WATERPOLO
FORPLAYERS&TEACHERS
OFAQUATICS
PeteSnyder,Ph.D.
Professor,FullertonCollege,Fullerton,California
LayoutDesign:MaryJoReutter
©2008.Allrightsreserved.
Thismanualmaynot,inwholeorinpart,becopied,photocopied,reproduced,translated,orconverted toanyelectronicormachinereadableformwithoutpriorwrittenconsentoftheauthor.ItisWeb-pub-lishedbytheLA84Foundationunderalicensefromtheauthor.
FirstI’dliketothankMr.LundySmith,anEnglishteacherandheadGirlsWaterPoloCoachat PhillipsExeterAcademyinExeter,NewHampshire.Lundywasmosthelpfulinpointsofemphasis andgrammaticalstructureinthebook.
I’dalsoliketothankRogerNektonfromPhillipsExeter.Rogerjustretiredasheadboyswaterpolo andswimmingcoachafteralongandverydistinguishedcareerofoverthirtyyearsattheAcademy. Rogerprovidedvaluabletechnicalinputaswellasencouragementregardingtheneedforwritten materialinthesportofwaterpolo.
Asapictureisworthathousandwords,I’mveryindebtedtoMrs.ChrisKittredgeofCMK Enterprises(www.tudorgraphics.com).Chriswasabletocapturesomeofthemoredifficultteam aspectsofthegameonlybecauseofherdedication,extensiveknowledgeofovertwentyyearswiththe sportandherbrillianceasaphotographer.
MattBrown(www.mattbrownphoto.com)isanotherphotographerwhoexhibitedatremendous amountofalacrityinhiswaterpolophotos.MatthasbeeninOrangeCountyfortwodecadesand hasavastrepertoireandportfolioofsportingphotos.
ManygreatphotosthroughoutthebookweremadeavailablethroughthegenerosityofJoanGould (www.waterpoloplanet.com).Joan’stirelesseffortsattakingandpostingphotoshavehelpedspread waterpolothroughoutthecountryandtheworld.
FortechnicalexpertiseIamindebtedtoPhilThurman(www.sports.fullcoll.edu),SportsInformation DirectoratFullertonCollege.Phil’swillingnesstoanswerthemundaneandoftenremedialcomputer andtechnicalquestionswasextremelyvaluable.Philalsocreatedthecoverforthebook.
Manythanksalsotomywife,BeckySnyder,PresidentofABC-CLIO(www.ABC-CLIO.com),an awardwinningpublishingcompanyofhistorymaterialfortheeducationmarket.Beckypassedon bitsofherexpertiseregardingthepublishingindustryandthemarket(orlackthereof)forwaterpolo.
And,lastandmostimportantly,mychildrenGradyandKendall,bothofwhomweregenerous enoughtoallowmetopublishtheirhighschoolandcollegewaterpolophotosaswellasfieldnumer-ousinnocuousquestionsandcommentsaboutthesportweknowandlove.
TableofContents
Chapter 1: History and Tradition...................................................7
ComparisonsWithOtherSports....................................................................7
EvolutionandRules...................................................................................7
Women’sWaterPoloHistory.......................................................................11
NotableHistoricalChangesintheSport........................................................13
References............................................................................................16
Chapter 2: Physiological, Psychological, and Medical Aspects of Water Polo......................................................................................18
Physiology...........................................................................................18
Psychology...........................................................................................19
Biomechanics........................................................................................20
UpperBody....................................................................................21
LowerBody....................................................................................24
Nutrition.............................................................................................26
Injuries...............................................................................................26
GenderDifferences..................................................................................28
References............................................................................................29
Chapter 3: Basic Swimming Skills as Applied to Water Polo.........33
FrontCrawl..........................................................................................34
BackCrawl..........................................................................................35
Breaststroke..........................................................................................36
SideStroke...........................................................................................37
SampleSwimmingConditioningDrillsandTheirApplicabilitytoWaterPolo...............38
SampleBallHandlingConditioningDrills.....................................................39
EggbeaterLegMotionandSampleDrills.......................................................40
References............................................................................................41
Chapter 4: Individual Offensive Ball Handling Skills.....................42
Dribbling............................................................................................42
BallPickup...........................................................................................43
WheretoShoot,TargetsontheGoal.............................................................54
BasicShootingDrills...............................................................................55
TwoMeterOffenseResponsibilities,Shots.......................................................59
HalfCourtOffensePositions,Names,andNumbers...........................................63
TwoBasicOffensivePatterns......................................................................64
DriveStyle......................................................................................65
PickStyle......................................................................................66
References............................................................................................67
Chapter 6: Individual Defensive Skills – Team Defense.................68
BodyPosition–Player-to-playerPressureDefense...............................................68
FrontCourtPressingDefense.....................................................................70
PressuringtheBall..................................................................................72
GuardingtheTwo-MeterPlayer...................................................................73
FieldShotBlocking................................................................................75
SloughingandCrashing...........................................................................76
OtherIndividualDefensiveMoves................................................................78
References............................................................................................84
Chapter 7: Basic Water Polo Rules...............................................85
FieldofPlay.........................................................................................85
ClassificationofFouls..............................................................................86
Ordinary........................................................................................86
Ejection.........................................................................................88
Penalty..........................................................................................89
Major...........................................................................................90
RefereeSignals......................................................................................91
RulesQuestionsandResources....................................................................91
References............................................................................................92
Chapter 8: Six on Five Offense, Five on Six Defense.....................94
ShotsFrom1&6Positions........................................................................98
Three-ThreeOffensiveConfiguration............................................................99
FiveonSix(Playerdown)Defense..............................................................100
References..........................................................................................105
Chapter 9: The Goalie – “le gardien de but”..............................107
History.............................................................................................107
PsychologicalTraitsofGoalies...................................................................108
PhysicalMakeup..................................................................................111
GoalieFundamentals.............................................................................113
EggbeaterKick,Sculling....................................................................113
BodyPosition-ReadyPosition.............................................................114
HandPositions..............................................................................115
Positioning...................................................................................116
DuringandAftertheSave..................................................................117
FiveMeters..................................................................................121
Lobs...........................................................................................122
FinalThoughts...................................................................................124
References..........................................................................................125
Chapter 10: Fast Break or Counterattack Offense and Defense..126
OffensiveTransition..............................................................................126
DefensetoOffensepositioning..................................................................126
InitialBreak,Releases.............................................................................126
NumericalAdvantagesontheFastBreak.......................................................129
OneontheGoalie..........................................................................129
TwoOffensivePlayersonOneDefensivePlayer.........................................131
ThreeOffensivePlayersonTwoDefenders...............................................132
FourOffensivePlayersonThreeDefenders...............................................132
AdditionalThoughtsRegardingOffenseontheFastBreak...................................135
CounterattackDefense...........................................................................136
References..........................................................................................137
Appendix 1, Men’s Olympic Water Polo Results.........................138
Appendix 2, Women’s Olympic Water Polo Results....................139
Appendix 3, Stretching..............................................................140
Comparisons
Waterpoloisagamethatcapturesanumberofdifferentfacetsofsomeofthemore popularsportsinworldculture.Muchofwhatisinvolvedwithwaterpolo,ascanbe seeninthischapter,iscomparabletothesportsofhockey,basketball,andsoccer.
Tovisualizethesport,combinethedualskillsofswimmingandballhandling;and, addtoitthephysicalityandpowerplayopportunitiesofhockey,thefastbreakoppor-tunitiesandpassingofbasketballwiththepivot(center)position,andthepenetration andgoalieplayofsoccer.Waterpoloplayerstypicallyswimover1.5milesinagame.
Physiologistshaverankedthesportasoneofthemoststrenuousactivitiesofall.In 1991,waterpolowasquotedasthe“Bestoverallsportintermsofphysiological demandsplacedontheathlete,”byapanelofphysiologyexpertsfromalloverthe U.S.(Ludovise,C1,6)Theexerciseofswimmingitselfutilizesmanysetsofmuscles. Addtoswimmingthehead-highballhandlingskillsofpassingandshooting,theleg supportgeneratedthroughtheeggbeaterkickandthephysicalcontactbetweenplay-ers,andyouhaveathoroughlyarduoussport.
Evolution and Rules
Thegamehasasitsrootstheaquaticfestivals,calledgalas,whichwereheldinthe
theonlyconnectionbetweenwaterpoloandthehorseversion,aspolowasderived fromtheEastIndiesword“pulu”whichmeansball.Thefirst“pulu”ballwasmadeof Indianrubber.(Smith,2)Therewas,however,avarietyofthegamewheretheplayers playedonbarrelswithsticks.(Fig.1-1)
Inthe1860’s,therewasaversionof“footballinthewater”whichwasdevelopedbut notcodifiedbytheLondonSwimmingAssociation.ThefirstgameofWaterFootball wasplayedattheCrystalPalaceinLondonin1874.In1876,thefirstruleswere writtenbyWilliamWilsoninAberdeen,ScotlandattheBonAccordClub.Atthis time,Wilsondeemedthesport“AquaticFootball.”
Truetoitsearlydescriptions,thegamewassimilartoascruminrugbyandpoints werescoredbyphysicallyadvancingtheballoverorunderwaterandplacingiton agoal.Theball,originallyapig’sbladderwaslatermadeofrubber,andmalleable enoughtoevenfitinaplayers’swimsuit.(Fig.1-2)Twohandswereallowedbyall players.(Fig.1-3)(Worldwideaquatics,1)
Fig 1-2. Second official National Championships, Madison Square Garden, 1899
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In1888,theLondonwaterpololeaguemetandrevisedtherulestotakeadvantageof changesintheswimmingstrokes(Trudgeon)andthusspeedupthegame.Thegoal wasmadelarger(3feetby10feet)andapointcouldbescoredbythrowingtheball intothisarea.Thecompositionoftheballwaschangedtoleatherandthesevenfield playerscouldonlyusedonehand,andcouldonlybetacklediftheywereinposses-sionoftheball.Passingbecameamuchmoreintegralpartofthegame.(Worldwide aquatics,1)
Fig 1-3. Water polo at the Manhattan Athletic Club, February 28, 1891
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InthesameyearJohnRobinson,andEnglishman,introducedthegameintheUnited StatesattheBostonAthleticClub.Thefirstmen’scompetitionsinthesportwere betweenclubs,withtheKnickerbockerClubofNewYorktakingthefirstNational Championshipin1898.TheNewYorkAthleticClubstartedwaterpolointhe fallof1890.OneofthefirstrecordedseriesofmatcheswasbetweentheBoston AthleticAssociation(Club)andSydenhamofProvidence,in1890.(BostonAthletic AssociationReport,1890)
HistoryandTradition
Thedimensionsofthepoolhadalargeimpactontheearlytenorofthegame.With fewlargepools,waterpolohadaveryroughstylebecausetherewasn’tmuchroomfor thefourteenplayersandthusminimalswimmingspaceavailable.Withtheaddition ofnewfacilities,theEuropeangamechanged.TheEuropeanstookadominantrole inthesportmostespeciallywiththeadoptionofFINA,theFederationInternational deNatacionAmateur,astheuniformrulesin1911.TheU.S.schoolsandClubsstill “clung”totheolderstylewrestling“softballwaterpolo”rulesforyearstocome.
AsanOlympicsport,men’swaterpolowasaddedtotheprogramin1900attheParis Games.Waterpolo,alongwithsoccer,arethustheoldestteamsportsintheGames. (Fig.1-4)
Waterpolohaslongbeenaffiliatedwithschools.CambridgeUniversityinEngland fieldeditsmen’swaterpoloteamin1882andstartedtheoldestcollegiaterivalry inthesportwithOxfordin1891.TheU.S.universitiesstartedwaterpoloasearly as1897,whentheUniversityofPennsylvaniabeganitsprogram.(Lambertand Gaughran,5,11)Thesportwasunfortunatelydroppedasmen’svarsitystatusfromthe IvyLeaguein1937.Mostrecently,PrinceWilliamwasamemberoftheUniversityof St.AndrewswaterpoloteamandpriortothatplayedatEton.(PrinceofWales,1)
Men’swaterpolowasrevivedontheWestCoastinthelate1920’sandearly30’sas newerCollegesanduniversitieswerethebeneficiariesofmoremodernpoolswhich createdtheopportunitytoplaythesportusingamoremobileswimmingstyle. –Fullertonestablishedthefirstcommunitycollegeteamin1933.
Fig. 1-4. Olympiad X, 1932, Los Angeles Coliseum Pool
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Aspartofitsresurrection,theN.C.A.A.deviseda“new”setofwaterpoloruleswhich weresimilartobasketball.Thesewereplayedthroughoutthe1950’sand1960’sand requiredthatfieldplayersbeallowedalimitednumberoffouls(five)ofanyvarietyper game.Onceagain,theAmericans,duringtheircollegeseason,playeddifferentrules thantherestoftheworld.
ThefirstN.C.A.A.Men’sWaterPoloChampionshipwascontestedin1969.
Gradually,therewereincrementalchangesuntilfinally,in1976,thecollegesadopted theF.I.N.A.styleofrulesallowingunlimited“normal”fouls.Therearecurrentlyfifty CollegesandUniversitiesintheU.S.whichsponsorMen’svarsityintercollegiatewater polo.(N.C.A.A.website)
Women's Water Polo History
Asinmanysports,women’swaterpoloremainedinrelativeobscuritythroughthe early1900’s.Women’sintramuralvarietiesofwaterpolowereplayedintheearly 1900’s(Cambridgewebsite).Oneoftheearliestrecordedcompetitionstookplacein 1926,whentheAmateurAthleticUnion(A.A.U.)NationalswerewonbytheLos AngelesAthleticClub.TheNationalChampionshipswereestablishedonapermanent basisbetween1961-1962,largelyduetotheeffortsofRoseMaryDawson,coachof theAnnArborClubinMichigan.(2004HallofFame,19)
1926 LosAngelesAthleticClub,LosAngeles,California
1931 PacificCoastClub,LongBeach,California
1962 AnnArborSwimClub,AnnArbor,Michigan
Fig. 1-5. Women's Outdoor National Club Championships, 1926-1977 (A.A.U.) ; 1978-present United States Water Polo, Inc.
(Smith, 429, HickokSports.com)
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Fact:SevenCalifornia Collegeshavewonall 38Men’sN.C.A.A.
HistoryandTradition
1964 MontanaSwimClub,MilesCity,Montana
1965-1967 NorthernVirginiaAquaticClub,Arlington,Virginia
1968 FoothillFarmsSwimClub,Sacramento,California
1969 NorthernVirginiaAquaticClub,Arlington,Virginia
1970 SheridanSwimClub,Quincy,Illinois
1972-1973 CoralGablesSwimAssociation,CoralGables,Florida
1974 NorthDadeSwimClub,Miami,Florida
1975 NorthMiamiBeachClub,Miami,Florida
1976 FullertonAreaSwimTeam,Fullerton,California
1980-1981 IndustryHillsAquaticClub,IndustryHills,California
1982 SlipperyRockSwimClub,SlipperyRock,Pennsylvania
1983 SealBeachSwimClub,SealBeach,California
1984 IndustryHillsAquaticClub,IndustryHills,California
1985 IndustryHillsAquaticClub,IndustryHills,California
1986 SantaAnaWaterPoloClub,SantaAna,California
1987 BeachAquatics,LongBeach,California
1988 HawaiianWaterPoloClub,Honolulu,Hawaii
1989 BeachAquatics,LongBeach,California
1990 BeachAquatics,LongBeach,California
1991 CaliforniaWaterPoloClub,Berkeley,California
1992 BeachAquatics,LongBeach,California
1993 SunsetAquatics,SanDiego,California
1994 Modesto/StanislausWaterPolo,Modesto,California
1995 SunsetAquatics,SanDiego,California
1996 SunsetAquatics,SanDiego,California
1997 Modesto/StanislausWaterPolo,Modesto,California
1998 CaliforniaWaterPoloClub,Berkeley,California
1999 GoldenBearWaterPoloClub,Berkeley,California
2000 NorCalAquatics,Concord,California
2001 O.R.C.A.,VillaPark,California
2002 SanDiegoState“A”,SanDiego,California
2003 StanfordWaterPolo,PaloAlto,California
2004 DevilMountain,WalnutCreek,California
2005 SanDiegoShores,SanDiego,California
2006 SouthernCal,LosAngeles,California
Tournamentwascontestedin2001.TherearecurrentlysixtyoneCollegesand UniversitiesintheU.S.whichsponsorwomen’swaterpoloasavarsityintercollegiate sport.(NCAAwebsite)
Women’sWaterPolobecameanOlympicsportin2000attheSydneyGames.(Fig.1-6)Theadditionofthewomen’scompetitiontotheOlympicProgramwasdueinlarge measuretodailyproteststhatwerestagedbytheAustralianWomen’sNationalTeam duringthe1999InternationalOlympicCommitteemeetinginMelbourne.(Wigo, “SpeakingOut”,7)
Notable Evolutionary Changes in the Sport
•Ball–Itscompositionchangedfromleathertorubberexteriorwithacottoninner liningduetoJamesR.Smith’sinventionandcollaborationwithAMFVoitin 1936.Folklorehasitthatthecolorwaschangedfromredtocurrent“yellow”in 1948becausethefabricfortherubberballwasmadefrom“MaeWest”lifejack-ets.Anotherreasongivenforthenew“opticyellow”lookwastoimprovevisibility. Therubberballfinallywasusedinthe1956MelbourneOlympics.Inthe1980 MoscowOlympicsanyloninnerliningwasintroduced,whichmadetherubber ballmuch“livelier”andmorelikelytoskiponthesurfaceofthewaterthanthe cotton-linedball.(UPS,2)
•Caps–Originallyusedcottonmaterialwithoutnumerals,andtwodifferentcolors todistinguishteams.Inthemidseventies,cottonwithnumeralsandearguardsfor
Fig. 1-6. Women’s Action, Sydney Olympic Games 2000
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HistoryandTradition
protectionwereworn.Currently,nyloncapswithnumeralsandearguardsandmul-tiplecolorsareused.
•Suits–changedfromfulllength“costumes”to“trunks”(orbriefs)formeninthe early1930’s,therebyallowinglessmaterialforplayerstograbaholdof.Women’s suitscontinuetoevolveineffortstoovercometheserestrainingimpedimentsdue toplayer-to-playercontact.(LambertandGaughran,14)
•Lengthofgame–changedfromfourquartersoffiveminuteseachtofourquar-tersofsevenminuteseachin1976MontrealOlympicstoplacemoreemphasison endurance.Currentlythegamelengthisfourquartersofeightminuteseach.
•Gameformat–Wentfromtwohalvestofourquartersinthelate1950’s.
•Sizeofsquad–changedfromelevenplayersonasidetothirteenplayersonaside in1984LosAngelesOlympicsinordertoallowformoresubstitutionamongplay-ers.TheWomen’srostersizehasremainedateleven.(Athens,1)
•Timeouts–Werenotalloweduntil2000SydneyOlympicGames,wheretwowere allowedfortheregulationgameandoneduringovertime.
•Pooldimensions–the30m.by20m.coursewithminimumdepthof7ft.and numbersofplayersonaside(n=7)haveremainedconstantfornearlyacentury. Thesizeofthegoalhasremained3feetby10feetperpetually,aswell.Inthe women’sgame,thecourseisslightlyshorter(25m.).Theoneexceptionwasthe 2004AthensOlympicGameswherethelengthwasmovedto30m.
•Overtimeplay–Firstintroducedinthe1988Olympicsinordertobreaktiesasa possibleconclusiontomatchesinchampionshipgames.(TheU.S.lostachance foragoldmedalinthe1984LosAngelesOlympicGamesasaresultofatiewith Yugoslaviainthegoldmedalgame.ThesewerethelastGameswhereamedal couldbedecidedafteratieonthebasisofgoaldifferential.)
•Referees–originallytherewasonerefereeutilizedpermatch.In1980,atthe MoscowOlympicGames,thiswaschangedtoincludetworefereesinorderto detectandcallmoreofthefoulingthattakesplace.In1997,theuseofflagsto indicatepossessionwasdroppedinfavorofhanddirectionsandpointing.
ValentinProkopov,openedupErvinZador’seyewithapunchinthefourthquar-ter.(Fig.1-7)ThegamehadtobecalledoffwiththeHungarianswinning,4-0and muchblood-letting.Onerefereewasn’tnearlyenoughtocontroltheoverly-physical contact.HalfoftheHungarianteamdefectedafterthegameratherthanreturnto Sovietrepressionathome.ManyoftheseplayerscametoCaliforniaandtaughtthe U.S.playersnewtactics,includingtheeggbeaterkick.(wikidpolo,4-5).Thestoryof theHungarianwaterpoloathletesandtheirdefectionfromtheawfulbrutalityoccur-ringinBudapesthasbeencapturedinarecent2006documentary:“Freedom’sFury,” written,directedandfilmedbyColinKeithGrayandMeganRaneyAarons.www. freedomsfury.com
Fig. 1-7. December , 1956
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HistoryandTradition
•Exclusions–withthisvarietyoffoul,aplayerisremovedforaspecifiedperiodof time.Theamountoftimehasbeenreducedovertheyearsfromuntilagoalis
scored(priorto1964)tothepresent20secondsor
untilthereisachangeofposses-sionorgoalscored.(Fig.1-8)
•Nomovingrule–priorto1952,playersweretoremainstationaryafterthewhistle wasblown.Thiswaschangedtoallowmoremovementinthegameinthe1956 MelbourneOlympics.(U.S.A.WaterPolo,“Tributeto1996…”,17-18)
Asonecansee,therulesevolutionhasaddedswimmingstaminaandteamplaytothe alreadyruggednatureofwaterpolo.Thishasmadethegamedynamic,fastmoving, andquicktherebyincreasingspectatorinterest.
InMen’sOlympiccompetition,Hungaryhasbeenfarandawaythemostdomi-nantcountry,winningeightgoldmedalsinover100yearsofcompetition,with GreatBritainadistantsecondwithfour–mostlyearlyinthe20thcentury(see Appendix#1).Thereare75participatingcountriesintheWorldthatparticipate internationallyinthesportofwaterpolo.(FINA,1)
InWomen’sOlympiccompetition,thetwogoldmedalistshavebeenAustralia(’00) andItaly(’04)(seeAppendix#2).
References:
Arts,BooksandSport.“ThatSinkingFeeling.”TheEconomist,332.7876(August 13,1994):49.
Athens2004.“TheOfficialWebsiteoftheAthensOlympicGames–XXVII Olympiad.”AthensOlympicCommittee.8August2004.<www.Athens2004.com>
BostonAthleticAssociationReport,1890-91.
F.I.N.A.“OfficialsList.”FederationInternationaledeNatacionAmateur.3April 2005.<http://www.fina.org/officialslist>
Juba,Kelvin.AllAboutWaterPolo.London:PelhamBooks,1972
Kozole,LovorkaandStojkovic,Dragan.“SportsasWar.”TransitionsOnline,(June 23,2003):pN.PaG
Lambert,ArthurandRobertGaughran.TheTechniqueofv.NorthHollywood,CA.: SwimmingWorldPublications,1969.
Ludovise,Barbie.“InDemand,ThisSportisTop.”LosAngelesTimes,16January 1991,C1,C6
N.C.A.A.“PastChampions,WaterPolo.”N.C.A.A.publications.May2005.www. ncaasports.com/waterpolo
NationalCollegiateAthleticAssociation.WaterPoloRuleBook.Indianapolis, Indiana:N.C.A.A.Publications,2004.
PrinceofWales.“St.Andrews.”April2004.<http://www.princeowales.gov.uk>
PeopleMagazine.“PrinceWilliamWet&Wild.”People,61.17(May3,2004):58-59.
UnitedParcelService.“TheOriginsofWaterPolo.”U.P.S.InternationalCupGame ProgramJuly1999:12.
U.S.WaterPoloChampionships.September2005.www.HickokSports.com>
U.S.A.WaterPolo.“ABriefHistoryofWaterPolo.”HallofFameProgramJanuary 2004:17-18.
U.S.A.WaterPolo.“Tributeto1996UnitedStatesOlympicWaterPoloTeam.”Los Olivos,Ca.1996
Smith,JamesR.TheWorldEncyclopediaofWaterPolo.LosOlivos,Ca.:OlivePress,1989.
Sykey,Bill.“Factoid.”SportsIllustrated101.1(July5,2004):40.
Wigo,Bruce.“SpeakingOut.”WaterPoloScoreboard(October/November2000):6.
Wikipedia.“WaterPolo.”24March2005,p.4,http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WaterPolo
Physiology
Physiologicallyandpsychologically,waterpoloisaverydemandingandmentally challengingsport.Apanelofeightexercisephysiologists(Ludovese,C6)rankedwater polohighestinathleticismwhencomparingittobadminton,baseball,basketball, cross-country,football,golf,soccer,softball,swimming,tennis,trackandfield,vol-leyball,andwrestling.Thisrankingincludedmeasuresforaerobicendurance,agility, anaerobicendurance,bodycomposition,quickness,skill,speedandstrength.Let’s lookatthephysiological,psychological,biomechanical,andmedicalbasesforthis highranking.
First,waterpolocombinesthesportofswimmingwithballhandling.Swimming itselfutilizes15.7-20.0kilocaloriesperminute,morethananyotherformofphysi-calactivity(WilmoreandCostil,p.148).Inaddition,swimminghasbeenfoundto haveaMetabolicEquivalent(MET)valueof20-30,roughlythesameasrunning (Wilmore&Costil,p.622).
Likeswimming,waterpolomakeslargedemandsonaerobicandanaerobicsystems. Thevarietyofworkinvolvedinthegameforfieldplayerscanbebrokendownas roughly50-60%aerobic,30-35%anaerobic,and10-15%,immediateenergy(ATP-PC)system(Smith,p.331).Thethirdcomponentlisted–immediateenergy-is largelytheresultofthephysicalcontactinvolvedinthegame.
Waterpoloisveryintermittent,withintenseburstsofactivityoccurringandvary-ingaccordingtotheplayers’positionsinthepool.Ithasbeenobservedthatelite malewaterpoloplayershaveapproximately6-20%greateroxygenconsumptionthan competitiveswimmers(Smith,p.328).ComparativestudieshaveshownthatVO2 maxishigherforinternationallevelswimmersthanwaterpoloplayersorpentathletes (Cazorla&Montpetit,p.253).(Vo2isameasureofthebodies’abilitytouseoxygen intheproductionofenergythatisaerobicenergy,measuredinLitersperminute)
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H A P T E RWaterpoloplayers’heartrateshavebeenmeasuredinexcessof150beatsperminute for91.8%ofactualplayingtime(Smith,Pinnington,et.al.,p.6).And,waterpolo playersbloodlactatelevelshavebeenmeasuredatarangeof6.72mmol/Lforyounger femaleplayers(Nemet,et.al.p.360)to7-9mmol/L.foroldereliteandfemalemale players(Rodriguez….Hollander).Lactatelevelsareameasureofenergyoutput duringexerciseandthetypicalresting,non-exerciserateisbetween1and2mmol/ L.Trackcompetitors,bycomparison,havebloodlactatelevelsrangingbetween8-10mmol/L.duringcompetition(Wilmore&Costill,p.199)
Theusualdistanceswumbyplayersduringawaterpolocompetitionisbetween 1500-1800meters(Smith,p.322,Hohmann&Frase,p.316).Consideringtheper-centageofaerobicworkbeingdoneduringawaterpolomatch,thissystemshould beaddressedverysimilarlytoswimmers’training(4-6,000m./day).Bothaerobicand anaerobicsystemsmustbebuiltinthetrainingofwaterpoloplayers,becauseofthe totalplayingtimealargepercentageoftheswimmingwas“steadystate”andbelow theaerobicthreshold(Hohmann&Frase,316).
Secondly,muscularenduranceistheabilityofasinglemuscleorgrouptosustain highintensity,andrepetitiveorstaticexercise.Itisthereforelikelythatthemost effectiveformofconditioningforwaterpolois“…repeated,fast-paced,briefvariable burstswithshortrestintervalsbetweenbursts…”toachievetheexercisemostsimilar tothewaterpologame(Wilmore&Costil,p.273).Acombinationoftrainingthat includesbothaerobicandanaerobicemphasesisbesttodevelopthemusculatureand cardiovascularsystemsnecessaryforthecompetition.Fatletk(fast/slow)trainingwith about20%ofthetimeswimmingatsprintspeedand80%atslowspeedisanother recommendedformoftraining(Hohmann&Frase,p.319).
Additionalpositivephysicalbenefitsofwaterpoloareenlargementoftheheart muscleinordertopumpmoreblood,andanincreaseinbodymassasaresultofthe physicalstruggleandcontactmadebetweenplayers(Pavli,et.al).
Psychology
Physiological,Psychological,andMedicalAspectsofWaterPolo
spatialorientations–whilebasketballplayerswerebetteronpredictionandselective attentionandvolleyballplayerswerebestonperceptualspeed,focusedattention,pre-diction,andestimationofspeedanddirectionofamovingobject(Kiomourtzoglou, et.al,1998).
Similartoothersports,apsychologicalvariablewhichhasbeenprovenbeneficialfor waterpoloathletesisthedevelopmentofapre-performanceroutine.Marlow,et.al. (1999)foundsignificantincreasesinwaterpolopenaltyshotperformancesduetoper-sonalizedpre-performanceroutinesincludingconcentrationcues,relaxation,imagery, andcuewords.
Waterpolorequiresthinkingwhichisanalyticalandimmediate.Players,becauseof thelackofvisualmemorythatisavailablethroughthemedia,aremuchthebeneficia-riesofactualexperienceincomplexsituationsthataccumulateoveranumberofyears.
Biomechanics
Asinallsports,strengthtrainingisofgreatvalueinenhancingsuccessfulwaterpolo performances.Thereareseveralmusclegroupsutilizedinthebasicactionsofthrow-ingaballaswellasinswimmingheadupandeggbeatering.
Regardingthrowingtechnique,Newton’s2ndlawofmotion(F=m·a)asappliedto accelerationstatesthatthevelocityofanobject...dependsuponboththeamountof forceandthelengthoftimeoverwhichtheforceisapplied.Therefore,whenmore musclesareusedoveralongerdistance,moreforceisattainable.And,whenmore contributingbodyparts(joints)arebroughtintotheaction,iftheyareinsequence, themorespeedispossible.(Broer,p.234,246)
Theoptimalsuccessionoflevers(joints)fortheoverarmbaseballthrowusedinwater polois:
Outward/inwardrotationofspine&back(Fig.2-1,2-2)
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extensionto flexion,externaltointernalrotationandhorizontalab-toadductionofshoul-der(Fig.2-3,2-4)➞
extensiontoflexionofelbow(Fig.2-5,2-6)➞
hyperextensiontoflexionandpronationofwristandfingers.(Fig.2-5,2-6)Physiological,Psychological,andMedicalAspectsofWaterPolo
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Thebiomechanicsandkinematicsofsuccessfulandnon-injuriousarmmovementinthe throwingmotionhavebeenstudiedandanalyzedwiththefollowingrecommendations: (Davis&Blanksby,Elliot&Armour,Falcone,FeltnerandNelson,Whiting,et.al.)
•Regardingtheanglebendattheelbow,duringthethrowingmotiontheinitial
startingpointafteracircularpathbackwardshouldbebetween89-155º,withthe optimalbetween90-120º.
•Theanglefortheelbowatthereleasepointisbetween148ºand158º.
•Attheconclusionofthethrow,thereleasepointforthewristisbetween148ºand180º.
Fig. 2-7.
Physiological,Psychological,andMedicalAspectsofWaterPolo
•Thefollowthroughangleoftheelbowshouldbe180º.
•Theinternalrotationandhorizontaladductionoftheshoulder,aspartofthesuc-cessionoflevers,contributesignificantlytoballspeedatrelease.
•Theeggbeaterkickisanessentialstabilizingcomponent,asthereisnofixedpoint fromwhichthebodycanpivot.Typicallytheextensionphaseofthelegscoincides withtheforwardmovementofthethrowingarm.
Asitemizedabove,thesequenceofleversfacilitatesthetransferoftorquefromthe largemusclegroupstothesmalldistalmusclegroupstherebyincreasingtheforce.At theendofthechain,“Themovementofthewristjointshouldbecoordinatedwith elbowextensionifmaximumballvelocityistobeachieved.”(Elliott&Armour,p.113)
Progressiveresistance,plyometric,andisokineticexerciseswhichcanstrengthen theaforementionedmusclesshouldbedonebefore,during,andaftertheseasonof competition.Thesetypeofexercises,especiallyworkingonthemusculaturewhichis significantlyweakerandimbalancedwithothermusclegroups,arebeneficialinreha-bilitationandpreventionofinjuries.(seeAppendixthree)
Womeninparticularcangainconsiderablemajorincreaseinstrength(20-40%)asa resultofresistancetraining.And,contrarytotheconcernover“bigness”thisstrength gainisnotaccompaniedbylargeincreasesinmusclemassasthelargerlevelsoftestos-teroneinmalesiswhatcontributestomoremuscles(Wilmore&Costil,p.580,82).
Lowerbodymusculature–stabilizationviaeggbeater (alternatingfrog)kick
Coordinationbetweenonelegandanotherintheeggbeaterkickisanimportant baseforthepassandshotinwaterpolo.Correcttechniquewiththiskickwillhelp provideadequatesupporttobeabletopassandshoot.Thisoptimalsequenceisas follows(oneleg):
SuccessionofLeversforOneLegintheEggbeaterKick: (seechapter9“Goalkeeper”also)
Hipabduction,flexion,&outwardrotation
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kneeflexion➞
ankledorsiflexion&eversion
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ankleinversion&plantarflexion➞
kneeThetimingofthetwo-legcycleissuchthatatfullkneeextensionandplantarflexion forthefirstleg,thesecondlegisatmaximalkneeflexionandankledorsiflexion,and vice-versa.(Sanders,p.282).(Fig.2-11)
Majormusclegroupsusedintheeggbeaterkickareshownbelow:
Underwaterphotosoflegmusclesutilizedineggbeater
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Fig. 2-9.
Physiological,Psychological,andMedicalAspectsofWaterPolo
Nutrition
Aswithmostsports,hydrationisofutmostimportance.“Fluidbalanceduringexer-ciseiscriticalforoptimalcardiovascularandthermoregulatoryfunction.”(Wilmore &Costil,p.178)Fluidlossisnotaspronouncedinaquaticsathletesasinrunners. Mostfluidlossforaquaticsathletescomesthroughconductionandconvection,there-forethereisnottheevaporationthattakesplaceonland.Forlandsportathletes, 80%ofheatlosscomesthroughevaporation(Wilmore&Costil,p.311).
Theaveragelongdistancerunnerloses.96to1.27L/houroffluids.(Juhn,MS& Henehan,p.393)Malebasketballplayerslose7.97-10.79L/houroffluids.(Cox, et.al.,p.190)Incontrast,theaveragefluidlossforwaterpoloplayershasbeenreport-edas.51L/hour.
Aquaticsathletes,ingeneral,need.5L/hourinordertobewellhydratedduringcom-petition.Alossofmorethan5%ofhisorhertotalbodyweightwilllikelyresultin performancedecrementsforwaterpoloathletes.
Inordertoenableefficientmuscularcontraction,threebasicmineralsarenecessary aspartoffluidand/orsolidintake:calcium,potassium,andsodium.Calciumcanbe foundinlargepercentagesdairyproductsandvegetables;potassiumisfoundinfruits, vegetables,andmilkproducts;andsodiumcanbeattainedthroughmoderateaddi-tionofsalttothediet.(Houtkooper,pp.39-40)
Themostessentialnutrientnecessaryforreplacementduringrigorousexerciseisgly-cogen.Becauseofthedemandsontheanaerobicsystemandtheglycolicanaerobic system,andformuscularefficiency,ithasbeensuggestedthatwaterpoloathletes need6gramsofcarbohydrate8timesaday(Farajian,et.al,p.570).Muscleglycogen resynthesisismostrapidwhenindividualsarefedatleast50gramsofglucoseevery twohoursafterexercise(Wilmore&Costil,p.178)
Injuries
combinedwithheadupswimming,reducestheamountofbodyrolltheathletecan useduringhis(her)strokesandthereforemoreforcedab-andadductionmovements oftheshoulderregion.
Inaddition,thewaterpoloathletemustthrowfrommanydifferentbodypositions
withoutafirmbaseuponwhichtobalance–i.e.thereisnofixedpointaround
whichtorotate.Goodmechanicsareessentialinordertoavoidinjury.Inthe
shoulderjoint,abductionandexternalrotation,combinedwithmaximumforward flexionoftheglenohumeraljointplacesalargeamountofforceontherotatorcuff area.(Colville&Markman,p.307,Chalmers&Morrison,p.761)
Shoulderpaininwaterpolocanmostoftenbeattributedtothefollowing:
•Astrengthimbalancebetweentheinternalrotatorsandadductorsoftheshoulder incontrasttotheexternalrotatorsofthedeltoidandrotatorcuffmuscles.
•Biomechanicsthatplaceunduestressontheshoulderaspartofthesuccessionof levers(i.e.<90ºor>120ºattheelbowjoint)
•Inadequatewarm-upofmusculatureandtendonspriortothehighdegreeofaccel-erationandkineticenergyappliedtothebodyduringshooting.
•Combinationsofheadupswimming(butterfly)andpassing/shootingdonein excesspriortothesupportingmusculaturebeingstrongenoughtosupportthese activitiesoveralongterm.
Evengoodthrowersaresusceptibletoinjuryduetothetransferoftorquethroughthe successionoflevers.
Ataminimum,waterpoloplayersshouldworktoestablisharemedialprogramto rebalancetherotatorcuffwithexercisesthatworkontheabductorsandexternalrota-torsinordertoequalizethemusculaturestrengthinthisarea.(McMaster,et.al.,p.75)