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COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT AND ITS IMPLICATION TO THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH AS A

FOREIGN LANGUAGE

Dissertação apresentada ao Curso de Pós- Graduação em Letras, área de concentra- ção: Língua Inglesa, do Setor de Ciências Humanas, Letras e Artes da Universidade Federal do Paraná, para a obtenção do grau de Mestre em Letras.

Orientador: Prof.' Dr." Cecília Inés Erthal

C U R I T I B A

1 9 8 8

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Page 1, line 22, instead of "necessary tools", please read "ade- quate structures

Page 25, line 24, instead of "to his development stage? please read "to his menta^ development stage".

Page 58, lines 2 and 3, instead of "no powers of reflection"

please read "no powers of expressing his ideas".

Page 59, line 23, instead of "adolescents will have problems to argue", please read "adolescents will probably have problems to argue".

Page 60, line 2, instead of "they will be able to" please read

"they will probably be able to".

Page 60, line 11, instead of "they will be able to write" please read "they will probably be able to write".

Page 60, line 23, instead of "They will not be able to" please read "They will probably not be able to".

p age 60, line 26, instead of "students will have difficulty to"

please read "students will probably have difficulty to".

Page 67, lines 13-15, instead of "They have no way to make a

promise or threat because there were no examples of this modality.

It is expressed by the use of SHALL", please read "They can aake a promise or threat by using speech acts or conditional clauses, IP clauses, but they will not be able to eatress this modality by the use of"SHALL". .

Page 69, instead of "Logical Connectors", please read "Logical Connectors, Occurence and Frequency". •

Page 70, instead of K Modal Verbs", please read "Modal Terbs, Occurence and Frequency"»

Page 81, line 5, instead of "desnvolvimento", please read "desen- volvimento".

Page 91, line 15, instead of "The Growth of Thinking", please

read "The Growth of Logical Thinking".

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P R O F A . D R A . C E C Í L I A I N È S E R T H A L P h D em L i n g ü í s t i c a , Area S e m â n t i - c a , pela Univ/«rsidade de L e e d s , I n g l a t e r r a .

P r o f e s s o r A d j u n t o n a U n i v e r s i d a d e

F e d e r a l do P a r a n á

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I w o u l d l i k e to e x p r e s s my g r a t i t u d e to my a d v i s o r , P r o f ? Drf C e c i l i a I n é s E r t h a l , for her i n v a l u a b l e a s s i s t a n c e and g u i d a n c e d u r i n g the p r e p a r a t i o n of t h i s r e s e a r c h , -fil y m o s t s i n c e r e t h a n k s to the t e a c h e r s of

the E n g l i s h L a n g u a g e P r o g r a m of the U n i -

v e r s i d a d e F e d e r a l do F a r a n á and of t h e

F u n d a ç ã o U n i v e r s i d a d e E s t a d u a l de ¡Vlaringá,

to my f r i e n d s , and in s p e c i a l to my f a m i l y ,

w i t h o u t uihose l o v e and s u p p o r t t h i s w o r k

w o u l d n o t h a v e been p o s s i b l e .

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A B S T R A C T . . . . iv

1 . I N T R O D U C T I O N 1 1 . 1 M E T H O D O L O G Y 7 2 . R E V I E W OF L I T E R A T U R E T Õ

2.1 THE C O G N I T I V E DEV E L O P M E N T THEORY 10 2.1.1 L i n g u i s t i c M a r k e r s of C o g n i t i v e D e v e l o p m e n t 19

2.2 L O G I C A L C O N N E C T O R S 26

2.3 M O D A L VERBS 38 3 . P R E S E N T A T I O N OF THE DATA 56

3 . 1 L O G I C A L C O N N E C T O R S 56

3 . 2 M O D A L V E R B S 62 4 . C O N C L U S I O N 7 2

RESUIÏ10 8 1 A N N E X 1 - M O D A L V E R B S S A M P L E S C O L L E C T E D FROM "PERSON TO

P E R S O N " 82 A N N E X 2 - M O D A L V E R B S S A M P L E S C O L L E C T E D FROM " S T R E A M L I N E ;

E N G L I S H D E P A R T U R E S " 86

b i b l i o g r a p h y 91

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The aim of t h i s r e s e a r c h is to s t u d y c o g n i t i v e d e v e l o p - m e n t and i t s i m p l i c a t i o n to the t e a c h i n g of E n g l i s h as a f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e , i . e . , to c h e c k w h e t h e r the L a n g u a g e C o u r s e s in B r a z i l p r o v i d e the l e v e l of p r o f i c i e n c y for the s t u d e n t s to c o m m u n i c a t e at the l e v e l of c o g n i t i v e d e v e l o p m e n t they are i n , t h a t of f o r m a l o p e r a t i o n s , a n d , c o n s e q u e n t l y , a r g u e , e s p e c i a l l y d u r i n g t h e i r l i t e r a t u r e c l a s s e s . T h i s work i n v o l v e s the study of the m o d a l v e r b s and the l o g i c a l c o n n e c t o r s c o l l e c t e d from the b a s i c t e x t s of e a c h u n i t of t w o - f i r s t - y e a r E n g l i s h c o u r s e b o o k s u s e d at U n i v e r s i t y l e v e l . The a n a l y s i s is c a r r i e d o u t on a c o g n i t i v e d e v e l o p m e n t p e r s p e c t i v e , d e r i v e d from d i f f e r e n t a u t h o r s .

T h e r e f o r e , a r e v i e w of the l i t e r a t u r e on c o g n i t i v e d e v e l o p m e n t , l o g i c a l c o n n e c t o r s and m o d a l v e r b s has been i n c l u d e d in the p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h .

A f t e r a n a l y s i n g the d a t a , we drew the c o n c l u s i o n t h a t the E n g l i s h c o u r s e b o o k s u s e d at U n i v e r s i t y l e v e l in B r a z i l do n o t p r o v i d e the l e v e l of p r o f i c i e n c y for the s t u d e n t s to c o m m u n i c a t e at the l e v e l of c o g n i t i v e d e v e l o p m e n t they are i n , t h a t of f o r m a l o p e r a t i o n s . They w e r e o r i g i n a l l y d e s i g n e d for High S c h o o l s t u d e n t s and n o t for U n i v e r s i t y s t u d e n t s .

iv

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The E n g l i s h L a n g u a g e is t a u g h t as a f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e in B r a z i l in High S c h o o l ( F i r s t and S e c o n d l e v e l s ) , and at t h e U n i - v e r s i t y l e v e l . H i g h S c h o o l in B r a z i l r e f e r s to a p e r i o d of f o r m a l i n s t r u c t i o n w h i c h c o v e r s t h e a g e s b e t w e e n e l e v e n and e i g h t e e n .

v

T h e third level is the U n i v e r s i t y l e v e l , for w h i c h the m i n i m u m age is a b o u t e i g h t e e n .

At this l e v e l it may be t a u g h t as T e c h n i c a l E n g l i s h , i . e . , E n g l i s h for S p e c i f i c P u r p o s e s ( E S P ) , for a l l c o u r s e s , e x c e p t for

" L e t r a s " . W h e r e a s in c o u r s e s in w h i c h it is t a u g h t as ESP the s t u d e n t s w i l l l e a r n how to r e a d and u n d e r s t a n d t e c h n i c a l l i t e r a - t u r e , in c o u r s e s l i k e " L e t r a s " s t u d e n t s may take E n g l i s h , a m o n g o t h e r l a n g u a g e s , as one of t h e i r m a j o r s u b j e c t s and w i l l a c q u i r e the four b a s i c s k i l l s in l e a r n i n g a l a n g u a g e , i . e . , l i s t e n i n g , s p e a k i n g , r e a d i n g and w r i t i n g . T h e m a t e r i a l u s e d for t h i s p u r p o s e r a n g e s from c o u r s e b o o k s , s h o r t s t o r i e s , n o v e l s to m o v i e s , s o n g s , g a m e s , e t c . The c l a s s e s are n o r m a l l y s t r u c t u r e d a r o u n d a c o u r s e - book for w h i c h the o t h e r m a t e r i a l s are a c o m p l e m e n t . As a r e s u l t of the use of t h e s e m a t e r i a l s s t u d e n t s s h o u l d a c q u i r e the k n o w - l e d g e to l i s t e n , s p e a k , read and w r i t e in E n g l i s h .

T h e r e f o r e , the c h o i c e of the book is very i m p o r t a n t , and

t h u s the n e c e s s i t y of the t e a c h e r s to c h o o s e and a d o p t a book

w h i c h w o u l d p r o v i d e the n e c e s s a r y t o o l s for the s t u d e n t s to c o m -

m u n i c a t e and a r g u e at the l e v e l of m e n t a l d e v e l o p m e n t they are

i n , t h a t of l o g i c a l and a b s t r a c t r e a s o n i n g ; and y e t , o b s e r v e

w h e t h e r the book w a s o r i g i n a l l y d e s i g n e d for H i g h S c h o o l or for

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U n i v e r s i t y s t u d e n t s .

In case an i n a d e q u a t e book is c h o s e n , it may c a u s e a s e r i o u s p r o b l e m e i t h e r for the s t u d e n t s b e c a u s e they u/ill n o t be able to s t r u c t u r e t h e i r i d e a s (they m a y haue a l l the v o c a b u - lary they n e e d , b u t they w i l l n o t m a s t e r the a d e q u a t e s t r u c t u r e s ) ; or for the t e a c h e r s b e c a u s e they w i l l h a v e , s o m e h o w , to c o m p l e - m e n t the book by p r o v i d i n g the m i s s i n g l i n g u i s t i c e l e m e n t s , when they are aware of this p r o b l e m . O t h e r w i s e , s t u d e n t s w i l l be able to c o m m u n i c a t e as if they w e r e in the s t a g e of c o n c r e t e r e a s o n - i n g , w h e r e the c h i l d j u s t c r e a t e s d e s c r i p t i v e s e q u e n c e s and e n u - m e r a t e s f a c t s . In a d d i t i o n , t h i s may m a k e the a d o l e s c e n t s f e e l u n c o m f o r t a b l e a b o u t u s i n g the f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e b e c a u s e t h e y may feel a l i t t l e c h i l d i s h u s i n g only s i m p l e s t r u c t u r e s . A n a , b e s i d e s , there is a h i e r a r c h i c a l p r e f e r e n c e w i t h i n the i n d i v i d u a l , i . e . , a d i s p o s i t i o n to p r e f e r a s o l u t i o n of a p r o b l e m at the h i g h e s t level a v a i l a b l e to h i m .

I t is r e a l l y a hard task to c h o o s e a book for t e a c h i n g a f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e * T h o u g h the U n i v e r s i t y s t u d e n t s are a d u l t s , they k n o w very l i t t l e E n g l i s h . T h u s t h e n a t u r a l t e n d e n c y f o r t e a c h e r s to c h o o s e and a d o p t a book for b e g i n n e r s , and n o t to take the t a r g e t s t u d e n t s ' l e v e l of m e n t a l d e v e l o p m e n t i n t o a c c o u n t .

S t u d e n t s need E n g l i s h to c a r r y o u t a r g u m e n t a t i o n s , es- pecially during t h e i r l i t e r a t u r e c l a s s e s . They n e e d to h a v e a l l the n e c e s s a r y b a c k g r o u n d for them to a r g u e and w r i t e e s s a y s on l i t e r a r y a n a l y s i s and c r i t i c i s m s . T h i s n o r m a l l y d o e s n o t o c c u r , a n d , c o n s e q u e n t l y , s t u d e n t s w i l l be a b l e to a r g u e as if t h e y were in the s t a g e of c o n c r e t e r e a s o n i n g .

The p r e s e n t d i s s e r t a t i o n utill b e p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h the p r o b l e m : " S t u d e n t s in the f i r s t - U n i v e r s i t y - y e a r of L a n g u a g e

a i B L I O T E C A C E N T R A L

Universidade Federai do Paraná

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C o u r s e s in Brazil do n o t a c q u i r e t h e l e v e l of p r o f i c i e n c y for them to t a k e l i t e r a t u r e s t u d i e s in the s e c o n d y e a r " .

UJe intend to l i m i t our a n a l y s i s to the l o g i c a l c o n n e c t o r s ( c o n j u n c t s , c o n j u n c t i o n s and c o r r e l a t i v e s ) , and the m o d a l v e r b s u s e d in two d i f f e r e n t c o u r s e b o o k s a d o p t e d for the t e a c h i n g of E n g l i s h as a f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y l e v e l in B r a z i l .

The c h o i c e of the l o g i c a l c o n n e c t o r s is due to the f a c t t h a t they keep the a r g u m e n t a t i v e o r i e n t a t i o n ( a n d , b e s i d e s , e i t h e r . . . o r ) ; they are s t r u c t u r e s t h a t o p p o s e a r g u m e n t a t i v e o r i e n t a t i o n ( b u t , a l t h o u g h ) , and t h e y a r e also s t r u c t u r e s t h a t a r t i c u l a t e a r g u m e n t and c o n c l u s i o n (s_o, o n c e t h a t , b e c a u s e . a s , t h e n

t

s i n c e . f o r ) . A r g u m e n t a t i o n is c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the l e v e l of m e n t a l d e v e l o p m e n t the U n i v e r s i t y s t u d e n t s are i n , t h a t of l o g i c a l and a b s t r a c t r e a s o n i n g . A n d , b e s i d e s , b e c a u s e they en- able the s t u d e n t s to c o m p a r e , to e x p r e s s i m p l i c a t i o n s , a l t e r n a - tive c o u r s e s of a c t i o n s , to f o r m u l a t e h y p o t h e s e s , e t c . The s t u d e n t s w i l l n e e d the l o g i c a l c o n n e c t o r s to u t t e r c o o r d i n a t e as w e l l as s u b o r d i n a t e s e n t e n c e s , the l a t t e r b e i n g m o r e a p p r o - p r i a t e to the s t a g e of l o g i c a l and a b s t r a c t r e a s o n i n g b e c a u s e , at this s t a g e , the a d o l e s c e n t s are e n t e r i n g a d u l t s o c i e t y and p a r t of being an a d u l t is c o m m u n i c a t i n g l i k e o n e . A d o l e s c e n t s w i l l make use of a n d , b u t . t h e n , w h i c h are p e r t i n e n t to the c o n c r e t e r e a s o n i n g s t a g e , b u t they w i l l , as w e l l , n e e d m o s t of the o t h e r c o n n e c t o r s to c o n v e y t h e i r i d e a s a c c o r d i n g to t h e i r l e v e l of m e n t a l d e v e l o p m e n t , t h a t of l o g i c a l and a b s t r a c t r e a - s o n i n g . In a d d i t i o n , it is a l s o d u r i n g t h i s s t a g e t h a t a d o l e s - c e n t s a c q u i r e the c a p a c i t y to u s e b o t h d e d u c t i o n and e x p e r i m e n - tal i n d u c t i o n at the s a m e t i m e .

At this s t a g e i n d i v i d u a l s are r e a d y to m a s t e r a l m o s t a l l

the s t r u c t u r e ^ of t h e i r f i r s t l a n g u a g e , as w e l l as of any o t h e r

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a d o l e s c e n t s e n t e r i n g t h i s p e r i o d have a c h i e v e d f u l l y l o g i c a l t h i n k i n g , and t h e r e is l i t t l e m o r e for them to d o , e x c e p t , p e r - h a p s , to e x t e n d t h e i r l o g i c a l t h i n k i n g to n e w c o n t e n t areas"."'' L i n g u i s t i c a l l y s p e a k i n g t h i s e x p a n s i o n w o u l d be a c t u a l i z e d a t l e x i c a l ( v o c a b u l a r y ) l e v e l , and n o t at the s t r u c t u r a l o n e .

In a d d i t i o n , at t h e s t a g e of l o g i c a l and a b s t r a c t r e a s o n - ing "an a d o l e s c e n t is c a p a b l e of t h i n k i n g of h i m s e l f or h e r s e l f

2

as a more open and c r e a t i v e i n d i v i d u a l " . How can an a d o l e s c e n t be c r e a t i v e and e x p r e s s his d o u b t s and u n c e r t a i n t i e s a b o u t the w o r l d having a t his d i s p o s a l a l i m i t e d E n g l i s h b a c k g r o u n d , s p e - c i f i c a l l y a s m a l l n u m b e r of l o g i c a l c o n n e c t o r s ? I t w i l l be dif- f i c u l t for him to f i n d the c o r r e s p o n d e n t l i n g u i s t i c e l e m e n t s in the s t r u c t u r e of t h e l a n g u a g e .

A n d , b e s i d e s , " a l t h o u g h t h e use of p r o p e r l o g i c a l c o n n e c - tors is e s s e n t i a l in the p r o d u c t i o n of good w r i t i n g , i t is a l s o i m p o r t a n t for Ê S L / E F L s t u d e n t s to be a b l e to r e c o g n i z e t h e i r f u n c t i o n w h i l e r e a d i n g and l i s t e n i n g and it is a l s o i m p o r t a n t for the s t u d e n t s to c o n t r o l the m o r e c o m m o n o n e s w h i l e s p e a k i n g "

The s t u d e n t s u n d e r s t a n d m o r e than they can p r o d u c e ; they a s s i m i l a t e many l o g i c a l c o n n e c t o r s a l t h o u g h they may be able to m a s t e r few (the m o r e c o m m o n o n e s ) in t h e i r s t r u c t u r e s . A n d , be- s i d e s , if they are e x p o s e d only to the m o r e c o m m o n o n e s , they w i l l be able to p r o d u c e a very l i m i t e d n u m b e r of d i f f e r e n t s t r u c t u r e s .

As for the m o d a l v e r b s b e c a u s e they e n a b l e the s t u d e n t s

to convey the i d e a of j u d g e m e n t , p o s s i b i l i t y , o b l i g a t i o n , i n t e n -

t i o n , p e r m i s s i o n , p r e d i c t i o n , n e c e s s i t y , c e r t a i n t y , in o r d e r to

a r g u e . T h e s e i d e a s are e x p r e s s e d t h r o u g h " m o d a l i t y " , w h i c h is

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a s e m a n t i c term r e l a t i n g to the m e a n i n g s t h a t are u s u a l l y a s s o - c i a t e d w i t h m o o d . They n e e d the m o d a l v e r b s to a s c e r t a i n f a c t s and t e s t the r e s u l t s of t h e i r e x p e r i m e n t s by f o r m u l a t i n g h y p o t h - eses»

T h e a d o l e s c e n t at t h e U n i v e r s i t y l e v e l is a t the s t a g e of l o g i c a l and a b s t r a c t r e a s o n i n g w h o s e m o s t i m p o r t a n t h a l l m a r k is the r e v e r s a l of the r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n c o n c r e t e r e a l i t y ( a c t u a l - i t y ) and p o s s i b i l i t y . New p o s s i b i l i t i e s can be d e r i v e d and are c o m b i n a t i o n s of the v a r i a b l e s i n h e r e n t in the p r o b l e m , w i t h o u t r e g a r d to w h e t h e r t h e y w e r e p r e v i o u s l y a c t u a l i z e d or e x p e r i e n c e d . A t t h i s l e v e l w h a t c o u n t s is w h a t "could be" a n d n o t m e r e l y w h a t

"is" or " w a s " . He w i l l be able to e x p r e s s t h i s p o s s i b i l i t y m a i n l y t h r o u g h the use of the m o d a l v e r b s .

T h e a n a l y s i s w i l l be l i m i t e d to the f i r s t - y e a r - c o u r s e - b o o k s a d o p t e d by the U n i v e r s i d a d e F e d e r a l do P a r a n a ( U F P r ) and at the F u n d a ç ã o U n i v e r s i d a d e E s t a d u a l de M a r i n g á ( F U E M ) . It w a s d e c i d e d to a n a l y s e t h e s e b o o k s , f i r s t , b e c a u s e the p r e s e n t dis- s e r t a t i o n was. c a r r i e d o u t in C u r i t i b a ; s e c o n d , b e c a u s e the

a u t h o r g r a d u a t e d in " L e t r a s A n g l o - P o r t u g u e s a s " at the F U E M . The i d e a w a s to a n a l y s e two d i f f e r e n t s a m p l e s u s e d at two d i f f e r e n t u n i v e r s i t i e s , a n d thus e x t e n d the r e s u l t s to the B r a z i l i a n r e a l - i t y .

T y p i c a l l y , d i f f e r e n t a u t h o r s have d i f f e r e n t o b j e c t i v e s

in mind when w r i t i n g t h e i r b o o k s ; c o n s e q u e n t l y , they w r i t e a

book a i m e d a t a t a r g e t c l i e n t e l e . Based on the c o u r s e b o o k s s e l e c t e d

for the p r e s e n t w o r k it s e e m s t h a t t e a c h e r s c h o o s e and a d o p t t h e i r

t e a c h i n g materials at r a n d o m . They do n o t o b s e r v e if the b o o k s

s e l e c t e d p r e s u p p o s e a b a s i c E n g l i s h b a c k g r o u n d w h i c h w o u l d be

p r e v i o u s l y a c q u i r e d at High S c h o o l . T h e b o o k s a d o p t e d at the

U F P r and at the F U E M , r e s p e c t i v e l y , do n o t p o s s e s s an a u t h o r ' s

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e s p e c i a l l y c o n c e r n i n g m o d a l v e r b s and l o g i c a l c o n n e c t o r s may n o t r e f l e c t the c o g n i t i v e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e s t u d e n t s for w h o m they are a d o p t e d . Coursebooks are w r i t t e n for w i d e a u d i e n c e s . Books f o r T E F L are w r i t t e n for an even w i d e r a u d i e n c e , to be u s e d in many c o u n t r i e s at v a r i o u s t y p e s of t e a c h i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s T h e r e f o r e , the n e c e s s i t y of a n a l y s i n g a book b e f o r e a d o p t i n g i t .

As the f i r s t - y e a r - c o u r s e b o o k o f f e r s the a d o l e s c e n t s a l i m i t e d r a n g e of p o s s i b i l i t i e s for them to c o n v e y t h e i r i d e a s in E n g l i s h , they w i l l e i t h e r e n t e r the s e c o n d y e a r w i t h a v e r y l i m i t e d n u m b e r of s t r u c t u r e s , or d r o p o u t . T h i s may also be the r e a s o n why a d u l t s u s u a l l y p r e f e r to t a k e " p r i v a t e " E n g l i s h c l a s s e s , w h e r e they can n e g o t i a t e t h e c o n t e n t w i t h their

t e a c h e r s . UJith the k n o w l e d g e a c q u i r e d in the f i r s t y e a r they will have the n e c e s s a r y i n f o r m a t i o n to c o m m u n i c a t e as if they were in the p r e v i o u s s t a g e of m e n t a l d e v e l o p m e n t , t h a t of c o n c r e t e r e a s o n i n g , w h e r e the c h i l d b a s e s h i m s e l f on r e a l i t y and j u s t d e s c r i b e s w h a t he s e e s , and n o t as if they were in

the s t a g e of l o g i c a l and a b s t r a c t r e a s o n i n g , w h e n they f o r m u l a t e h y p o t h e s e s , and c r e a t e u t t e r a n c e s a b o u t the u t t e r a n c e s , i . e . , they a s c e r t a i n a f a c t and b a s e d on the a s s e r t i o n they c o m p a r e t h i n g s and f o r m u l a t e o t h e r p r o p o s i t i o n s , and also t e s t the r e s u l t s of t h e i r e x p e r i m e n t s . T h e y s t a r t to m a k e e x t e n s i v e

u s e of d e d u c t i o n s and e x p e r i m e n t a l i n d u c t i o n s at the s a m e t i m e . T h e r e f o r e , in o r d e r to i n v e s t i g a t e and carry o u t the p r o b l e m of the s t u d e n t s n o t a c q u i r i n g the l e v e l of p r o f i c i e n c y n e c e s s a r y for c a r r y i n g o u t l i t e r a t u r e c l a s s e s at t h e U n i v e r s i t y - l e v e l in B r a z i l , the f o l l o w i n g h y p o t h e s i s w a s b u i l t : "The

L a n g u a g e C o u r s e s in B r a z i l do n o t c o r r e s p o n d to the c o g n i t i v e

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n e c e s s i t i e s of the s t u d e n t s " .

Our main o b j e c t i v e is to t e s t the h y p o t h e s i s m e n t i o n e d p r e v i o u s l y . A r e v i e w of the l i t e r a t u r e on c o g n i t i v e d e v e l o p m e n t , l o g i c a l c o n n e c t o r s , and the m o d a l v e r b s u/ill be p r e s e n t e d b e f o r e the a n a l y s i s is c a r r i e d o u t .

In o r d e r to t e s t our h y p o t h e s i s an a n a l y s i s of the m o d a l v e r b s and of the l o g i c a l c o n n e c t o r s w i l l be p r e s e n t e d , on a c o g n i t i v e d e v e l o p m e n t p e r s p e c t i v e .

The f r a m e w o r k for i n t e r p r e t i n g and a n a l y s i n g the l o g i c a l c o n n e c t o r s w i l l be d e r i v e d from a r e c e n t E n g l i s h g r a m m a r , by Quirk et a l . , 1 9 8 5 , b e c a u s e t h i s is the m o s t u p - d a t e d and the m o s t c o m p r e h e n s i v e d e s c r i p t i v e g r a m m a r a v a i l a b l e . M u r c i a a n d F r e e m a n , 1 9 8 3 , w a s also c o n s u l t e d b e c a u s e they p r e s e n t a f u n c t i o n a l a p p r o a c h to l o g i c a l c o n n e c t o r s .

In a d d i t i o n , in o r d e r to carry o u t the a n a l y s i s of t h e m o d a l v e r b s , P a l m e r , 1 9 7 9 , was c o n s u l t e d b e c a u s e he p r e s e n t s one of the m o s t c o m p l e t e s u r v e y s on m o d a l i t y and the E n g l i s h m o d a l v e r b s , as w e l l as M u r c i a and F r e e m a n , 1 9 8 3 .

Based on the a u t h o r s c o n s u l t e d some a d a p t a t i o n s w e r e m a d e in o r d e r to b u i l d a f r a m e w o r k with w h i c h the data w o u l d be a n a l y s e d . This- a d a p t a t i o n w a s due to the f a c t t h a t s o m e of the e x a m p l e s c o u l d not be a n a l y s e d a c c o r d i n g to t h e c l a s s i - f i c a t i o n a v a i l a b l e .

1 . 1 M E T H O D O L O G Y

The f i r s t s t e p in t h i s work was to s e l e c t the c o u r s e - b o o k s t h a t w o u l d be a n a l y s e d . T h e b o o k s s e l e c t e d w e r e : " P e r s o n to P e r s o n " , a d o p t e d at the U F P r , and "Streamline",; E n g l i s h D e p a r t u r e s . a d o p t e d at the F U E M .

T h e s e c o n d step was to l i m i t the r e s e a r c h to the f i r s t -

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s h o u l d a c q u i r e the n e c e s s a r y E n g l i s h b a c k g r o u n d for them to a r g u e and w r i t e e s s a y s on l i t e r a r y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , a n a l y s i s and c r i t i c i s m s . They n e e d to k n o w how to h a n d l e a r g u m e n t a t i o n , and t h a t is p e r t i n e n t tc the l e v e l of l o g i c a l and a b s t r a c t r e a s o n - ing in the human m e n t a l d e v e l o p m e n t .

T h e third s t e p was to r e v i s e the l i t e r a t u r e c o n c e r n i n g n o t only c o g n i t i v e d e v e l o p m e n t , b u t m o d a l v e r b s and l o g i c a l c o n n e c t o r s as w e l l .

T h e f o l l o w i n g step was tn d e c i d e on the k i n d of data to be c o l l e c t e d and a n a l y s e d . T h u s the f i n a l d e c i s i o n w a s to

c o l l e c t and a n a l y s e all the m o d a l v e r b s and the l o g i c a l

c o n n e c t o r s from the basic t e x t s of e a c h u n i t . T h i s c h o i c e was due to the f a c t t h a t the b a s i c t e x t s n o r m a l l y carry the main t h e m e and main p o i n t s of the u n i t . All the s e c o n d a r y t e x t s or e x e r c i s e s are u s u a l l y based on t h e m , as a way of r e i n f o r c i n g some of the m o s t r e l e v a n t s t r u c t u r e s and l e x i c a l i t e m s .

A f t e r w a r d s , the data was c o l l e c t e d , o r g a n i z e d and

a n a l y s e d a c c o r d i n g to t y p e s and f r e q u e n c y , and d i s c u s s e d and

c o r r e l a t e d w i t h the c o g n i t i v e d e v e l o p m e n t s t a g e s , w h i c h lead

to the f i n a l c o n c l u s i o n .

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^"FISCHER, K . UJ. T h e o r y of C o g n i t i v e D e v e l o p m e n t . P s y c h o - l o g i c a l R e v i e w » U S A , n o v . I 9 6 0 , 8 7 ( 6 ) , p . 4 9 6 .

2 G R I N D E R , R o b e r t E . S t u d i e s in A d o l e s c e n c e ; a Book of R e a d i n g s in A d o l e s c e n t D e v e l o p m e n t . Neui Y o r k , M a c m i l l a n , 1 9 7 5 , 5 0 1 .

3 r.iURCIA, M . C . & F R E E M A N , D . L . The G r a m m a r B o o k ; an

E S L / E F L T e a c h e r s C o u r s e . M a s s a c h u s e t t s , N e w b u r y H o u s e , 1 9 6 3 ,

3 2 3 .

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In the p r e s e n t c h a p t e r we s h a l l be d e a l i n g w i t h d e s c r i p - t i o n s and l i n g u i s t s ' p o i n t s of v i e w a n d a t t i t u d e s c o n c e r n i n g c o g n i t i v e d e v e l o p m e n t and its l i n g u i s t i c m a r k e r s , w i t h s p e c i a l r e f e r e n c e to l o g i c a l c o n n e c t o r s and m o d a l v e r b s .

2.1 - THE C O G N I T I V E DEVEL0PIÏ1ENT T H E O R Y

C o g n i t i v e d e v e l o p m e n t a l t h e o r i e s a r e " i n t e r a c t i o n a l " , i . e . , they a s s u m e t h a t b a s i c m e n t a l s t r u c t u r e is t h e p r o d u c t of t h e p a t t e r n i n g of the i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n the o r g a n i s m a n d t h e e n v i - r o n m e n t , r a t h e r t h a n d i r e c t l y r e f l e c t i n g i n n a t e p a t t e r n s of e v e n t - s t r u c t u r e s ( s t i m u l u s c o n t i n g e n c i e s ) in the e n v i r o n m e n t .

C o g n i t i v e m e a n s " p u t t i n g t h i n g s t o g e t h e r , r e l a t i n g e v e n t s , and in c o g n i t i v e t h e o r i e s t h i s a c t of r e l a t i n g is a s s u m e d to be a p a s s i v e c o n n e c t i n g of e v e n t s t h r o u g h e x t e r n a l a s s o c i a t i o n and r e p e t i t i o n " . A c c o r d i n g to c o g n i t i v e d e v e l o p m e n t a l t h e o r y , all m e n t a l s t r u c t u r e has a c o g n i t i v e c o m p o n e n t and a l l c o g n i t i o n i n v o l v e s s t r u c t u r e s . *

C o g n i t i o n is d e f i n e d as f u n c t i o n (as m o d e s of a c t i o n ) r a t h e r than as c o n t e n t (as s e t of w o r d s , " v e r b a l r e s p o n s e s " , a s s o - c i a t i o n s , m e m o r i e s , e t c , ) or as a f a c u l t y or a b i l i t y (a p o w e r of p r o d u c i n g w o r d s , m e m o r i e s , e t c , ) .

C o g n i t i v e d e v e l o p m e n t is t h e r e s u l t of g u i d e d l e a r n i n g ,

of r e c u r r e n t a s s o c i a t i o n s b e t w e e n s p e c i f i c d i s c r i m i n a t i v e s t i m u l i

in the e n v i r o n m e n t , s p e c i f i c r e s p o n s e s of t h e c h i l d , and s p e c i f i c

r e i n f o r c e m e n t s f o l l o w i n g t h e s e r e s p o n s e s . 2

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m e n t d e e p l y and d e s i g n e d four main s t a g e s , as f o l l o w s : 2 . 1 . 1 . S E N S O R I - M O T O R S T A G E

It c o v e r s t h e p e r i o d from b i r t h to a b o u t tu»o y e a r s . T h i s is t h e p e r i o d when the c h i l d l e a r n s to c o o r d i n a t e p e r c e p t u a l and m o t o r f u n c t i o n s and to u t i l i z e c e r t a i n e l e m e n t a r y s c h e m a t a (in t h i s c o n t e x t , a t y p e of g e n e r a l i z e d b e h a v i o r p a t t e r n or d i s p o - s i t i o n ) for d e a l i n g w i t h e x t e r n a l o b j e c t s . He c o m e s to k n o w t h a t o b j e c t s e x i s t e v e n when o u t s i d e his p e r c e p t u a l f i e l d and c o o r - d i n a t e s t h e i r p a r t s into a w h o l e , r e c o g n i z a b l e f r o m d i f f e r e n t p e r s p e c t i v e s . 4

5

A c c o r d i n g to H e r r i o t , d u r i n g the s e n s o r i - m o t o r s t a g e , t h e , c h i l d r e s p o n d s to s e n s o r y i n p u t , w h e t h e r i t c o n s i s t s of e v e n t s o u t s i d e or i n s i d e h i m s e l f , or of his own b e h a v i o r . As a r e s u l t , this b e h a v i o r o c c u r s as a l i n e a r s e q u e n c e , s i n c e e a c h r e s p o n s e a c t s as a s t i m u l u s to the n e x t r e s p o n s e .

2 . 1 . 2 . P R E - O P E R A T I O N A L OR R E P R E S E N T A T I O N A L S T A G E

It e x t e n d s from the b e g i n n i n g s of o r g a n i z e d s y m b o l i c b e h a v - ior - l a n g u a g e in p a r t i c u l a r - u n t i l a b o u t six y e a r s . T h e c h i l d c o m e s to r e p r e s e n t the e x t e r n a l w o r l d t h r o u g h the m e d i u m of

\

symbols,.but he does so p r i m a r i l y by g e n e r a l i z a t i o n from a m o t i - v a t i o n a l m o d e l - e . g . , he b e l i e v e s t h a t the sun m o v e s b e c a u s e

"God p u s h e s i t " and t h a t the s t a r s , l i k e h i m s e l f , have to go to

b e d . He is m u c h l e s s a b l e to s e p a r a t e his o w n g o a l s from the

m e a n s f o r a c h i e v i n g them than the o p e r a t i o n a l l e v e l c h i l d , and

when he has to m a k e c o r r e c t i o n s , a f t e r his a t t e m p t s to m a n i p u l a t e

r e a l i t y are m e t w i t h f r u s t r a t i o n s , he d o e s so by i n t u i t i v e r e g u -

l a t i o n s , r a t h e r than o p e r a t i o n s - r o u g h l y , r e g u l a t i o n s a r e

a f t e r - t h e - f a c t c o r r e c t i o n s a n a l o g o u s t o f e e d b a c k m e c h a n i s m s .

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2 . 1 . 3 . C O N C R E T E O P E R A T I O N S S T A G E

I t o c c u r s b e t w e e n s e v e n and e l e v e n y e a r s of a g e , and t h e c h i l d a c q u i r e s t h e a b i l i t y to c a r r y o u t c o n c r e t e o p e r a t i o n s .

T h e s e g r e a t l y e n l a r g e his a b i l i t y to o r g a n i z e m e a n s i n d e p e n d e n t l y of the d i r e c t i n p u t s t o w a r d g o a l a c h i e v e m e n t ; they a r e i n s t r u m e n t s for d e a l i n g w i t h the p r o p e r t i e s of t h e i m m e d i a t e l y p r e s e n t o b j e c t w o r l d .

A c o n c r e t e o p e r a t i o n is a m e n t a l a c t i o n in w h i c h c l a s s e s of o b j e c t s or r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n o b j e c t s are c o m b i n e d or r e l a t e d to m a k e s t a t e m e n t s a b o u t t h e e n v i r o n m e n t . ^

n

A c c o r d i n g to G r i n d e r , t h i n k i n g in the c o n c r e t e s t a g e is l i m i t e d p r i m a r i l y ( a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y ) to t h i n k i n g a b o u t t h i n g s . T h e f u n d a m e n t a l " b u i l d i n g b l o c k s " of the c o n c r e t e s t a g e are the L o g i c of C l a s s and the Logic of R e l a t i o n s .

The Logic of C l a s s r e f e r s to t h e c h i l d ' s a b i l i t y to h a n d l e p r o b l e m s of c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . The c h i l d d e c i d e s w h e t h e r s o m e t h i n g is or is n o t a m e m b e r of c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . (The c l a s s b o u n d a r i e s are t r e a t e d as " g i v e n " . T h i n k i n g a t t h i s s t a g e is a b o u t t h i n g s ,

and the c l a s s b o u n d a r i e s a r e , by and l a r g e , n o t t r e a t e d as "things")*

T h e L o g i c of R e l a t i o n s r e f e r s to the c h i l d ' s a b i l i t y to r e l a t e t h i n g s o f d i f f e r i n g s i z e s a m o n g the c o n t e x t of g r a d e d and o r d e r e d s e r i e s . The c h i l d can take t h i n g s of v a r y i n g s i z e s and p l a c e them in s i z e p l a c e , r e l a t i n g any o n e to any o t h e r o n e

w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f s e r i e s . F u r t h e r m o r e , the c h i l d c a n s e t o n e s e r i e s i n t o c o r r e s p o n d e n c e w i t h a n o t h e r s e r i e s by m e a n s of "one to one c o r r e s p o n d e n c e " , w h i c h is a m a j o r s t e p t o w a r d the m a s t e r y of c a u s e and e f f e c t relationships.-

The c o n c r e t e o p e r a t i o n c h i l d is l i m i t e d to t h i n k i n g a b o u t

a c t u a l c o n c r e t e s i t u a t i o n s and t h i n g s as t h e y a r e p r e s e n t e d to

him in the r e a l w o r l d . T h e r e is s o m e l i m i t e d c a p a c i t y in t h e

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c o n c r e t e s t a g e to think a b o u t s o m e a b s t r a c t i o n s , b u t t h e d e g r e e is s u f f i c i e n t l y l i m i t e d and t h e " a b s t r a c t i o n s " a r e u s u a l l y s u f f i c i e n t l y c l o s e to c o n c r e t e and p e r c e p t u a l r e a l i t i e s as to w a r r a n t the g e n e r a l i z a t i o n t h a t t h o u g h t a b o u t a b s t r a c t i o n s d o e s n o t c o m e u n t i l t h e f o r m a l s t a g e .

A c c o r d i n g to I n h e l d e r , a t t h i s s t a g e "the c h i l d d e v e l o p s 8 c o n c r e t e o p e r a t i o n s and c a r r i e s t h e m o u t in c l a s s e s , r e l a t i o n s or n u m b e r s , b u t t h e i r s t r u c t u r e n e v e r goes b e y o n d the l e v e l of e l e m e n t a r y l o g i c a l g r o u p i n g s , or a d d i t i v e and m u l t i p l i c a t i v e n u m e r i c a l g r o u p s . ¡Airing the c o n c r e t e s t a g e , he c o m e s to u t i l i z e both the c o m p l e m e n t a r y f o r m s of r e v e r s i b i l i t y ( i n v e r s i o n for c l a s s e s and n u m b e r s and r e c i p r o c i t y for r e l a t i o n s ) , b u t he n e v e r i n t e g r a t e s them i n t o the s i n g l e t o t a l s y s t e m f o u n d in f o r m a l

g

l o g i c . A c c o r d i n g do R i c h m o n d , r e v e r s i b i l i t y w i t h c l a s s e s is a c h i e v e d by p e r f o r m i n g an o p p o s i t e a c t i o n w h i c h w i l l u n d o t h e f i r s t a c t i o n , e . g . , t a k i n g a p a r t as o p p o s e d to p u t t i n g t o g e t h e r . The r e v e r s i b i l i t y of r e l a t i o n s , on the o t h e r h a n d , is a c h i e v e d by p e r f o r m i n g a s e c o n d a c t i o n , w h i c h e x a c t l y c o m p e n s a t e s for the f i r s t c o n d i t i o n w i t h o u t u n d o i n g i t . T h e r e s u l t of the two c o n d i - tions t o g e t h e r p r o d u c e s an e q u i v a l e n c e »

I n h e l d e r * ^ m e n t i o n e d t h e f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e of a r e v e r s i b l e o p e r a t i o n : the; c h i l d who p u t s a w e i g h t on the b a l a n c e s c a l e and r e a l i z e s t h a t i t t i p s too far c a n t a k e it o f f and s e a r c h for a l i g h t e r o n e , r a t h e r than add m o r e w e i g h t s i m p l y f o r the s a k e of c o r r e c t i v e a c t i o n . UJith the a d v e n t of o p e r a t i o n s , the m a r g i n of t r i a l - a n d - e r r o r is g r e a t l y d e c r e a s e d b e c a u s e t h e c h i l d s e l e c t s m e a n s on the b a s i s of an i n t e n d e d s t r u c t u r e (in t h i s e x a m p l e the s t r u c t u r e is a s e r i a l - o r d e r of w e i g h t s ) »

And y e t , I n h e l d e r

1 1

c o n c l u d e s by s a y i n g t h a t : "In s u m , the c o n c r e t e o p e r a t i o n s are b a s e d on the l o g i c of c l a s s e s a n d

t h e logic of r e l a t i o n s ; they a r e m e a n s f o r s t r u c t u r i n g i m m e d i a t e l y

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p r e s e n t r e a l i t y " .

R i c h m o n d c o n c l u d e s t h a t :

In 6 u m , c o n c r e t e t h o u g h t r e m a i n s e s s e n - t i a l l y a t t a c h e d to e m p i r i c a l r e a l i t y . T h e s y s t e m of c o n c r e t e o p e r a t i o n s - t h e f i n a l e q u i l i b r i u m a t t a i n e d by p r e - o p e r - a t i o n a l t h o u g h t - can hcindle o n l y a l i m i t e d s e t of p o t e n t i a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s . T h e r e f o r e , it a t t a i n s no m o r e t h a n a c o n c e p t of "uihat is p o s s i b l e " , w h i c h is a s i m p l e (and n o t v e r y g r e j j ) e x t e n s i o n of the e m p i r i c a l s i t u a t i o n .

2 . 1 . 4 . F O R M A L O P E R A T I O N S S T A G E

I t s t a r t s b e t w e e n t w e l v e and f i f t e e n y e a r s of a g e and i n v o l v e s the a p p e a r a n c e of f o r m a l as o p p o s e d to c o n c r e t e oper- a t i o n s . I t is c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e y e a r s f r o m m i d d l e a d o l e s c e n c e o n w a r d , i n c l u d i n g a d u l t h o o d . It is the " f i n a l e q u i l i b r i u m " in c o g n i t i v e d e v e l o p m e n t as f o r m u l a t e d by P i a g e t .

13

A c c o r d i n g to I n h e l d e r , "the a d o l e s c e n t is t h e i n d i v i d u a l w h o is s t i l l g r o w i n g , b u t o n e who b e g i n s tc t h i n k of the f u t u r e , i . e . , his p r e s e n t or f u t u r e work in s o c i e t y . F u r t h e r , in m o s t c a s e s in our s o c i e t i e s , the a d o l e s c e n t is a t t e m p t i n g to plan his f u t u r e work in a d u l t s o c i e t y and has t h e i d e a of c h a n g i n g i t " .

G r i n d e r * ^ m e n t i o n s t h a t the d i s t i n g u i s h i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the f o r m a l s t a g e are s u g g e s t e d by the t h r e e n a m e s t h a t are u s e d i n t e r c h a n g e a b l y for t h i s s t a g e : " f o r m a l " , " p r o p o s i t i o n a l " ,

" a b s t r a c t " . " F o r m a l " e m p h a s i z e s t h a t w h a t c o u n t s is f o r m and n o t c o n t e n t , as in f o r m a l l o g i c w h e r e the f o c u s is on t h e f o r m a l relations: b e t w e e n t h e p r o p o s i t i o n s or as in m a t h e m a t i c s w h e r e an e q u a t i o n r e p r e s e n t s a f o r m a l r e l a t i o n a m o n g t h e s y m b o l s t h a t is e s s e n t i a l l y i n d e p e n d e n t of t h e p a r t i c u l a r r e a l i t i e s t h e y r e p r e - s e n t . " P r o p o s i t i o n a l " e m p h a s i z e s t h a t , as in f o r m a l l o g i c , t h i n k - ing is c a s t in t e r m s of " p r o p o s i t i o n s " , s t a t e m e n t s , h y p o t h e s e s .

" A b s t r a c t " e m p h a s i z e s t h a t t h i n k i n g h e r e is no l o n g e r b o u n d

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by "the thing i t s e l f " , b u t d e a l s w i t h a t t r i b u t e s a b s t r a c t e d f r o m the thing i t s e l f ; f o r m a l s t a g e t h i n k i n g d e a l s w i t h p r o p o s i t i o n s , w o r d s , t h o u g h t s , c o n c e p t s , h y p o t h e s e s , i d e a s , i d e o l o g i e s , as w e l l as w i t h " t h i n g s " t h e m s e l v e s .

G r i n d e r m e n t i o n s t h a t , p e r h a p s , a c c o r d i n g to P i a g e t , the m o s t i m p o r t a n t h a l l m a r k of t h e f o r m a l s t a g e is the r e v e r s a l of the r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n c o n c r e t e r e a l i t y ( a c t u a l i t y ) and p o s s i b i l i t y . In the c o n c r e t e s t a g e , a c t u a l i t y is in the f o r e g r o u n d . In the

f o r m a l s t a g e , the r e l a t i o n i s r e v e r s e d and p o s s i b i l i t y c o m e s to the f o r e g r o u n d . New p o s s i b i l i t i e s can be d e r i v e d and are r e c o m - b i n a t i o n s of the v a r i a b l e s i n h e r e n t in the p r o b l e m , w i t h o u t

r e g a r d to w h e t h e r they w e r e p r e v i o u s l y a c t u a l i z e d or e x p e r i e n c e d . UJhat c o u n t s in the f o r m a l s t a g e is w h a t " c o u l d b e " and n o t m e r e l y

w h a t "is" or " w a s " . All c o m b i n a t i o n s of a l l p o s s i b l e v a l u e s of a l l the r e l e v a n t v a r i a b l e s are g i v e n e q u a l w e i g h t in f o r m a l s t a g e

t h o u g h t w i t h o u t r e g a r d to w h e t h e r they a r e a c t u a l i z e d or n o t . T h e f u n d a m e n t a l t h e o r e t i c a l " b u i l d i n g b l o c k s " of the for- mal s t a g e are t h e C o m b i n a t o r i a l S y s t e m ( s o m e t i m e s c a l l e d the S t r u c t u r e d W h o l e ) and the I N R C G r o u p of O p e r a t i o n s . T h e y are

c o n c e p t u a l i z e d as the t h e o r e t i c a l f o u n d a t i o n s of the f o r m a l s t a g e , a n a l o g o u s to the Logic of C l a s s and the L o g i c of R e l a t i o n s to the c o n c r e t e s t a g e .

The C o m b i n a t o r i a l S y s t e m r e f e r s to the c o m p l e t e and o r d e r e d ( o r g a n i z e d ) m a t r i x of a l l p o s s i b l e c o m b i n a t i o n s of a l l p o s s i b l e v a l u e s of a l l p o s s i b l e v a r i a b l e s i n h e r e n t in a p r o b l e m .

T h e INRC G r o u p is the s e t of four l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s t h a t

t o g e t h e r with the C o m b i n a t o r i a l S y s t e m c o n s t i t u t e the t h e o r e t i c a l

f o u n d a t i o n s of the f o r m a l s t a g e . T h e f o u r o p e r a t i o n s a r e I d e n t i t y

N e g a t i o n , R e c i p r o c i t y and C o r r e l a t i v i t y , e a c h r e p r e s e n t e d by its

i n i t i a l in I N R C . T h e y a r e o p e r a t i o n s by m e a n s of w h i c h o n e "gets

a r o u n d " w i t h i n the C o m b i n a t o r i a l m a t r i x , t r a n s f o r m i n g o n e c o m b i -

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n a t i o n i n t o a n o t h e r and g r o u p i n g c o m b i n a t i o n s i n t o l o g i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t g r o u p i n g s .

The I N R C G r o u p can be d e f i n e d in t e r m s of m a t h e m a t i c a l

l o g i c , b u t i t w i l l be d e f i n e d here in t e r m s o f a c o n c r e t e e x a m p l e : I d e n t i t y r e f e r s to s o m e i n i t i a l given o p e r a t i o n . N e g a t i o n is a s i m p l e d i r e c t u n d o i n g of t h a t o p e r a t i o n . R e c i p r o c i t y is u n d o i n g the e f f e c t of the i n i t i a l o p e r a t i o n by c h a n g i n g s o m e o t h e r v a r i - a b l e s in the s y s t e m . C o r r e l a t i v i t v r e f e r s to n e g a t i o n of t h e r e c i p r o c a l c h a n g e , c o m p l e t i n g the s e t . As i l l u s t r a t i o n , if p u t t i n g w e i g h t o n t o o n e s i d e of a p r e v i o u s l y b a l a n c e d s c a l e is the i n i t i a l o p e r a t i o n ( I d e n t i t y ) , t h e n N e g a t i o n w o u l d be d i r e c t l y r e m o v i n g t h a t w e i g h t ; R e c i p r o c i t y w o u l d be e i t h e r s h i f t i n g the pan or a d d i n g w e i g h t on the o t h e r s i d e to r e s t o r e the b a l a n c e , and C o r r e l a t i v i t y w o u l d be the o p e r a t i o n u n d o i n g t h a t r e c i p r o c a l c h a n g e t h e r e b y l e a d i n g to the same e f f e c t as w a s c r e a t e d by the i n i t i a l o p e r a t i o n ( w i t h w h i c h i t t h u s " c o r r e l a t e s " ) .

It is a l s o d u r i n g t h i s s t a g e t h a t the a d o l e s c e n t a c q u i r e s the c a p a c i t y to u s e b o t h d e d u c t i o n and e x p e r i m e n t a l i n d u c t i o n at the same t i m e , b u t he u s e s the f i r s t very e f f e c t i v e l y and is l a t e in m a k i n g u s e of the s e c o n d in a p r o d u c t i v e and c o n t i n u o u s t a s k . T h o u g h t h e p r i n c i p a l i n t e l l e c t u a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a d o l e s c e n c e stem d i r e c t l y or i n d i r e c t l y f r o m the d e v e l o p m e n t of f o r m a l

15 s t r u c t u r e s .

W h e r e a s a c h i l d is l i m i t e d to a c t i o n and a p a r t i a l r e a l i t y

the a d o l e s c e n t m e n t a l l y s u r v e y s m a n y p o s s i b i l i t i e s , f o r m s t h e o r i e s

and c o n c e i v e s i m a g i n a r y w o r l d s , b u t his c o m m i t m e n t b e g i n s in r e a l

l i f e s i t u a t i o n s . A d o l e s c e n t s can be m e n t a l l y c r e a t i v e , w h i l e a

c h i l d l i m i t s h i m s e l f to a c t i o n and a p a r t i a l r e a l i t y . The a d o l e s -

c e n t is c a p a b l e of d e a l i n g w i t h the c o m b i n a t o r y s y s t e m as w e l l

as w i t h p r o b l e m s in w h i c h m a n y f a c t o r s o p e r a t e a t t h e s a m e t i m e .

T h e a d o l e s c e n t a s c e r t a i n s a n u m b e r of f a c t s and f o r m u l a t e s t h e m

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as p r o p o s i t i o n s , e . g . , "This rod is s t e e l ; i t is a l s o l o n g " ,

"That rod is s t e e l , b u t it is s h o r t e r " , e t c . He a l s o a s c e r t a i n s the r e s u l t s of his e x p e r i m e n t s , e . g . , "a long s t e e l rod b e n d s , a s h o r t b r a s s one does n o t , a s h o r t e r s t e e l o n e d o e s " , e t c . T h e f o r m a l o p e r a t i o n s e n a b l e him to c o m b i n e t h e s e p r o p o s i t i o n s men- tally and to i s o l a t e t h o s e w h i c h c o n f i r m his h y p o t h e s e s , on t h e d e t e r m i n a n t s of f l e x i b i l i t y . T h e c o m b i n a t o r i a l s y s t e m is t h e

s t r u c t u r a l m e c h a n i s m w h i c h e n a b l e s him to m a k e t h e s e c o m b i n a t i o n s of f a c t s .

A c c o r d i n g to R i c h m o n d , t h e c h i l d s t r u c t u r e s only the r e a l i t y in w h i c h he acts and so e x t e n d s the r e a l in the d i r e c t i o n of the p o s s i b l e , liiith f o r m a l o p e r a t i o n s , on the o t h e r h a n d , t h e given e n v i r o n m e n t can be t r e a t e d as one of a n u m b e r of p o s s i b l e c o n d i t i o n s . The a d o l e s c e n t then v e r i f i e s w h i c h c o n d i t i o n a c t u a l l y p e r t a i n s in the g i v e n s i t u a t i o n , i . e . , he b e g i n s w i t h the

p o s s i b l e and p r o c e e d s t o w a r d the r e a l ; he s t a r t s to m a k e e x t e n - sive u s e of d e d u c t i o n s . T h u s , f o r m a l o p e r a t i o n s r e v e r s e the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n the r e a l and the p o s s i b l e . In R i c h m o n d it was f o u n d t h a t P i a g e t c o m m e n t s a b o u t this as f o l l o w s :

The m o s t d i s t i n c t i v e p r o p e r t y of f o r m a l t h o u g h t is the r e v e r s a l of d i r e c t i o n b e t w e e n r e a l i t y and p o s s i b i l i t y ; i n s t e a d of d e r i v i n g a r u d i m e n t a r y type of t h e o r y from the e m p i r i c a l d a t a , as is d o n e in c o n c r e t e i n f e r e n c e s , f o r m a l t h o u g h t b e g i n s w i t h a t h e o r e t i c a l s y n t h e s i s i m p l y i n g t h a t c e r t a i n r e l a t i o n s a r e n e c e s s a r y and t h u s p r o c e e d s in the o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n .

1

'

i &

A c c o r d i n g t o I n h e l d e r , "in our s o c i e t y t h e 7 - 8 - y e a r - o l d c h i l d (with v e r y r a r e e x c e p t i o n s ) c a n n o t h a n d l e the s t r u c t u r é w h i c h the 1 4 - 1 5 - y e a r - o l d a d o l e s c e n t c a n h a n d l e e a s i l y . T h e r e a s o n m u s t be t h a t the c h i l d d o e s n o t p o s s e s s a c e r t a i n n u m b e r of

c o o r d i n a t i o n s w h o s e d a t e s of d e v e l o p m e n t a r e d e t e r m i n e d by s t a g e s

of m a t u r a t i o n . In o t h e r w o r d s , the l a t t i c e ( c o m b i n a t o r i a l s y s t e m )

(24)

and g r o u p s t r u c t u r e s (INRC g r o u p ) are p r o b a b l y i s o m o r p h i c w i t h n e u r o l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e s and a r e c e r t a i n l y i s o m o r p h i c w i t h t h e

s t r u c t u r e of t h e m e c h a n i c a l m o d e l s d e v i s e d by c y b e r n e t i c s in i n i t i a t i o n o f the b r a i n .

At t h e c o n c r e t e o p e r a t i o n s s t a g e s c h i l d a t k i n d e r g a r t e n has a l r e a d y a c q u i r e d 8 . C O O w o r d s and a l m o s t a l l of the b a s i c g r a m m a t i c a l f o r m s of the l a n g u a g e . They c a n h a n d l e q u e s t i o n s , n e g a t i v e s t a t e m e n t s , d e p e n d e n t c l a u s e s , c o m p o u n d s e n t e n c e s and a g r e a t v a r i e t y of o t h e r c o n s t r u c t i o n s . He u s e s l a n g u a g e in many d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n s . L a t e r o n , d u r i n g the s c h o o l y e a r s , he a c q u i r e s the w r i t t e n l a n g u a g e .

On the o t h e r h a n d , a t the f o r m a l o p e r a t i o n s s t a g e , a s s u m i n g they have l a n g u a g e , t e e n a g e r s add t h e i r own s p e c i a l s t y l e . They can learn c o n c e p t s f r o m the v e r b a l c o n t e x t and they a c q u i r e s o m e v e r b a l c o n c e p t s . At t h i s p e r i o d the i m p o r t a n c e of c o n t e n t b e f o r e s t r u c t u r e is s t r e s s e d ; o n e d e s c r i b e s w h a t o n e w a n t s to say b e f o r e how one is g o i n g to s a y .

A n d , b e s i d e s , w h e r e a s the a d o l e s c e n t s t a r t s to m a k e u s e of d e d u c t i o n s , i . e . , he b e g i n s w i t h the p o s s i b l e and p r o c e e d s t o w a r d the r e a l , t h e c o n c r e t e c h i l d is l i m i t e d to t h i n k i n g a b o u t c o n c r e t e s i t u a t i o n s and t h i n g s as they are p r e s e n t e d to him in the r e a l w o r l d .

in

A c c o r d i n g to B e a r d , in t h i s p e r i o d the a d o l e s c e n t can a c c e p t a s s u m p t i o n s f o r t h e s a k e of a r g u m e n t ; he m a k e s a s u c c e s s - ion of h y p o t h e s e s w h i c h he e x p r e s s e s in p r o p o s i t i o n s and p r o c e e d s to t e s t t h e m ; he b e g i n s to look for g e n e r a l p r o p e r t i e s w h i c h

e n a b l e him to g i v e e x h a u s t i v e d e f i n i t i o n s , to s t a t e g e n e r a l l a w s

and to s e e c o m m o n m e a n i n g s in p r o v e r b s or o t h e r v e r b a l m a t e r i a l ;

in his s p a t i a l c o n c e p t s he can go b e y o n d t h e t a n g i b l e , f i n i t e and

f a m i l i a r to c o n c e i v e the i n f i n i t i v e l y l a r g e or i n f i n i t i v e l y s m a l l

and to i n v e n t i m a g i n a r y s y s t e m s ; he b e c o m e s c o n s c i o u s of his own

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t h i n k i n g , r e f l e c t i n g on i t to p r o v i d e l o g i c a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n for j u d g e m e n t s he m a k e s ; he d e v e l o p s an a b i l i t y to deal w i t h a v a r - iety of c o m p l e x r e l a t i o n s s u c h as p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y or c o r r e l a t i o n »

T h e f o r m a l s t a g e has i t s o n s e t in e a r l y a d o l e s c e n c e and is r e g a r d e d as c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the y e a r s f r o m m i d d l e a d o l e s - c e n c e on t h r o u g h a d u l t h o o d , b e i n g the f i n a l " e q u i l i b r i u m " in c o g n i t i v e d e v e l o p m e n t as f o r m u l a t e d by P i a g e t . In g e n e r a l , t h e f o r m a l s t a g e b e a r s a h i e r a r c h i c a l r e l a t i o n to t h e c o n c r e t e s t a g e , s u b s u m i n g c o n c r e t e - s t a g e f u n c t i o n as a p a r t of i t s e l f r a t h e r than s i m p l y r e p l a c i n g i t . 20

21

A c c o r d i n g to L a v a t e l l i and S t e n d l e r , c o n c r e t e o p e r a t i o n a l t h o u g h t or even s e n s o r i - m o t o r t h o u g h t d o e s n o t d i s a p p e a r when f o r m a l t h o u g h t a r i s e s , b u t c o n t i n u e s to be u s e d in c o n c r e t e situ- ations w h e r e i t is a d e q u a t e or w h e n e f f o r t s a t s o l u t i o n by f o r m a l t h o u g h t h a v e f a i l e d . H o w e v e r , t h e r e is a h i e r a r c h i c a l p r e f e r e n c e w i t h i n the i n d i v i d u a l , i . e . , a d i s p o s i t i o n to p r e f e r a s o l u t i o n of a p r o b l e m a t the h i g h e s t l e v e l a v a i l a b l e to h i m .

In s u m m a r y , t h e n , f u l l y d e v e l o p e d f o r m a l - s t a g e t h i n k i n g a p p e a r s to be a k i n d of " c o g n i t i v e m a t u r i t y " . I t i n t e g r a t e s a l l t h a t has g o n e b e f o r e . It is m o r e i d e a l than t y p i c a l , m o r e

22 p o t e n t i a l than a c t u a l .

UJithin F i a g e t ' s f r a m e w o r k , c o g n i t i v e d e v e l o p m e n t v i r t u a l l y e n d s w i t h f o r m a l o p e r a t i o n s ; a d o l e s c e n t s e n t e r i n g t h e f o r m a l o p e r a t i o n a l p e r i o d have a c h i e v e d f u l l y l o g i c a l t h i n k i n g , and t h e r e is l i t t l e m o r e for t h e m to d o , e x c e p t p e r h a p s to e x t e n d 23 t h e i r l o g i c a l t h i n k i n g to new c o n t e n t a r e a s .

2 . 2 . L I N G U I S T I C M A R K E R S OF C O G N I T I V E D E V E L O P M E N T

S i n c e b i r t h a baby t r i e s to c o m m u n i c a t e by u s i n g s o m e s o r t of

a c o d é . He s t a r t s by c r y i n g , s m i l i n g or b a b b l i n g . H u m a n b e i n g s

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are s o c i a l i n d i v i d u a l s , t h u s t h e n e e d f o r c o m m u n i c a t i o n . T h e i n d i v i d u a l s n e e d to c o m m u n i c a t e t h e i r i d e a s , e i t h e r t h r o u g h v e r b a l c o d e s , as in h u m a n l a n g u a g e , or t h r o u g h body l a n g u a g e ( g e s t u r e s , m i m e s , f a c i a l e x p r e s s i o n s , etc.)*

A c c o r d i n g to G l e a s o n , ^ y o u n g c h i l d r e n a c q u i r e the c o m p o - n e n t s of t h e i r n a t i v e l a n g u a g e in a s h o r t t i m e . By the t i m e they are a t s c h o o l age and b e g i n t h e f o r m a l study of g r a m m a r , t h e y a l r e a d y k n o w how to v a r y t h e i r s p e e c h to s u i t t h e s o c i a l and c o m m u n i c a t i v e n a t u r e of a s i t u a t i o n ; they k n o w the m e a n i n g and p r o n u n c i a t i o n of l i t e r a l l y t h o u s a n d s of w o r d s , and they u s e q u i t e c o r r e c t l y the g r a m m a r f o r m s : s u b j e c t s , o b j e c t s , v e r b s , p l u r a l s * t e n s e s - w h o s e n a m e s t h e y l e a r n in the l a t e e l e m e n t a r y y e a r s . L a n g u a g e d e v e l o p m e n t , h o w e v e r , d o e s n o t c e a s e when the i n d i v i d u a l r e a c h e s s c h o o l age or a d o l e s c e n c e or m a t u r i t y for t h e m a t t e r . T h e d e v e l o p m e n t p r o c e s s c o n t i n u e s t h r o u g h o u t the l i f e c y c l e .

In o r d e r to u n d e r s t a n d l a n g u a g e d e v e l o p m e n t we have to 25

a n a l y s e it f r o m e a r l y i n f a n c y to old a g e , as did G l e a s o n . At e a c h s t a g e l a n g u a g e , i . e . , v o c a b u l a r y , c a t e g o r i e s , s y n t a x , sem- a n t i c s , r e f l e c t s the s t a g e of c o g n i t i v e d e v e l o p m e n t the c h i l d is going t h r o u g h . A c c o r d i n g to G r i n d e r , e a c h s t a g e r e f l e c t s w h a t is e s s e n t i a l l y an o p t i m a l t r e n d w i t h i n i t s a s s o c i a t e d age r a n g e .

\

2 . 2 . 1 . L A N G U A G E IN I N F A N C Y (SENSORI-ifiOTOR S T A G E )

Human b e i n g s b e g i n to a c q u i r e l a n g u a g e d u r i n g t h e i r f i r s t

m o n t h s , long b e f o r e they say t h e i r f i r s t w o r d s . T h e y pay a t t e n -

tion to a d u l t f a c e s and a r e r e s p o n s i v e to t h e l a n g u a g e s p o k e n

to t h e m ; they t a k e t h e i r turn in c o n v e r s a t i o n , even if the turn

is o n l y a b u r b l e ( S n o w , 1 9 7 7 ; L i e v e n , 1 9 7 8 ) . I n f a n t s a r e c a p a b l e

o f , a m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s , m a k i n g f i n e d i s t i n c t i o n s a m o n g s p e e c h

s o u n d s , i n c l u d i n g s o u n d s t h a t a r e b o t h r a r e in the w o r l d ' s l a n -

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g u a g e s and p r e v i o u s l y unkouin to them ( E i m e s , 1 9 7 5 ; T r e h u b , 1 9 7 6 ) . M i d w a y t h r o u g h t h e i r f i r s t y e a r , i n f a n t s b e g i n to b a b b l e , to play w i t h s o u n d s as they p l a y w i t h t h e i r f i n g e r s and t o e s . N o w a d a y s m o s t r e s e a r c h e r s b e l i e v e t h a t b a b b l i n g and e a r l y s p e e c h are c o n t i n u o u s p h e n o m e n a * A t a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e s a m e t i m e they t a k e t h e i r f i r s t s t e p s , m a n y i n f a n t s p r o d u c e t h e i r f i r s t w o r d s .

C h i l d r e n f i r s t a c q u i r e a m e a n i n g in a v e r y c o n t e x t - b o u n d w a y , as a p a r t of t h e i r r e a l - w o r l d e x p e c t a t i o n s . C h i l d r e n ' s e a r l y l e a r n i n g is b a s e d u p o n p r i o r c o g n i t i o n s they a l r e a d y h a v e many m e a n i n g s . By t h e t i m e c h i l d r e n b e g i n to a c q u i r e a v o c a b u l a r y , they have a l r e a d y b e e n e x p o s e d to a g r e a t d e a l of l a n g u a g e and have a w i d e r a n g e on i n d i v i d u a l e x p e r i e n c e s .

G l e a s o n m e n t i o n s t h a t , a c c o r d i n g to B r o w n , 1 9 7 3 , o n c e i n f a n t s have b e g u n to say a few w o r d s t h e c o u r s e of a l a n g u a g e d e v e l o p m e n t a p p e a r s to h a v e s o m e u n i v e r s a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . The early u t t e r a n c e s a r e o n l y o n e w o r d l o n g ; the w o r d s are s i m p l e in p r o n u n c i a t i o n and c o n c r e t e in m e a n i n g ( S t o e l - G r a m m a r & C o o p e r , 1 9 B 4 ) . They r e f e r to t h e o b j e c t s , e v e n t s , and p e o p l e in the c h i l d ' s i m m e d i a t e s u r r o u n d i n g s .

2 . 2 . 2 . THE P R E S C H O O L Y E A R S ( P R E - O P E R A T I O N A L S T A G E )

G l e a s o n s t a t e s t h a t , according" to B r o w n , 1 9 7 3 , s o m e t i m e d u r i n g t h e i r s e c o n d y e a r , a f t e r they k n o w a b o u t f i f t y w o r d s , m o s t c h i l d r e n p r o g r e s s to a s t a g e of t w o - w o r d c o m b i n a t i o n s . They m a k e the c o m b i n a t i o n s i n t o s h o r t u t t e r a n c e s , w i t h o u t a r t i c l e s , p r e p o s i t i o n s , or any o t h e r g r a m m a t i c a l m o d i f i c a t i o n s a d u l t lan-

g u a g e r e q u i r e s . The c h i l d can now say s u c h t h i n g s as " T h a t d o g g i e " , m e a n i n g "That is a d o g g i e " , and "fflommy j u i c e " , m e a n i n g " M o m m y ' s j u i c e " or " M o m m y , g i v e me j u i c e " or "Mommy is d r i n k i n g her juice".

A l i t t l e l a t e r in the t w o - w o r d s t a g e , a n o t h e r d o z e n or so

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k i n d s of m e a n i n g a p p e a r . For i n s t a n c e , c h i l d r e n may n a m e an a c t o r and a verbs " D a d d y e a t " . They m o d i f y a n o u n : "Bad d o g g i e " . T h e y s p e c i f y a l o c a t i o n : "Kitty t a b l e " . T h e y n a m e a v e r b a n d an o b j e c t , l e a v i n g o u t the s u b j e c t : " E a t l u n c h " . A t t h i s s t a g e c h i l d r e n are e x p r e s s i n g t h e s e b a s i c m e a n i n g s , b u t t h e y c a n n o t u s e the l a n g u a g e f o r m s t h a t i n d i c a t e n u m b e r , g e n d e r and t e n s e s .

As the c h i l d ' s u t t e r a n c e s g r o w l o n g e r , g r a m m a t i c a l f o r m s begin to a p p e a r . In E n g l i s h , for i n s t a n c e , c h i l d r e n learn ijn and on b e f o r e o t h e r p r e p o s i t i o n s s u c h as u n d e r , and they learn the p r o g r e s s i v e f o r m u/ith - i n q b e f o r e o t h e r v e r b e n d i n g s s u c h as t h e -ed of t h e p a s t . A f t e r they l e a r n r e g u l a r p l u r a l s and p a s t t e n s e s like h o r s e s and s k a t e d , they c r e a t e s o m e r e g u l a r i z e d f o r m s of t h e i r o w n , like m o u s e s and e a t e d .

In the l e a r n i n g of m o r p h o l o g i c a l s y s t e m s , s u c h as the p l u r a l or p a s t t e n s e , r e m a i n s some of the s t r o n g e s t e v i d e n c e we have t h a t c h i l d r e n are n o t s i m p l y l e a r n i n g b i t s of p i e c e s of the a d u l t l i n g u i s t i c s y s t e m , b u t are c o n s t r u c t i n g p r o d u c t i v e and c o h e s i v e s y s t e m s of t h e i r o w n .

At very y o u n g a g e s , as e a r l y as two and a h a l f , c h i l d r e n begin c o m b i n i n g s e n t e n c e s to e x p r e s s c o m p l e x or c o m p o u n d p r o p o s i - t i o n s , The s i m p l e s t and m o s t f r e q u e n t way c h i l d r e n c o m b i n e sen- t e n c e s is to c o n j o i n two p r o p o s i t i o n s w i t h a n d .

X

At t h i s s t a g e the c h i l d s t a r t s to d e v e l o p d i f f e r e n t t y p e s

of s e n t e n c e s s u c h as n e g a t i v e s , q u e s t i o n s , and i m p e r a t i v e s . By

the time they begin s c h o o l , t h e y h a v e a c q u i r e d m o s t of t h e mor-

p h o l o g i c a l and s y n t a c t i c r u l e s of t h e i r l a n g u a g e . T h e y can u s e

l a n g u a g e in a v a r i e t y of w a y s , and t h e i r s i m p l e s e n t e n c e s , q u e s -

t i o n s , n e g a t i v e s , and i m p e r a t i v e s a r e m u c h l i k e t h o s e o f a d u l t s *

T h e r e are m o r e c o m p l e x g r a m m a t i c a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s t h a t c h i l d r e n

begin u s i n g and u n d e r s t a n d i n g d u r i n g t h e p r e s c h o o l y e a r s , b u t

(29)

t h e i r a c q u i s i t i o n is n o t c o m p l e t e u n t i l some y e a r s l a t e r . At this s t a g e they a l s o s t a r t to d e v e l o p p a s s i v e s , c o o r d i n a t i o n s , and r e l a t i v e c l a u s e s .

Uiord m e a n i n g a c q u i s i t i o n d e p e n d s a t f i r s t on k n o w l e d g e of s o c i a l and p h y s i c a l d o m a i n s and l a t e r on k n o w l e d g e of s y n t a c t i c and o t h e r w o r d m e a n i n g s as w e l l . In a d d i t i o n to s e m a n t i c k n o w - l e d g e of w o r d s , c h i l d r e n g r a d u a l l y a c q u i r e an u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the n a t u r e of w o r d s and t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p s to one a n o t h e r .

E v e n t h o u g h c h i l d r e n begin p r o d u c i n g and u n d e r s t a n d i n g some s e n t e n c e s w i t h e m b e d d e d r e l a t i v e c l a u s e s w h e n they are a b o u t three y e a r s o l d , they do n o t d e v e l o p f u l l s t r u c t u r a l k n o w l e d g e of this c o n s t r u c t i o n u n t i l they r e a c h s c h o o l . D u r i n g t h e s e y e a r s c h i l d r e n d e v e l o p an e x t r e m e l y r i c h and i n t r i c a t e l i n g u i s t i c

s y s t e m .

2 . 2 . 3 . THE S C H O O L Y E A R S ( C O N C R E T E O P E R A T I O N S S T A G E )

By the time they g e t to k i n d e r g a r t e n , c h i l d r e n have

a c q u i r e d a v o c a b u l a r y of p e r h a p s 6 , 0 0 0 words and a l m o s t a l l of the b a s i c f o r m s of the l a n g u a g e . They can h a n d l e q u e s t i o n s , n e g a - tive s t a t e m e n t s , d e p e n d e n t c l a u s e s , c o m p o u n d s e n t e n c e s , and a g r e a t v a r i e t y of o t h e r c o n s t r u c t i o n s . They have a l s o l e a r n e d to u s e l a n g u a g e in many d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n s . They c a n , for i n s t a n c e , talk baby talk to b a b i e s , t e l l j o k e s and r i d d l e s , be r u d e to t h e i r f r i e n d s and s o m e w h a t p o l i t e to t h e i r p a r e n t s .

D u r i n g the s c h o o l y e a r s t h e y a c q u i r e a n o t h e r l i n g u i s t i c s y s t e m - the w r i t t e n l a n g u a g e . T h i s w o u l d be almost i m p o s s i b l e if they did n o t a l r e a d y p o s s e s s s p o k e n l a n g u a g e .

The d e v e l o p m e n t of o r a l and w r i t t e n l a n g u a g e s y s t e m s is

p r o f o u n d l y i n t e r a c t i v e . Ulhat o c c u r s in e a r l y p h o n o l o g i c a l and

m e t a l i n g u i s t i c d e v e l o p m e n t a f f e c t s the a c q u i s i t i o n and l e v e l of

a c h i e v e m e n t in e a r l y r e a d i n g s . T h e d e v e l o p m e n t of r e a d i n g w i t h

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