaurants fall under the category of SMEs. Moreover, 87.5% are microenter-prises, which employ less than 10 individuals, and 20% of them have two or less workers. Also, 95% of all restaurants presented losses over the last three years. The remaining 5% registered a very small increase in their profits because of their favourable location and customer loyalty. It is clear that restau-rants face a harsh reality and they rely mostly on the high season in order to be sustainable. Economic depression and tax raises are also responsible for the difficulties that this sector is surpassing.
Leadership in restaurants may be categorized as single, if there is only one individual in charge, or as shared, if there are two or more individuals responsible for the direction of the company. Data shows that 58.9% of the restaurants had only one person in charge. The remaining 41.1% represented either family businesses or restaurants with more than one business partner. 51.6% of all employees are women (13.2% of which work part-time) and 48.4% are men (6.7% working on part-time jobs). This shows that the number of men and women who hold subordinate positions is quite similar.
Employees
As mentioned before, only 155 employees were able to be interviewed. Results show that 51.6% are men and 48.4% women. Most of them (78.1%) live in the municipality of Aveiro, the average age is 37.46 years (37.72 for men and 37.17 for women), and there are no significant statistical differences between both groups (p= 0.785).
The academic qualifications are quite low, con-firming results from previous studies (e.g. Costa et al., 2011). Around 56.8% possess basic education studies and 29.7% completed secondary school. Only 5.2% have vocational training and 7.1% hold a university degree. The Chi-Square test showed that
there are no gender differences in the employees’
academic qualifications (c²=0.425).
Experience is a crucial aspect in today’s busi-nesses. The average working time in this sector is 13.55 years (14.1 for men and 12.9 for women). However, there are no statistical differences accord- ing to gender (p=0.501). In a related matter, restau-rants demand a lot of working hours. The average weekly work hours of employees are 43.5, with 45 for men and 41.7 for women; however, no statistical differences were found relating the amount of work-ing hours and gender (p=0.083).
In terms of contractual situation, women hold the majority of fixed term contracts (53.3%), while men are mostly represented in fixed-term employ-ment contracts (43.8%). In terms of monthly salary, 64% of women and 58.8% of men earn between 310i and 600i, while 26.7% of women and 33.8% of men earn between 600i and 900i. A Chi-Square test showed that there are no significant statistical differences according to gender (c²=0.272). These
results show that employees face an enormous challenge nowadays and their pay checks may be insufficient to provide for the whole family.
Leaders
Results gathered from restaurant leaders are different from employees. First of all, from all 83 interviewees, 74% are men. The remaining women who are in leadership positions are mostly leaders’ wives. The vast majority of the interviewees also live in the municipality of Aveiro (73.5%), and they are generally older than their subordinates, with an av-erage of 46.99 years old (46.77 for men and 47.41 for women). The t-student test showed that there are no statistical differences according to gender (p=0.802).
In terms of academic qualifications, results show that leaders are slightly better qualified (in terms of formal education) than their subordinates. Around 46% finished secondary school but 41% only pos-sess the basic education degree. However, around
10% have a university degree. In this case, the Chi-Square proves that there are statistical differences according to gender (c²= 0.025). Therefore, women leaders are better qualified than men, but still the main conclusion is that academic qualifications are not that high. Leaders naturally spend more time in restau-rants than their employees. They work, on aver-age, 67 hours per week, which is around 20 hours more than their subordinates. A t-student test showed that there are no statistical differences gender-wise (p=0,402). Also, they tend to be more experienced than their employees. Leaders work, on average, 20 years on the restaurant sector, but still these differences do not vary according to gender ( p= 0,076).
The last trend that was analysed in restaurant’s leaders was the monthly wage. Results show that 63.6% of women earn between 310i and 600i, while the vast majority (65.6%) of men earn be-tween 600i and 900i. The first conclusion is that leaders earn considerably more than their subordi-nates, but this is also related to their longer working hours and due to the fact that they explore their own businesses. The Chi-Square test shows that there are significant statistical differences according to gender (c²=0,000), proving that female leaders earn less than their male counterparts.
Leaders’ perceptions about women as leaders and employees
In this section, leaders were asked whether women are capable of being leaders in the restau-rants industry. They all mentioned that women can be leaders because they: (i) possess the same char-acteristics as men; (ii) are more capable to lead than men; (iii) have higher training and academic levels; (iv) are more determined and charismatic; and (v) are honest, committed and organized. In a scenario of hiring a new employee in a near future, presenting the same characteristics and skills, they would (i) recruit a female employee (13.3%); (ii) recruit a male employee (12%); (iii) recruit any of them (12%); (iv) not recruit any candidate (51.9%).
The main reasons why the last option has a high percentage is because of the economic crisis. Also, leaders mentioned that there are no discrimination according to gender. The key elements for recruiting subordinates is their appearance, kindness and spe-cific skills, so gender would not be a critical aspect when selecting a possible employee.
Main leadership traits according to employees Employees were inquired about the three main characteristics of leaders that they would identify as being male or female, according to their beliefs and past and present experience. Results have shown profound differences between male and female lead-ership traits. Men are seen as authoritarian (25%); respectable (16%); knowledgeable (11%) and ma-nipulative (8%). On the other hand, women are seen as organized (23%); creative (14%); comprehensive (13%) and responsible (10%).
According to employees, male leaders focus mainly on providing their services in a way that would decrease their costs. Women, on the other hand, try to create a harmonious environment, pro-moting better relationships with their subordinates and also customers.
Main leadership traits according to leaders Leaders were also asked to identify the main characteristics of male and female leaders accord-ing to their own perceptions. Men leaders are seen as authoritative (21%), stubborn (12%), motivated (12%) and demanding (10%). Women, on the other hand, are organized (31%), kind (12%), determined (10%) and committed (10%). In this case, it is impor-tant to mention that 25.3% of all leaders mentioned that there are no significant differences between men and women.
Results are quite similar when compared to employees’ perceptions. Women are clearly seen as more organized and men as more authoritative. However, leaders mentioned that multitasking is a very important characteristic for any restaurant lead-er, in order to improve the quality of the service.
Employees’ and leaders’ perception about gen-der equality There is a general consensus that women are not given the same opportunities as men. Leaders men-tioned that the existence of children, the amount of responsibilities at home and maternity are the main barriers for women’s progression in their careers in the restaurants industry. Employees, on the other hand, mentioned that sexual harassment and the lack of training or knowledge impose significant menaces for women’s careers.
Employees’ and leaders’ perception about lead-ership skills
Leaders and employees were questioned about the main aspects leaders should possess to create a competitive business. Results show that, both leaders and employees, highlight the importance of leaders avoiding being manipulative and authoritar-ian. Leaders should provide all the basic and key information to all subordinates so all parts are aware of the current situation of the enterprise. Neverthe-less, both parts focus on the importance of leaders being able to take decisions in the right moment and to produce new ideas for the restaurant. Also, lead-ers should be able to create positive relationships with their subordinates and to be responsible for eventual errors.
Employees give a special emphasis to leaders who do not interfere in their work as they feel they are capable of handling it themselves. They also refer that leaders should promote the expansion of innovative techniques. On the other hand, leaders believe that giving freedom of choice to employees is mandatory in order to be a good leader. Also, the creation of carefully structured objectives and an achievable vision is seen as a must for any leadership position in the restaurants industry.
Measures for gender equality in restaurants According to their knowledge and experience about the sector, leaders were inquired about even-tual measures that would promote gender equality.
Generally, five potential measures were highlighted in order to promote equal opportunities for all individuals, namely: (i) opportunities for employees to perform any given task; (ii) group decisions, in a democratic environment; (iii) justice and wage equal-ity; (iv) transference of confidence and responsibility towards employees; (v) flexible working schedule. In conclusion, leaders believe that there are plau-sible possibilities for gender equality. 50% of them admit that they have not implemented any specific measures to promote gender equality. However, the aforementioned measures are crucial to implement a competitive environment with motivated subordi-nates and, therefore, a fair environment. . Conclusion
The restaurants industry has yet to be studied and this study provides a solid view about its reality. Results show that restaurants in the Aveiro city are SMEs, which is consistent with data provided by the Statistics Portugal (INE, 2010). There is also lack of vertical mobility in this sector and most jobs are tem-porary and seasonal. This is coincidental to a number of previous studies (Costa, Carvalho, & Breda, 2010; Hemmati, 2000). However, the main difference that this study provides is that women are mostly repre-sented in fixed term employment contracts, while most men hold fixed-term contracts.
In terms of academic qualifications, results are similar to what Costa, Carvalho, Caçador and Breda (2012b) unveiled. Women are slightly more qualified than men but these differences are not statistically different. However, men dominate the leadership positions, while the few women in charge are mainly leaders’ wives. There are also differences in terms of leaders’ monthly wages, as men earn significantly more than women. The same conclusions have been referred by Costa et al. (2011).
The main barriers for gender equality are sexual harassment, the existence of children and maternity.
Also, it is hard for women to conciliate their job with unpaid work in the household. This disallows women to achieve leadership positions in restaurants. The same conclusions were taken in a general view by Torres and Silva (1998) and Iversen, Rosenbluth and Soskice (2004). Family businesses are key elements for women’s empowerment in restaurants, which is similar to what Zapalska and Brozik (2007) concluded.
There are no governmental measures that promote gender equality in Aveiro. Hoyt (2012) suggests pregnant women should be protected and they should be allowed to hold their jobs without any prejudice. Also, leaders verified that women are capable to lead but they feel there is still significant discrimination according to gender.
Female leaders are seen as more organized and creative, while men leaders are authoritative and manipulative. Comparing these results with what restaurants need, women leaders possess the qualities to achieve better competitiveness, as they tend to motivate their subordinates and create a respectful environment. However, efforts must be undertaken by all entities to ensure gender equality in all enterprises and sectors.
References
Alarcon, D. M., & Ferguson, L. (2011). El turismo como oportunidad: Buenas prácticas en turismo sostenible con perspectiva de género. España: FIIAPP.
Appelbaum, S. H., Audet, L., & Miller, J. C. (2003). Gender and leadership? Leadership and gender?: A journey through the landscape of theories. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 24(1), 43-51.
Belasen, A., & Frank, N. (2012). Women’s leadership: Using the competing values framework to evaluate the interactive effects of gender and personality traits on leadership roles. International Journal of Leadership Studies, 7(2), 192-214. Bem, S. M. (1974). The measurement of psychological androgyny.
Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 42(2), 155-162. Berg, M. v. d. (2011). Femininity as a city marketing strategy: Gender bending Rotterdam. Urban Studies, 49(1), 153-168. Buckmaster, S. (2004). Leadership and gender: Let me count the
ways. Accessed on 13 January 2013, available at http://www. futureworksconsulting.com/resources/ka9leadership.pdf Bullón, F. M. (2009). The gap between male and female pay in
the Spanish tourism industry. Tourism Management, 30, 638-649.
Butler, J. (1993). Bodies that matter: On the discursive limits of ‘sex’. New York: Routledge.
Camilleri, E. (2007). Leadership in the public service: Is there gender difference?. Paper presented at the European Group for Public Administration Annual Conference, Madrid, Spain. Chapman, J., & Randell, S. (2011). Contribution of tourism to
gender equality and women’s empowerment in the Great Lakes region. Paper presented at the International conference ‘Women’s empowerment through community-based tourism and cultural exchanges’, Kigali, Rwanda.
Costa, C., Carvalho, I., & Breda, Z. (2010). Women’s skills and constraints to vertical mobility in the tourism sector. Revista Turismo & Desenvolvimento, 13/14(3), 947-948.
Costa, C., Carvalho, I., & Breda, Z. (2011). Gender inequalities in tourism employment: The Portuguese case. Revista Turismo & Desenvolvimento, 15, 39-54.
Costa, C., Carvalho, I., Caçador, S., & Breda, Z. (2012a). Future higher education in tourism studies and the labor market: Gender perspectives on expectations and experiences. Journal of teaching in travel & tourism, 12(1), 70-90.
Costa, C., Carvalho, I., Caçador, S., & Breda, Z. (2012b). Gender and entrepreneurship in tourism: an analysis of tourism graduates’ entrepreneurial profile. Revista Turismo & Desenvolvimento, 12, 70-90.
Eagly, A. H., & Carli, L. L. (2003). The female leadership advantage: An evaluation of the evidence. The leadership quarterly, 14, 807-834.
EC. (2003). Commission Recommendation of 6 May 2003 concerning the definition of micro, small and medium-sized enterprises. Accessed on 27 January 2013, available at http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ: L:2003:124:0036:0041:EN:PDF
EHRC. (2010). A practical guide to revising gender equality schemes. Accessed on 13 January 2013, available at http:// www.equalityhumanrights.com/uploaded_files/PSD/a_ practical_guide_to_revising_gender_equality_schemes.pdf Ely, R. J., Ibarra, H., & Kolb, D. (2011). Taking gender into account:
Theory and design for women’s leadership programs: INSEAD.
Emmerik, H. v., Wendt, H., & Euwema, M. C. (2009). Gender ration, societal culture, and male and female leadership. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 83(4), 1-21. Ertac, S., & Gurdal, M. Y. (2012). Deciding to decide: gender,
leadership and risk-taking in groups. Journal of Economic Behaviour & Organzation, 83, 24-30.
Eurostat. (2010). Tourism statistics in the European Statistical System: 2008 data. Luxemburg: Eurostat.
Ferguson, L. (2007). Funding inequality: How socially conservative development projects limit the potential for gender equitable development. Political Perspectives, 1(1), 1-31.
Ferguson, L. (2010). Interrogating ‘gender’ in development policy and practice. International Feminist journal of Politics, 12(1), 3-24. Gill, R. (2006). Theory and practice of leadership. London: SAGE. González, P., Santos, M. C., & Santos, L. D. (2005). The gender
wage gap in Portugal: Recent evolution and decomposition. Porto: Centro de Estudos de Economia Industrial, do Trabalho e da Empresa.
Haig, D. (2004). The inexorable rise of gender and the decline of sex: Social change in academic titles, 1945-2001. Archives of Social Behavior, 33(2), 87-96.
Hanashiro, D., Nassif, F., Nassif, V., Carvalho, V., & Bido, D. (2005). Diversidade na liderança: Há diferença em género?. Atas do XXIX Enanpad (Vol, 1, pp. 462-463). Brasília.
Hausman, R., Tyson, L. D., & Zahidi, S. (2012). The global gender gap index 2012. Geneva: World Economic Forum.
Hemmati, M. (2000). Women’s employment and participation in tourism. Sustainable Travel & Tourism, 3, 17-20.
Henderson, K. (1994). Perspectives on analyzing gender, women and leisure. Journal of Leisure Research, 26, 119-137. Hoyt, C. L. (2012). Women and leadership: Theory and practice (5th
ed.). Thousand Oaks: SAGE.
INE (2010). Micro, pequenas e médias empresas em Portugal. Ac-cessed on 6 January 2013, available at http://www.ine.pt/xportal/ xmain?xpid=INE&xpgid=ine_destaques&DESTAQUESdest_bo ui=84834900&DESTAQUESmodo=2
Iversen, T., Rosenbluth, F., & Soskice, D. (2004). Women and the service sector. Accessed on 10 January 2013, available at www.international.ucla.edu
Jordan, F. (1997). An occupational hazard? Sex segregation in tourism employment. Tourism Management, 18(8), 525-534. Kara, D. (2012). Gender differences of middle-level hotel managers self evaluation ratings in Turkey. Journal of Human Resources in Hospitality and Tourism, 11, 1-15.
Ladkin, A., & Weber, K. (2011). Leadership issues and challenges in the tourism industry: A Hong Kong Perspective. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 16(3), 273-288.
Lindo, M. R. (2003). Empreendedorismo, estilos de liderança e diferenças quanto ao género. Accessed on 12 February 2013, available at http://www.icesi.edu.co/ciela/anteriores/Papers/ emjg/2.pdf
Macarie, F. C., Hintea, C., & Mora, C. (2011). Gender and leadership: The impacts on organizational culture of public institutions. Transylvanian Review of Administrative Sciences, 32, 146-156.
Marshall, J. (1993). Patterns of cultural awareness: Coping strategies for women managers. In C. Long & S. Kahn (Eds.), Women, work and coping. Montreal, Canada: McGill-Queens University Press.
Mediterranean Institute of Gender Studies. (2009). Glossary of gender-related terms. Accessed on 12 January 2013, available at http://www.peacewomen.org/assets/file/AdvocacyEduca-tionTools/genderglossary_migs_aug2005.pdf
Merrill-Sands, D., & Kolb, D. M. (2001). Women as leaders: The paradox of success. CGO Insights, Briefing Note Number 9. Center for Gender in Organizations: Simmons Graduate School of Management.
Mkhize, H. (2011). Women in leadership find themselves in a “Damned if you do/Damned if you don’t paradox”. Paper presented at the 3rd Annual Leadership Development for Women, Gold Reef City, JHB.
Möller, C. (2012). Gendered entrepreneurship in rural Latvia: Exploring feminities, work, and livelihood within rural tourism. Journal of Baltic Studies, 43, 75-94.
Nickson, D. (2007). Human resource management for the hospitality and tourism industries. London: Elsevier. Northouse, P. G. (2012). Leadership: Theory and practice (5th ed.). Thousand Oaks: SAGE. Oakley, J. G. (2000). Gender-based barriers to senior management positions: Understanding the scarcity of female CEOs. Journal of Business Ethics, 27, 321-334. Obadic, A., & Maric, I. (2009). The significance of tourism as an employment generator of female labour force. Ekonomska Misao i Praksa DBK, God XVIII(1), 93-114.
Observatory of European SMEs. (2003). SMEs in Europe 2003. Accessed on 6 January 2013, available at http://ec.europa.eu/ enterprise/policies/sme/files/analysis/doc/smes_observatory_ 2003_report7_en.pdf
Patterson, N., Mavin, S., & Turner, J. (2012). Envisioning female en-trepreneur: Leaders anew from a gender perspective. Gender in Management: An International Journal, 27(6), 395-416. Powell, G. N. (2011). The gender and leadership wars. Organizational
Dynamics, 40, 1-9.
Powell, G. N., Butterfield, D. A., & Bartol, K. M. (2008). Leader evaluations: A new female advantage?. Gender in Management: An International Journal, 23(3), 156-174. Pozo, A. G., Soria, J. A. C., Ollero, J. L. S., & Lara, M. M. (2012). The
regional wage gap in the Spanish hospitality sector based on a gender perspective. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 31, 266-275.
Purcell, K. (1997). Women’s employment in UK tourism: Gender roles and labour markets. In M. T. Sinclair (Ed.), Gender, work and tourism. London: Routledge.
Reeves, H., & Baden, S. (2000). Gender and development: Concepts and definitions. Brighton: Bridge.
Rudman, L. A., & Glick, p. (2001). Prescriptive gender stereotypes and Backlash toward agentic women. Journal of Social Issues, 57(4), 743-762.
Santos, L. D., & Varejão, J. (2006). Employment, pay and discrimination in the tourism industry. Faculty of Economics, University of Porto and CETE.
Schein, V. E., Mueller, R., & Jacobson, C. (1975). The relationship be- tween sex role stereotypes and requisite management charac-teristic among college students. Sex Roles, 20, 103-110. Simão, P. (2013). Igualdade de género e de liderança: O caso do
sector da restauração. Dissertação de Mestrado, Universidade de Aveiro, Aveiro.
Sinclair, M. T. (1997). Issues and theories of gender and work in tourism. In M. T. Sinclair (Ed.), Gender, work and tourism. London: Routledge.
Singh, P., Nadim, A., & Ezzedeen, S. (2012). Leadership styles and genders: An extension. Journal of Leadership Studies, 5(4), 6-19.
Skalpe, O. (2007). The CEO gender pay gap in the tourism industry: Evidence from Norway. Tourism Management, 28, 845-853. Smith, M. (2009). Analysis note: Gender equality and recession.
Grenoble: École de Management.
Swain, M. B. (1995). Gender in tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 22(2), 247-266.
Testa, M. R., & Sipe, L. (2012). Service-leaders competencies for hospitality and tourism management. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 31, 648-658.
Thrane, C. (2008). Earnings differentiation in the tourism industry: Gender, human capital and socio-demographic effects. Tourism Management, 29, 514-524.
Torres, A. C., & Silva, F. V. d. (1998). Guarda das crianças e divisão do trabalho entre homens e mulheres. Sociologia, Problemas e Práticas, 28, 9-65.
Trinidad, C., & Normore, A. H. (2005). Leadership and gender: a dangerous liaison?. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 26(7), 574-590.
Udry, J. R. (1994). The nature of gender. Demography, 31(4), 561-573.
Vadnjal, J., & Zupan, B. (2009). The role of women in family business. Economic and Business Review, 11(2), 159-177. WHO (2012). Gender, women and health. Accessed on 6 December,
available at http://www.who.int/gender/whatisgender/en/ index.html
Wilkinson, P. F., & Pratiwi, W. (1995). Gender and tourism in an In-donesian village. Annals of Tourism Research, 22, 283-299. Young, J. J. (2011). Leadership styles and gender role:
Internationalization among female managers in the United States. Advancing Women in Leadership, 31, 102-112. Zapalska, A. M., & Brozik, D. (2007). Managing family business in
the tourism and hospitality industry: the transitional economy of Poland. Zbornik Radova Ekonomskog Fakuleta u Rijeci, 25(1), 141-165.
