G R E E N D E V E L O P M E N T A N D P A R T I C I P A T I O N –
I M P L I C A T I O N S F O R C O U N T R I E S I N T R A N S I T I O N :
C A S E S T U D Y O F S T A R A P LA N I N A , R E P U B L I C O F
S E R B I A *
Maša Perovi
ć
The following research looks at opportunities and obstacles for applying public participation and sustainable environmental management in countries in transition. The case study analyses how the plans to develop a ski resort on the Stara Planina in the Republic of Serbia were created. The results show that factors which influence unsustainable developments are a lack of enforceable laws and the rule of law; lack of public awareness and information on relevant issues; weak civil society and lack of community involvement in decision making; high level of corruption in government and the public sector; highly politicised society with much influence from informal sources of power and their interests. The research concludes that with effective public participation the developments would be more environmentally sustainable. For participation to be effective there is a need to raise environmental awareness in the region as a consequence of the communist past and marginalisation of rural areas.
Key words: countries in transition, Stara Planina, mountains, Serbia, environmental protection, participation, access to information, decision-making.
INTRODUCTION
It is questionable to what extent is ecological modernisation accepted outside the industrial core where it was imagined (Adams 2001, p.113). Previous research shows that countries undergoing transition (CIT) have a tendency to use the natural environment for the benefit of strengthening the economy. In general they lack both the political will and the technology to achieve sustainable environmental management (SEM). The reason for this is that the need to generate capital overcomes other necessary aspects of development such as environmental protection*.
Assessment of Environmental Protection in Serbia (WB 2007) notes that sustainable environmental management tends to get over shadowed by the need for economic gain. The focus of the current research is to test to what
*
For full copy of the research see
www.savestaraplanina.info or contact the author
extent could environmental destruction be overcome by active public participation during decision-making. As identified in the theoretical framework, various research shows that the knowledge of a local community whose existence is more closely connected and often dependent on the natural environment, offers an important element of environmental protection during development. The case study of the Stara Planina1 region explores to what extent this could be proved in the Republic of Serbia (RS). In addition it analyses other opportunities and obstacles for achieving SEM.
The hypothesis
The research is based on the hypothesis that community participation during the decision-making process is one of the ways in which environmental degradation during the development process can be overcome. This
1Old mountain - Literal translation
theory is generally supported by proponents of sustainable development (Adams 2001, Buchingham-Hatfield and Percy (Eds) 1999, Youssefi-Khalajabadi 1994, Lyons et al. 2001) as well as by the leading environmental international institutions such as the United Nations Development and Environment programs, European Environmental Agency, the Institute of Environmental Management and Assessment, to name a few. Sustainability and long-term success depend on a bottom-up approach where the local population is mobilised in the development process and where the values, principles and customs of the local community are integrated into local and national policy frameworks.
The Case Study
regions with the greatest opportunities for all-year tourism. It was a way in which it could be economically and socially revived. Consequently the Government adopted development plans – the Master Plan (MP) and the Spatial Plan (SP) - to build a ski centre across the Mountain. The plans were controversial and resulted in a conflict between the creators of the Master Plan and academic and environmental groups.
In the Stara Planina region in southern Serbia traditional practices for agriculture and farming are still in use by the local peasants. On a small scale an ‘organic’ way of life is not uncommon. These practices are important when considering sustainable ways for environmental management for two reasons: primarily because they constitute alternative management practices by which a region can be revived based on old sustainable traditions, secondly because the value system stems from the lifestyle which functions in harmony with nature due to the proximity and dependency of the inhabitants, mostly peasants, on the local ecosystem and the laws of nature.
Wider literature shows that factors which influence unsustainable developments are a lack of enforceable laws and the rule of law; lack of public awareness and information on relevant issues; weak civil society and lack of community involvement in decision making; high level of corruption in government and the public sector; highly politicised society with much influence from informal sources of power and their interests.
The research answered the following questions regarding the proposed developments on the Mountain:
To what extent are the plans to build the
ski resort environmentally sustainable?
To what extent was public participation
present during decision-making?
To what extent is the local population
committed to environmental protection?
THEMATIC FRAMEWORK
Sustainability indicators: Agenda 21
For the purposes of this study indicators of sustainable environmental management were based on the Agenda 21 Chapter 8.1(a). The
section outlines the necessary aspects that make development sustainable, such as: integrated decision-making process; ensuring that the policy framework reflects a long-term perspective and cross-sectoral approach; ensuring a bottom-up approach; ensuring access by the public to relevant information, facilitating the reception of public views and allowing for effective participation; conducting Environmental and Social Impact Assessments; study and consideration of traditional or indigenous methods as part of integrated environmental management; ensuring transparency and accountability of all policies; monitoring and evaluating the development process systematically; adopting a national strategy for sustainable development.
‘Green development’ and participation
Pubic participation is recognised to be a crucial component of green development. It is important to enable communities to care for their own environment (IUCN, cited in Adams 2001, p.116) because it is not only their legitimate interest but their basic right and ‘it is a pragmatic course to take in the interests of achieving sustainable development’ (Ghai & Vivian 1992, cited in Adams, 2001, p.116). Case studies show that community participation leads to future development initiatives, such as creation of employment; it brings the social reality into existence by recognising social ‘needs’ (Doyal and Gough 1991, cited in Youssefi-Khalajabadi 1994, p. 86); it empowers the people by ‘awakening their critical consciousness, which is required for people-induced development’ (Youssefi-Khalajabadi 1994). Such initiatives depend on education and raising awareness, which then leads to community empowerment (Youssefi-Khalajabadi 1994, Lyons et al. 2001).
Participation is a great challenge in countries undergoing social and economic transition where the longstanding cultures of dependence require a long educational process (Youssefi-Khalajabadi 1994, p.102, Adams 2001, p.113). Amongst others this is one of the challenges for the SEM in Stara Planina as a consequence of the long rule of the one-party Communist regime which did not promote the concept of self-reliance of an individual, but
rather discouraged critical thinking and an informed society.
In addition influence of the capitalist consumer culture poses another challenge for achieving sustainable development in theory and practice. Looking at the wider theoretical context world critiques explain that SD and ‘green capitalism’ are doomed to failure because liberal economy is geared towards a continued expansion in production (Irvine 1989). Historically, economics developed around the idea of scarcity, and the role of technology was principally that of raising output from scarce resources’ (Redclift 2005, p.4). This is in direct contrast with the deep green thinking which sees the Earth as a source of limited capacity and in fact as a resource which should not be dedicated towards meeting human needs, but should be treated as an identity in itself and managed in harmony with human activity (Adams 2001, pp.117-118).
The market economy dictates economic growth as the ultimate aim towards better life. Overall we see that ‘large development projects and their resulting environmental consequences may be seen to be justified in areas of high unemployment’ (Youssefi-Khalajabadi 1994, p.98). This global trend towards market economy and constant economic growth is strongly reflected in countries such as Serbia where poverty and long socio-economic decline compel human activity towards unsustainable development despite adverse effects this has on the natural, and consequently on social environment.
CIT and green development
With regards to participation there are numerous obstacles in transitional societies that require reform. Alongside weak institutional mechanisms for implementation and monitoring of laws, policies and general social rules, the values and principles of CIT are not tuned for participatory requirements.
principles. Accordingly, ‘citizens in [a democratic] order share a commitment to the resolution of problems of collective choice through public reasoning, and regard their basic institutions as legitimate in so far as they establish the framework for free public deliberation’ (Cohen, 1989, cited in Connely and Smith, 1999, p. 61). In addition the influence of NGOs is greatly important in informing and shaping general public opinion and values (Feldman and Khademain 2003, UN 1994, etc).
Strong bureaucracy, a trait of the communist, one-party, centralised government system, does not allow for creation of an informed civil society and this limits the ‘freedom to organise and agitate independently around… issues’ (O’Connor 1989, p.99, cited in Phillips and Mighall, 2000, p.294). Some argue that even where there are laws in place they are not always implemented because ‘managers, technician and workers’ in localised organisations and enterprises often [do] not share this concern’ (Phillips and Mighall, 2000, p.294).
Importance and potential of local tradition for green development
Various sources argue that during the process of modernisation rural areas of CIT, such as the Stara Planina, could rely on traditional ways to achieve SEM. Traditional ways are inherently sustainable due to the ‘intimate knowledge of the internal dynamics’ of the rural inhabitants with the natural environment upon which they have depended for generations (Vaccaro and Norman 2008). Vaccaro and Norman (2008) rightly explain that once the local cultures and perspectives are considered while creating policy ‘the locals become shareholders in the policy with greater interest in the success of the policy itself’.
Considering that the global, especially European trends in tourism are heavily tilting in favour of ‘want [for] scenery, a decent environment and a smattering of history and culture’, eco-tourism offers increasing possibilities to materialize traditional resources and the natural environment (Vaccaro and Norman 2008). In fact it is increasingly certain that ‘if you destroy your heritage and scenery,
you will come to regret it’ (Economist May 17th 2008).
Arguments outlined above are relevant for the current research in the way that they explain the prevalent value and normative context for environmental action. This both directly and indirectly affects the extent to which ‘green development’ and participation can be truly successful outside of developed post-industrialist Western states, such as Serbia.
METHODOLOGY
This study is multi layered and can be said to be a study of the role of the community during policy implementation, as defined by Robson (1993, p.147). It required consideration of social, political and economic issues, and assessment of how these issues influenced environmental protection in Serbia. Three different methods were used: documentary research, semi-structured interviews and survey. The case study focused solely on the municipality of Knjaževac.
Relevant policy and legal frameworks in Serbia were considered with a focus on public participation during decision-making, access to information and environmental protection. The gaps between policy and practice were identified through interviews with the immediate stakeholders who were closely involved in the decision-making. During the field research local peasants and the general public from Knjaževac were interviewed. The researcher analysed their level of participation, knowledge and opinions about the proposed developments and their awareness about environmental protection.
RESEARCH RESULTS
The research findings support the hypothesis and show that economic factors are a priority for the political elite as well as for the majority of the local peasants. Nevertheless there is evidence that there are professional groups and academic institutions that understand the value of the natural wealth of the Mountain. The findings show that if the institutional framework encouraged, or at the least allowed, those groups and institutions to influence the decision-making process it would contribute to the sustainability of future developments.
The decision-making process: The Spatial Plan and the Master Plan
The Spatial Plan and the Master Plan are fundamentally different in that the former perceives tourism as a sustainable tool to revitalise the mountain region, while the latter uses the natural wealth of the mountain to revitalise the economy. The two development concepts were advocated by two interest groups. The Ministry of Economy and Regional Development (MERD), led by the liberal G17+ political party, encouraged the goals of the MP. On the other hand the team of experts at the Institute for Urban and Spatial Planning (IAUS) took an integrated approach based on international best practice. The research finds that in this case political will supported economic gains and in fact discouraged a sustainable approach. Despite the formal participation of both interest groups, the investors of the MP did not respect the legal procedure and used their political power to design the decision-making process, which dominated the outcome.
Table 1: Interview groups as identified by the researcher for the sampling purposes
Group 1 – developers Group 2 – primary stakeholders/ economic beneficiaries
Group 3 – secondary stakeholders/environmentalists Ministry of Economy and
Regional Development
p.c. Ski Serbia Institute for Environmental Protection
Horwath Consulting/ Ecosign Canada
Local Government Trekking Club Stara Planina Institute of Architecture and
Urban Planning, Belgrade
Tourism Organisation Knjaževac
Experts in natural sciences: water/forests/climate
p.c. Forests of Serbia Construction enterprises Association for protection and SD of Stara Planina
Local Government, Knjaževac Local enterprises UNDP, Belgrade
Most importantly the research finds that the adopted Spatial Plan did not conform to the Law on Planning and Construction. Namely, without prior review by the Expert Committee, some provisions from the Master Plan were added to the Spatial Plan (IAUS 2007a). Thus the process was flawed (confidential source). One of the crucial changes was the proposed construction of the tourist complex on Jabučko Ravnište2 with a starting accommodation capacity of 6192 users, to be developed later to a maximum capacity of 22861 users. As such the second and final draft of the Spatial Plan (IAUS 2007a) was presented across four municipalities during the public hearing, held from 20th
December 2007 until 20th
January 2008.
The original SP focused on spreading the accommodation capacity across the villages which are nearest to the ski slopes (IAUS 2007). The purpose was to ensure that the local inhabitants would benefit by offering tourist services, which would bring them employment, improved transport and communications services as well as capital. For example, Jabučko Ravnište was planned with a maximum accommodation capacity of 500 (IAUS 2007, p.42). This is in sharp contrast with the changes introduced by the Master Plan, as described above.
Expert opinion, supported by environmental groups, says that construction on Jabučko Ravnište is environmentally unsustainable for numerous reasons. Firstly the centre is so high that ‘it is technically impossible to create an economically sustainable system for cleaning waste waters’ (Prof. Đorđević). Secondly, the water capacity on the Mountain is relative (Prof. Đorđević, Mr. Micić, Prof. Radovanović). Thus, a hotel complex for up to 23000 people ‘would completely drain the mountain’ especially considering the fact that ‘tourists are a demanding lot’ (Prof. Đorđević). Thirdly, the reduction in precipitations, especially during winter, raises questions about the length of the skiing season.
2The Apple Plain – lit. translation, is situated in the II
zone of protection where construction of objects is prohibited by the Regulation for the Protection of Nature Park Stara Planina in 1997.
In contrast the Master Plan focuses on ‘the analysis of the physical, planning, business and marketing potentials for the development of tourism on Stara Planina’ (2007, p.1). The natural wealth of the Mountain, its traditional products and culture are considered in the context of their potential for generating income, but without offering methods to preserve and protect them. For example Business Conditions for the creation of the Water Park do not consider ways in which this might effect the water supply from Zavojsko jezero and nearby springs (Horwath Consulting 2007, pp.125-127).
Furthermore, relevant policy and legal documents that form the basis for any decision-making in this case study do not include a comprehensive analysis of the site and its problems and therefore their stated aim of an integrated approach is not borne out (Tourism Strategy for RS, Law on Tourism, Regulations on the Proposal for the Development of Tourism in Stara Planina Region). For example Article 3.5 of the Regulation for Tourism (2007) discusses the future of winter tourism and states that skiing as a sport is on the increase. However it does not mention how global climate change has affected ski tourism in the European Alps over the past two years (Snow’s no show in the Alps, 3.12.06, www.guardian.co.uk). The OECD has pointed out that ‘the impacts of climate change must also be integrated into sectoral and economic policies worldwide... [and ensure] adaptation measures to address key vulnerabilities: increasing losses in winter tourism due to reduced snow cover’ (Climate change in the European Alps: adapting winter
tourism and natural hazards management,
18.1.07, www.oecd.org/document/).
Public participation
Overall opinion of interviewees consulted in this study is that public participation during decision-making does not exist in Serbia. The research shows that there were weaknesses in the process of public hearings - such as covering up inconvenient facts in the
development of the complex on Jabučko Ravnište3.
The preparatory work for developing the Master Plan, including documentation studies, lasted 10 months, together with two days of stakeholder meetings at the beginning of November 2006 (Horwath Consulting, 2007, p.27). Although the meetings appeared to include stakeholder participation, they were dominated by a small number of businesses which would benefit from the project. The Institute for Environmental Protection pointed out that the Ministry for Environmental Protection was not included in the consultations prior to the development of the Master Plan (www.savestaraplanina.info media conference).
The Aarhus Convention has not yet been adopted in Serbia and access to information is regulated by various laws. In addition people are poorly informed for a number of reasons: in Serbia cc 40% of the population are functionally illiterate with eight or less years of primary school4; survey results and other interviews show that the mass media are the main source of information for almost 80% of interviewees. The media tend to be sensational and do not give objective, balanced information and are used for ‘making
propaganda and do not inform’ (Drago, the
forester); word-of-mouth is the main source of information for many villages in the Mountain who have poor media reception.
Local attitudes towards environmental protection
Despite the fact that local peasants and agricultural producers depend on the environment for their source of food as well as their income, the research shows that their awareness of the need to protect the natural environment is low. Forester Drago commented that ‘here it is in the culture to destroy nature. The government is not organized to protect it’.
3For details of interview results see full version of the
research available on www.savestaralanina.info.
4 Institute for Statistics in RS,
Although the results from the survey cannot be taken to represent the level of general knowledge in the municipality, due to the small number of collected results, a lack of general information about the Mountain is evident in the fact that 7 out of 27 individuals were not aware that the Mountain is protected by law as a Nature Park despite its immediate proximity to Knjaževac and other villages.
There were individuals whose attitude towards the project changed once they acquired more information. This example shows that even those who would benefit directly from the project became opposed to it once they learned that the development was unsustainable:
‘I used to think that the project might be bigger than Kopaonik and I was for it. Now I see that it can’t be and that it will destroy the mountain. It can only work if there are a lot of small ski slopes because there is less and less snow especially on the south side between Babin Zub and Pirot…It is all useless!’ (Nebojša Golubović, Ski Club Zubski Rt).
DISCUSSION
To what extent are the plans to build the ski centre environmentally sustainable?
Based on the A21 sustainability indicators, the decision-making procedure did not ensure an integrated approach. The Master Plan and the Spatial Plan contain certain aspects that are in harmony with one another. Such as the need to protect natural resources, economic revitalisation of the region, the use of cultural and natural heritage as part of the tourist offer. However the crucial difference between the two is that the MP aims to develop a mega tourist resort on Jabučko Ravnište, which according to academics and environmental groups will isolate the local villages from the tourist offer. The most disadvantaged, namely the poorest, social groups such as peasants, agricultural workers, the unemployed youth in towns and villages or the elderly would not benefit directly from the development of the tourist offer. It is probable that the village peasants, vendors and agricultural workers would
eventually gain from the ‘trickle-down’ effect by selling local produce, arts and crafts5.
If the proposed development of the ski resort ensured that the possible negative effects of construction were mitigated, the benefits would be twofold. Firstly the opportunity to drink fresh spring water and to enjoy the unspoiled natural environment would undisputedly be an attraction for tourists. And secondly with the preservation of natural resources such as water, the local peasants would be able to use wells and thus continue to be self sustainable, while local towns would have access to unpolluted water from natural springs. These would go some way to meet the growing demand for eco-tourist attractions both in Europe as well as globally.
However, it is now clear that the development on Jabučko Ravnište could cause environmental destruction for a number of reasons. The construction of the hotel resort would devastate the natural environment in the 2nd
zone of protection. Additional devastation would be brought about by construction of new roads and water pipes, which would inevitably be accompanied by illegal property building. The fact that there is no long term solution to the problem of water supplies, means pristine areas of the natural environment will be spoiled, overall making the project unsustainable.
To what extent was public participation present during decision-making?
The decision-making process omitted public participation not only of the local community but also of the academics and civil society experts in matters of environmental protection, construction and spatial planning. There are clear indicators that the procedure for public participation was manipulated all the way through. Least of all the dates for public hearing in the middle of the New Year and Orthodox Christmas celebrations appear to be an inconvenient time for such activity.
5Ski centre Kopaonik, built in late 80s in Serbia, is an
example of how developments destroyed the natural environment and isolated the local villages from tourist offer allowing them to ‘sell a pot of honey and some herbs here and there’ (prof. Đorđević and vendor at market in Knjaževac)
The first draft of the Spatial Plan (2007) clearly demonstrates that the experts at the IAUS created a plan whose primary aim was to revitalise the local community: by spreading the tourist offer across the villages, studying the potential for revitalising agriculture and developing mechanisms for environmental protection, which was recognised as the base for enabling the above.
To an extent, a bottom-up participation was ensured through informal questionnaires developed by IAUS6. In addition Prof.
Đorđević, Mr. Milijić and Mr. Micić have been studying the Mountain for the last 30 years. Their professional knowledge as well as sentimental attachment to the natural environment can be compared to that of the local community. In effect as professionals their knowledge about the Mountain is more profound than an average local knowledge.
Thaking the theoretical framework as guidelines, it is unrealistic to expect that the Master Plan could take an integrated approach when based solely on a 10 month study of the region. This demonstrates a top-down approach which needs to be supported by a wider regional study such as the Spatial Plan. It is unclear why the creators of the MP disregarded the critique of the national experts and civil society groups while the aims of the MP clearly state that environmental protection is at the centre of the developments. One can only conjecture that the economic interests of the leading political circles who are financing the project are narrow and self-centred. Such findings confirm the wider research hypothesis that economic gain in CIT tends to disregard environmental protection.
To what extent is the local population committed to environmental protection?
Despite the fact that subsistence of the local peasants depends on the surrounding natural resources their participation would not have
6IAUS conducted geographic, infrastructural and other
ensured environmental protection per se. This can be explained due to lack of environmental awareness combined with poor existence and constant pressure to prosper economically that directs the popular thinking towards purely economic gains. Yet again this proves Adam’s (2001) thinking that ecological modernisation is questionable outside the core where it was created.
However, the findings show how people’s attitudes changed once they were made aware of adverse effects the project would have on the Mountain’s natural resources. With this in mind it can be said that if general awareness about environmental protection was raised via the media and government campaigns participation would be an effective deterrent of unsustainable projects.
Finally, the findings show that there is potential for reviving traditional local knowledge through agriculture, eco-tourism and production of traditional arts and crafts, and other. Considering that consumerist ideology has not yet crept into all social cracks and layers in the Stara Planina region one can stipulate that this could offer a positive start for developing sustainable social environment. Their success would indisputably depend on the support from Government led sustainable initiatives.
CONCLUSION
In conclusion it can be said that participation of the experts and the civil society in Serbia leads to sustainable environmental management. The research also shows that integration of local opinions and needs contributes towards making the plans sustainable and integrated. However at this stage it can not be said whether participation of the local peasants would make the plans for building the ski centre more environmentally friendly. This depends on their access to objective, two-sided information, which could be a topic for further research of the region.
Furthermore demographic desertification of the region has minimalised traditional production. The production from land is far bellow its potential while animal and plant produce are mainly sold on the local market. Regional Environmental Centre and the SP identified the region’s potential for agricultural development which could revive the local tradition and
methods for environmental management. These are necessary supplements for successful tourism and should be integrated into the development plans. The benefits of preserving the natural environment and ‘organic’ production are three-fold and dependant on each other: sustainable agricultural production; self-sustainable existence of local villages and town; and the development of sustainable tourism, which is increasing rapidly in the surrounding European Union countries.
Considering that all investors see the pristine nature of the Mountain as one of the strengths and main attractions for development of tourism it is in contradiction with its own aims not to ensure that the ecological state is preserved. Based on the research findings the only conclusion that can be made is that short-vision, direct and fast economic profits are the leading forces regarding the proposed developments on the Stara Planina. Thus the need to shift from ‘the narrow preoccupation with markets to a broader preoccupation with people’ with mutually reinforcing pillars of economic development, social development and environmental protection is also the case in Serbia (WCSDG 2004).
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