UNIVERSIDADE DE LISBOA
FACULDADE DE PSICOLOGIA
LIFE DESIGNING AND CAREER ADAPTABILITY
IN MANAGEMENT AND PSYCHOLOGY
UNDERGRADUATE STUDENTS
Alexandra Isabel de Jesus Camacho Sousa Santos
MESTRADO INTEGRADO EM PSICOLOGIA
(Secção de Psicologia dos Recurso Humanos, do Trabalho e das Organizações)
UNIVERSIDADE DE LISBOA
FACULDADE DE PSICOLOGIA
LIFE DESIGNING AND CAREER ADAPTABILITY
IN MANAGEMENT AND PSYCHOLOGY
UNDERGRADUATE STUDENTS
Alexandra Isabel de Jesus Camacho Sousa Santos
Dissertação orientada pela Profª. Maria Eduarda Duarte
MESTRADO INTEGRADO EM PSICOLOGIA
(Secção de Psicologia dos Recurso Humanos, do Trabalho e das Organizações)
To you, my Grandmother. Now, Forever,
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Mãe, Por teres gritado comigo todos aqueles anos em que na verdade só querias que eu deixasse de ser preguiçosa e fosse à escola como uma pessoa normal. Hoje que olho para trás sei que, muito mais do que o teu papel, estavas a dar-me asas para eu poder voar. E aqui estamos. Não teria sido possível sem ti, em todos os sentidos.
Ricardo, Porque tornaste-te tanto em tão pouco tempo. Obrigado porque acreditares em mim. Acreditas, e tens vindo a acreditar, por nós os dois. Foste fundamental, em mais do que um sentido, e tão mais além do que o óbvio. Que daqui a um ano nos estejamos a rir de tudo o que nos atormenta hoje. Até lá continuarei a agradecer-te por seres quem és para mim. As tuas equações matemáticas são o meu amuleto da sorte, desde sempre.
Pedro, Tens uma infinita paciência, e só posso desejar que futuramente a continues a ter, e que esse seja mais uma base para voarmos. És a pessoa mais utópica deste mundo, mas não deixes de ser assim.. Desculpa todas as vezes que duvido da tua utopia. E que falo horas sem parar.
Mário, Tão longe, mas tão perto, sempre. Que a tua música não se deixe de ouvir nunca, porque há melodias que nos tocam o coração de forma eterna.
Filo, Trezentos mil obrigadas por me ouvires, ajudares, seres extremamente positiva, e bem-disposta. Agora, antes, e sempre. Foste das melhores pessoas que conheci na faculdade.
EB Phoenix, Obrigada por todas as lutas, todas as discussões, todas as alegrias e tristezas. Cada um de vocês faz de mim uma pessoa melhor, à vossa própria maneira. Vocês têm tornado este ano melhor, e têm feito de mim uma pessoa melhor.
Professora Maria Eduarda Duarte, Obrigada por me aturar, com todas as minhas inconsistências. Não me portei tão bem como devia. Mas fica a minha honesta admiração pela pessoa, e Professora, que é. Que a vida lhe sorria, hoje e sempre.
ABSTRACT
The evolution that came along with the 21th-century created a very dynamic, quickly mutable workplace, to which individuals have to constantly develop their resources to adapt the best.
The Life-designing paradigm provides a life-career narrative that integrates the experience of oneself, constructing a career that will direct the individual to the best future occupational choice, taking into consideration the past and present experiences.
The research aims to comprehend if life-designing methods elicit life-career themes that are congruent with the dimensions of career adaptability across different occupational fields.
The present study applied the instruments My Career Story and CAAS-Portugal Form to 18 undergraduate students of Management and Psychology.
Self-concept, social support, career concern and personal growth emerged from the data, but there were specificities underlying both samples.
Possible explanations and past-research was presented along with research limitations and further research suggestions were presented.
Keywords: life designing; life-career theme; narrative; Career Construction Theory; career adaptability;
RESUMO
O século XXI trouxe mudanças para os paradigmas da carreira, especialmente com a globalização e crescimento tecnológico (Savickas, Nota, Rossier, et al., 2009). O foco crescente na interdependência entre os papéis desempenhados por indivíduos dentro de vários domínios da vida exigiu a evolução da teoria vocacional anterior. O conjunto de papéis resultantes da experiência é a base da narrativa de vida (Duarte, 2006), definida como a macro-narrativa coerente e contínua construída pela integração de papéis, passados ou presentes, de diferentes experiências, nos contextos mais diversos (Savickas, 2009). Para construir uma narrativa de vida, um indivíduo deve estar ciente de todas as suas experiências enquanto micro-narrativas, vinculadas a um determinado papel, contexto ou tarefa de desenvolvimento, mas, ainda assim, interdependentes. As micro-narrativas são a unidade básica na construção do eu e da própria identidade que, ao serem organizadas como uma macro-narrativa, também irá influenciar as escolhas de carreira (Savickas, 2012, 2011). As micro-narrativas também estabelecem um conjunto de temas de vida que estruturam a narrativa de carreira - (Savickas, 2013, 2005).
Uma das novas abordagens teóricas epistemológicas do Counselling para a construção da carreira é o Life-Designing que, através de processos contextuais, dinâmicos e não-lineares, expressos em vários contextos através de características diferenciais, individuais, contextuais, contextualizam as identidades subjectivas do indivíduo (Savickas et al., 2009). Os indivíduos criam uma carreira através das várias narrativas de vida com base em contextos e papéis sociais subsequentes, levando à atribuição de significado durante a interpretação das experiências, e à interacção entre factores contextuais e individuais (Young & Collin, 2004). A integração dos papéis e experiências de vida (micro-narrativas) em toda a macro-narrativa através da auto-construção é essencial para a auto-construção da carreira (Savickas et al., 2009).
Tendo por base o construcionismo social e o construtivismo, o Life-Designing propõe que os indivíduos sejam criadores da sua própria narrativa auto-biográfica através dos seus temas de vida, permitindo a (re)construção de carreira profissional (Savickas, 2005, 2012, 2013). A integração de diferentes temas de vida na auto-narrativa contribui para a construção da identidade e a criação do autoconceito enquanto todo complexo, resultado de todas as interações entre os mais diversos papéis que o indivíduo desempenha e o seu próprio desenvolvimento físico, através das tarefas de
desenvolvimento subjacentes à idade cronológica que terá (Savickas, 2015; Savickas et al., 2009; Super, 1990).
O Life-Designing atribui quatro características principais à carreira enquanto projecto: a adaptabilidade, a narratividade, a actividade e a intencionalidade (Savickas, 2009), implicando ainda desafiar a flexibilidade inerente à vivência e experiência do indivíduo para os desafios pessoais e contextuais que possam surgir durante os momentos de transição de carreira, ou em um outro papel da sua vida, mas também proporcionando o aumento da capacidade de adaptação perante a maioria das mudanças (Savickas, 2009).
Ao ser deparado com uma actividade ocupacional, o autoconceito do indivíduo pode ter diferentes características, tarefas e exigências de acordo com o papel que terá na construção da carreira: actor, agente ou autor. O autoconceito como actor, é a base da abordagem dos traços que organiza a personalidade vocacional e estuda o comportamento vocacional, escolhas e identidade subjacente (Savickas, 2002, 2013). O objectivo da abordagem dos traços é combinar indivíduos que exibem certos traços mais do que outros para as respectivas actividades ocupacionais, tendo em conta toda a personalidade exibida pelo indivíduo, a sua identidade vocacional e interesses (Savickas, 2005). É, na verdade, equivalente ao autoconceito vocacional anteriormente proposto pela Super (1990). Sendo uma construção e representação pessoal, o autoconceito é extremamente influenciado pelas relações interpessoais, especialmente com os pais, a família próxima e as relações sociais imediatas que são os elementos mais influentes desde a idade precoce e moldadas pela linguagem (Savickas, 2002, 2005, 2011).
Passando por tarefas de desenvolvimento, ultrapassá-las e interacção entre as mesmasi, juntamente com os diferentes papéis de vida que o indivíduo poderá ter, acaba por criar toda uma percepção subjectiva do seu próprio desenvolvimento, dos diferentes estágios de carreira que atravessa, as transições, os desafios e os recursos disponíveis, sendo assim o que é a base para a adaptabilidade de carreira (Savickas, 2005, 2011, 2013, 2015). Tal implica trabalhar através das diferentes fases de vida, alterando as perspectivas subjectivas ou ajudando o indivíduo a ultrapassar uma determinada fase de forma a promover a adaptação vocacional, pelo que o seu significado é mais válido. A integração da experiência no autoconceito tornará o indivíduo mais orientado para o papel como agente de mudança, promovendo a adaptação a diferentes factores contextuais, presentes ou futuros, e levando à tomada em consideração da fase do seu
desenvolvimento em que se encontra durante a construção, gestão, e desenvolvimento da sua carreira (Savickas, 2005).
As principais ideias da Teoria da Construção de Carreira são que os processos de construção de carreiras são baseados no construir e fluir da narrativa de vida, o que só pode ser possível através da construção do self, pois é perante e através de tal constructo que a construção da carreira ocorrerá. Consequentemente, o indivíduo submete a uma carreira subjacente à sua própria história de vida, na qual também está integrada a sua história de carreira e que, mais tarde, permite a contínua adaptação de carreira, promovendo um melhor ajuste para os papéis que terá de desempenhar laboralmente, e promova a realização pessoal através da carreira (Savickas, 2005, 2011). São estes temas de carreira que permitem entender os motivos da saliência mais ou menos forte de determinados papéis de vida e trabalho, temas de carreira e histórias de carreira. E é toda a constante integração de diferentes temas de vida - micro-narrativas - em uma macro-narrativa que vai ditar as escolhas vocacionais e profissionais do indivíduo (Savickas, 2005).
Embora tenha inicialmente acedido ao conceito de maturidade vocacional proposto por Super (1990), Savickas optou por mais tarde defender, e explorar, a existência de uma capacidade de adaptação geral, que definiu como a capacidade de lidar com a mudança imprevista -, não dependendo de fases de carreira lineares ou causais, e promovendo a contínua integração da experiência do indivíduo através das suas experiências de vida (Savickas, 1997, 2002, 2013, 2015). A noção de aprender rapidamente as respostas adequadas aos desafios do ambiente e dos seus contextos leva à adaptabilidade de carreira: um constructo multidimensional, definido como a capacidade de lidar com as tarefas de desenvolvimento previsíveis, subjacentes aos papéis vocacionais que já são do indivíduo, e aos ajustes imprevisíveis, causados por retrocessos ou desafios (Savickas & Porfeli, 2012). O autor define ainda um conjunto de estratégias e comportamentos possíveis para activar a adaptação que, orientada para alcançar objectivos de carreira, substitui o conceito de maturidade de carreira. Actualmente, Savickas propõe a adaptabilidade de carreira como uma construção psicossocial, através da qual o indivíduo canaliza os seus recursos, decorrentes das suas experiências do passado, presente, e até das percepções de futuro, para lidar com tarefas actuais ou futuras, transições de carreira ou desafios vocacionais que possam vir a afectar qualquer um dos seus papéis de vida (2013).
De acordo com Savickas (2005, 2013), adaptabilidade de carreira tem quatro dimensões psicológicas interdependentes principais que aglomera todo um conjunto de crenças, atitudes, comportamentos, recursos e capacidades de coping: preocupação, controle, curiosidade e confiança.
O presente estudo, baseado no desenho misto, propõe averiguar, através da aplicação do instrumento My Career Story e do Inventário de Adaptabilidade de Carreira m 18 estudantes das licenciaturas de Gestão e Psicologia, quais os temas de vida e carreira poderão surgir, e a sua congruência com estas quatro dimensões do constructo da adaptabilidade de carreira, utilizando o Inventário de Adaptabilidade de Carreira.
Além das discussões dos principais temas de vida emergentes: autoconceito, apoio social, preocupação de carreira e crescimento pessoal, e a sua interacção com as dimensões de adaptabilidade de carreira, discutem-se ainda as limitações do estudo, sugestões de investigação futura.
Keywords: life designing; temas de vida e carreira; narrativa; Teoria da Construção de Carreira; Adaptabilidade de Carreira
TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... ABSTRACT/RESUMO ... INTRODUCTION ... 13 LITERATURE REVIEW ... 2 METHOD ... 11 RESULTS ... 16 DISCUSSION ... 24 REFERENCES ... 28 Appendix
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE pp.
1. Demographic characteristics of Management and Psychology Students 12 2. Means and Standard Deviations by Dimensions of Career Adaptability
(Four C’s) and Sex of Management and Psychology Students 20 3. Means and Standard Deviations by Dimensions of Career Adaptability (Four
C’s) and Sex of Management and Psychology Students 21 4. Mean and Standard Deviation of Items per Management and Psychology
Students 22
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE pp.
1. Thematic analysis of life-career themes, codes, and subcodes obtained 16 through My Career Story
INTRODUCTION
Until the beginning of the 21th-century, having a career was almost a given: an individual knew that he could have lifelong work and slowly, but surely, ascend inside the organization (Savickas, 2012). Having a career in itself wasn't simply a measure of success, but something that individuals a role that was expected of individuals when coming of age. Now, the individuals are bound to think of their career as soon as they enter middle school upon being demanded vocational choices. And for the majority of work roles and occupations, there is no such thing as a granted, stable, and lifelong career anymore. Career is now built everyday (Young & Collin, 2004). The emergence of boundaryless and the competitiveness within the workplace creates a bigger demand for knowing why, who, and how, in a world that is vastly evolving (Eby, Butts & Lockwood, 2003).
It is more crucial than ever to prepare adolescents and younger generations to new demands in the marketplace, and career construction theories based on organismic, developmental, tasks, may not be able of keeping up (Savickas, 2013, 2015). One of the alternatives is the Life-designing approach, which provides life-career narratives that allow individuals to construct their career; and put to use simple resources they may already have, or adapt the ones they may need. Different occupations may engage in life-designing for adaptability purposes in a different manner than others, even if they share the same objective.
The present research aims to grasp if the life themes provided by life-design approaches are congruent with the dimensions that constitute career adaptability, across different occupational groups.
It will be developed a literature review that tackles the concepts underlying life-designing, career construction, and career adaptability. Then, the research method will be introduced, along with the participants of this study, materials, procedures and data analysis. The results will be presented by merging different types of data. A brief discussion follows, wrapping up the subject, mentioning current limitations, and future research possibilities.
LITERATURE REVIEW Career Narrative in the 21th century
The 21th-century brought changes to career paradigms, especially with the skyrocketing globalisation and increased skill demand (Savickas, Nota, Rossier, et al., 2009). The increasing focus on the interdependence between roles performed by individuals within several life domains demanded an evolution from previous vocational theories that proposed career as a separate role (Savickas, Nota, Rossier, et al., 2009). Career now belongs to the worker, not to the organisation (Duarte, 2004). Life trajectories oblige to mean-making processes that integrate experiences while being influenced by the interaction of personal and contextual factors, which is applied to vocational and career experiences (Savickas et al., 2009). More than fit a job position permanently, the worker performs his job responsibilities as it would with another life role.
The set of roles from experience will be the basis of the life narrative (Duarte, 2006). It is defined as the coherent and continuous macro-narrative constructed by the integration of past or present roles from different experiences, in the most diverse contexts (Savickas, 2009). To build a life narrative, an individual must be aware of his experiences as micro-narratives, bound to a certain role, context, or developmental task, but still interdependent. Micro-narratives are the basic unit in the construction of the self and one's identity that, upon being arranged as a macro-narrative, will also influence career choices (Savickas, 2011, 2012). Moreover, micro-narratives also establish a set life themes structuring career narrative - being a micro-narrative in itself - through lifelong projects and self-construction (Savickas, 2005, 2013). Individuals rely on self-construction to proactively make career decisions and build career narrative by unifying experiences, adapting to career transitions or adjustments (Del Corso & Rehfuss, 2011). Being aware that self-construction also opens awareness for subjective identity - "the way a given individual sees himself or herself and others in a particular context as well as relates to others and the objects in this context" (Savickas et al., 2009, p. 7). The narrative provides life-themes that condition mean-making of experiences through self-construction (Guichard, 2015), using language that characterizes himself and life narrative (Duarte, 2012).
Until the end of the 20th-century, careers were planned based on lifelong work roles that took place on bureaucratic workplaces that provided nearly absolute stability to career narratives, vocational and occupational choices (Savickas, 2012). Besides the contextual changes brought by the 21th-century, the emergence of a new boundaryless career type, characterised by high mobility, turbulence, evolution, and complexity, is now related to career success - with job tenure having a length of 2 to 3 years for individuals under 30 years-old living in developed countries (Chudzikowski, 2012). Such and other changes in work dynamics, conditions at organisations and diversity of occupational choices demanded new paradigms in career theories. Focusing the construction of career narratives through elicitation of an individual’s life narrative, it was created the Life-Designing paradigm (Savickas, 2015; Vilhjálmsdóttir & Tulinius, 2016).
Life-Designing Paradigm
According to Savickas and colleagues (2009), Life Designing is an epistemological theory for career construction. Contextual, dynamic and non-linear processes, expressed across multiple contexts through differential, individual, characteristics, conceptualise subjective identities. The processes underlying dynamic interpersonal relations occur in a specific social, historical and cultural context (Young & Collin, 2004). Career construction promotes narrative cohesion, regardless of causality (Savickas, 2013). Therefore, career construction is a set of processes that occur as individuals construct their lives through work experiences, their vocational and subjective identities, the adjustments they undergo, with the objective of finding career, and overall, life satisfaction in given context (Duarte, 2009). Individuals build a career through life narratives based on contexts and subsequent societal roles, triggering a mean-making when interpreting experiences (Young & Collin, 2004). The interaction between contextual and individual factors play a crucial role regardless of their timing - past or present. Integrating life roles and experiences (micro-narratives) in the entire macro-narrative through self-construction is vital for career construction (Savickas et al., 2009).
Based on social constructionism and constructivism, proposes that individuals are the creators of their own autobiographical narrative through life themes, allowing career (re)construction (Savickas, 2005, 2012, 2013). The integration of different life
themes in the narrative contributes to identity construction, and creation of the self-concept - result of complex interactions between different determinants such as physical and physical growth, experiences, and contextual aspects surrounding the individual when reaching developmental tasks (Savickas et al., 2009; Savickas, 2015; Super, 1990). The variety of roles assumed by an individual contributes to the construction of the self-concept; and reconstruction, especially when through counselling technique that promotes reflexivity - interpretation and reinterpretation of the self (Vilhjálmsdóttir & Tulinius, 2016). Feedback from a certain experience may be integrated into life narrative and contribute to career construction along with it (Savickas et al., 2009). Through counselling is also possible to co-construct career, since the counsellor actively participates in the process (Duarte, 2012). As a holistic approach, Life Designing approaches vocational roles a crucial career aspect even though it takes into consideration other important life roles and contexts such as family, friends, interests, academics, occupations, and leisure activities (Savickas et al., 2009). Therefore, career is simultaneously a reflection of every meaningful life role performed, allowing to properly answer career crisis throughout previous vocational experiences (Super, 1990). The process of self-discovery and narrative processing may also be therapeutic, especially when not self-conducted and with the proper support of a counsellor, due to the deeper comprehension that offers towards fears and other self-sabotage behaviours that damaged decision-making processes applied to career construction (Savickas, 2015).
Life Designing identifies life themes and subjective identities underlying roles or contexts, considering the salience of present and past experiences (Savickas et al., 2009). Figuring subjective identities and life themes through the Life Designing paradigm creates a broad view of life narrative and adapting resources to career construction (Duarte, 2012; Savickas, 2005, 2013, 2015; Savickas et al., 2009). Furthermore, career construction complies vocational roles and identity across different occupational groups, thus being crucial to provide optimal occupational choices and roles for individuals, equally improving career decisions and transitions (Savickas, 2002). Provides guidance and direction to help individuals making more conscious choices for their career, vocational and future occupational choices, by projecting a multiplicity of future life roles along with their work-related ones, sometimes using previous roles and experiences, in an attempt to ease up future transitions or prevent predicaments that may transpire through career (Savickas et al., 2009).
Life Designing attributes four main characteristics to career as a project: adaptability, narrativity, activity, intentionality (Savickas, 2009). It implies more flexibility towards personal and contextual challenges that may come up during moments of transition, increasing adaptability when faced with change (Savickas, 2009). It also stimulates the construction of one's life narrative by being a catalyst for activities that promote experiences in all life domains, as well as interactions between different life roles. It creates the opportunities so that individuals may learn more about passions and interests, culminating in vocational occupations and choices, through the exchanges suffered in situations and with other people (Savickas, 2015; Savickas et al., 2009). Regarding intentionality, life designing helps to build a career by building life narratives (past and present experiences plus future desired), knowingly providing more meaning to life roles and contexts (Savickas, 2005; Savickas et al, 2009). The individual is responsible for having knowledge from different experiences and roles, integrating them on life narrative, building a plan for the future, and how it would like his career to be; this is the result of the construction carried out by the individual (Savickas, 2005, 2015).
Career Construction Theory
Throughout the second half of the 20th century, career theories were mostly focused in discussing career as an agglomerate of developmental tasks, and their fulfilment. Super (1990), was the main authors for the approach based on development, proposing a career psychology as the achievement in a developmental task (life-span while integrating different life roles in specific contexts (life-space). Career was defined as the reflection underlying vocational behaviour but not on the behaviour itself. It could be focused on occupations - objective career -, or the meaning of the vocational behaviour - subjective career -, being narrated by the individual, and through which role models, social context, among other roles, express the influence on the development of self-concept (Savickas, 2002).
Self-concept applied to a vocational setting is an extension of an individual’s self-concept, providing guidance through the developmental stages and sub stages (Super, 1990). Moreover, the salience of roles is a requirement to understand the contribution of work roles to life, development and stage accomplishment. Self-concept and the establishment of a vocational self - subjective conception of one's individual
about itself - is the main construct on this, and has given a broad contribute to Career Construction Theory, as a construct that conditions vocational choices based on social contexts (Savickas, 2005).
Self-concept is critical for the conception of construction stages (Savickas, 2002; Super, 1990). According to Super (1990), developmental tasks gather in different life stages. Each stage would have a vocational and developmental task demanded, socially demanded, according to the age of the individual (life-span), thus conducting the individual to solve developmental tasks in a certain manner in order to surpass them. Career stages harmonize with life cycles. Individuals reach new roles in their lives with age, surpassing different stages in both life and career that could be later related to maturity (Super, 1990). Maturity is defined as the ability to face developmental tasks, consequences of the social and biological development, as well as, the displayed needs of society towards people that achieved a similar development stage (Super, 1990). Vocational maturity is further defined as being oriented to career and occupational choices (Super, 1990).
When choosing an occupational activity, self-concept may take different characteristics, tasks, and demands according to the role it will have in career construction: actor, agent or author. As an actor, it is the basis of the trait approach which organises vocational personality, and studies vocational behaviour, choices and identity (Savickas, 2002, 2013). The objective of the trait approach is to match individuals that display certain traits more than others to the respective occupations, based on vocational personality and interests (Savickas, 2005). It is, in fact, equivalent to the vocational self-concept previously proposed by Super (1990). Being a personal construct and representation, self-concept it is highly influenced by interpersonal relationships, especially with parents, close family and immediate social relations that are the most influential concept since an early age, and shaped by language (Savickas, 2002, 2005, 2011). Individuals create a persona based on their personality which they use during their social roles, consequentially influencing their subjective identity (Savickas, 2013). Going through tasks and their interaction, with the different life roles an individual may have, thus creating a subjective perception of his development, different career stages, transitions, challenges and available resources - which is the basis for career adaptability (Savickas, 2005, 2011, 2013, 2015). It implies working through stages by altering the subjective perspectives or helping the individual surpassing a certain stage to promote vocational adaptation, so its meaning is more
valid. The integration of the experience in the self-concept will make the individual be more oriented for carrying the role of an agent of change thus promoting adaptation to different contextual factors while taking into consideration the development stage (Savickas, 2005). Nevertheless, adaptive behaviours are an answer to tasks related to vocational development depending on the interaction between life-span and life-space (i.e. the adolescent choosing a university degree or a young adult entering the workforce), which may cause intended or abrupt work transitions, or professional, undesired, trauma. This approach implies career stages of growth, exploration, establishment, management (equivalent to Super's maintenance) and commitment (equivalent to Super's decline).
But different career stages may be perceived as micro-narratives that in turn integrate a macro-narrative representing a society that is constantly progressing and changing at a fast pace, demanding faster adaptations to work or career changes (Savickas, 2005, 2011, 2013). Self-concept as an agent represents the ways individuals adapt while constructing their career at an environment where work demands are constantly progressing, and individuals change jobs more and more (Savickas, 2013). Finally, when the self-concept is an author - under a contextual paradigm - it focuses on narrative and life themes; walking away from the conception of maturity. It is an approach that integrates the Life Designing paradigm, being also the basis for the Career Construction Theory proposed by Savickas (2002, 2005, 2011, 2013, 2015).
Savickas (2011) distinguishes the individual as an author of his career narrative which is a true trait of a career theory rooted in constructivism. Despite being criticized for putting career dependent on developmental tasks of the life-span, Super’s perspective would grow to be the basic theory for constructive perspectives on career management throughout the 21th-century since the life-space component and self-concept are basic units of the constructivist career theory proposed by Savickas (1997; Young & Collins, 2004). The Career Construction Theory abandoned the prospect of a career as the result of the interaction of developmental tasks and life-roles as initially proposed by Super (1990). Rather, it focuses career as the result of a self-construction and life-designing. The individual guides, to a certain extension, the career path that constructs through integrating life experiences and different, contextual, life roles into his own life narrative (Savickas, 2002, 2005, 2011, 2015). From here is possible to perceive a vocational behaviour and construct a career from its meaning (Savickas, 2004). Career narrative would be the result of the continuous interactions and
adaptations between personal factors and context, despite going against Super's perspective of maturation/maturity (1990). It focuses on the processes of adaptation as the individual builds his career throughout the interaction of his life-span and life-space choices and thus building self-concept also when pursuing vocational objectives (Savickas 2005, 2011, 2013).
Constructing a career implies fitting work into life by blending career themes in life themes, thus integrating smaller narratives into as a coherent, continue, meaningful, united and singular life narrative (Savickas, 2005, 2011, 2015). Integrating experiences indicates giving meaning to experiences that are the interaction of life roles and contexts (life-space as proposed by Super 1990). It is strongly influenced by previous, present and future perceptions of experiences related to career (Savickas, 2005, 2015). One of the main ideas of Career Construction Theory is that career construction processes are based on life designing, only possible through the construction of the self since it is posterior to this that career construction will take place - with a three-stage process to achieve this career construction in a counselling setting (Savickas, 2013). Consequently, the individual induces career themes underlying career story which later on allow the construction of a career path and promote better adjustment to work roles and promote career fulfilment (Savickas, 2005, 2011). Career themes allow understanding the reasons behind a stronger presence of certain life and work roles, career themes, and career stories. The individual provides meaning to his overall vocational experiences based on the construction of personal narrative and, consequently, the self (Savickas, 2013). Upon need, and during counselling, the individual is also the author, deconstructor, or co-author, of career reconstruction. Reconstructing the career narrative is usually made in a career counselling context, where past or present micro-narratives are recalled and integrated into a new macro-narrative by the self, restoring the continuity to the career narrative, the sense of meaning and purpose to vocational personality and, consequently, career, through adaptability (Savickas, 2005, 2011, 2013).
The integration of different life themes - micro-narratives - into a macro narrative dictate career and vocational choices (Savickas, 2005). Savickas (2011, 2013) proposes that the narrative is influenced by the three positions that the self may have - actor, agent, and author - are interdependent among themselves. More than one approach for career management focuses complementary aspects (Savickas, 2005, 2013). In this sense, vocational guidance aid the identification of occupational fitness of
an individual, while career education works with vocational adaptability, and life design constructs a career narrative. The interdependency allows the development of a coherent self-concept and adaptation to career challenges that may arise throughout life without losing the ability to construct a career theme (Savickas, 2011).
Career adaptability
Nowadays, individuals must develop the ability to answer career challenges and transitions with flexibility, mostly by anticipating future, change, and applying personal characteristics to cope with contextual changes that may transpire (Savickas et al., 2009). Savickas (1997) broke with the concept of maturity proposed by Super (1990), defending the existence of a general adaptability - ability to cope with change without bigger predictions - that didn't depend of career stages disposed in linear and causal achievements, and rather in a continuum through life (Savickas, 1997, 2002, 2013, 2015). The notion of learning quickly suitable answers to one's context comes from the adaptation construct, central to the trait theory that proposes adaptation as being more flexible and congruent towards resource usage (Savickas, 2013). But adaptation, or being adaptive, only by itself doesn't mean that an individual will be willing to meet change. Savickas (2013) proposed a different terminology: adaptivity, or the "personal characteristic of flexibility or willingness to meet career tasks, transitions, and traumas with fitting responses." (p. 157). Therefore, individuals have to be willing to activate differential characteristics, intra, and interpersonal processes, through self-regulation to be able of meeting change (Savickas, 2013, 2015). But adaptivity could also not be enough as it didn’t explore the complexity between life-span and life-space factors.
Later on, Savickas (1997) proposed adaptability as a psychosocial construct that manifests the self, individual differences, development, and context, making the individual an agent that adapts his career according to the vocational interaction between life-span and life-space. Savickas furthermore defined career adaptability as the “readiness to cope with the predictable tasks of preparing for and participating in the work role and with the unpredictable adjustments prompted by the changes in work and work conditions” (1997, p. 254). Career adaptability is a multidimensional construct, the ability to cope with predictable developmental tasks underlying vocational roles, and unpredictable adjustments caused by setbacks or challenges (Savickas & Porfeli, 2012). Sets a group of strategies and behaviours possible to activate through
self-regulation, for adaptation to achieve career goals. Career adaptability was initially suggested in detriment of career maturity - the degree of adequacy the individual as to answer the expected developmental tasks (life-span), and their social roles (life-space) as the workplace, progressively changed and was unable of answering the career predictability and stability as it once was (Savickas, 1997). More recent works of Savickas have put career adaptability as a psychosocial construct that canalizes resources to deal with current or future tasks, career transitions or ordeal regarding vocational roles that affect social roles (2013).
Resources are focused to deal with vocational and work challenges through self-regulation creating adaptive behaviours towards change as well as forfeit different type of available resources towards the needs created by the intersection between contextual and individual factors. Career adaptability targets vocational behaviour and adjustment throughout life, being moderated by attitudes, beliefs, and skills needed during career construction (Savickas, 2013; Savickas & Porfeli, 2012). According to Savickas (2005, 2013), career adaptability has four main interdependent psychological dimensions that gather beliefs, attitudes, behaviours, resources and coping skills: concern, control, curiosity, confidence.
Concern is described as an orientation for the future, being limited to a timeline-like perspective, planning for future needs, career choice readiness, and skill development anchored in hope and optimism. Time is a critical aspect for career adaptability since an individual will be more adaptable the more focus it has on career continuity and optimism to achieve future vocational objectives regardless of present challenges and changes (Savickas, 1997, 2005). Lack of concern is usually perceived as indifference, negativity and lack of career construction (Savickas, 2013).
Control is the subjective belief that adjusting to career and vocational needs is under an internal locus of control (self-efficacy, self-regulation, and self-discipline), agency and conscious decision-making related to the vocational development and career transitions, having a certain degree of control of the text. The individual has an overall feeling that is the responsible for career construction (Savickas, 2005). The lack of control is confusion and indecisiveness that are frequently expressed under procrastination and impulsiveness (Savickas, 2013).
Curiosity is the dimension of adaptability that focuses the individual and his tendency to be open, or initiative, towards learning and engaging in the active exploration of vocational or career opportunities to increase knowledge about his future
possibilities. The openness to new experiences improves decision-making regarding career by increasing information and objectivity of occupation information and self-knowledge (Savickas, 2005, 2013). The lack of curiosity creates unrealistic notions about vocational and career options, as well as the adjustment between work and the person itself (Savickas, 2013).
Confidence explores feelings of adequacy and self-efficiency of the individual's vocational and career objectives, despite any contextual challenges that may arise in the future (Savickas, 2005). The individual trusts the ability to make the correct choices, and problem-solving skills while being persistent. An individual that has underdeveloped confidence often displays lack of compromise towards vocational and career roles as well as resilience to achieve goals (Savickas, 2013).
Other dimensions have been proposed for career adaptability. The Life Design International Research Group proposed commitment (Savickas et al., 2009) - characterised as the awareness, identification, and engagement with vocational, career and life roles oriented to reaching objectives and goals. Additionally, Savickas has proposed cooperation as another dimension, defining it as the ability to create new interpersonal relationships in a broad range of contexts to facilitate the achievement of vocational and career objectives (Savickas, 2013).
Individuals with optimal career adaptability are more focused on constructing career, displaying worry about career prospects, attempting to have some control over it. Needing control, individuals engage in vocational and career exploration while keeping their confidence and positivity towards the future. Commitment and positive interpersonal exchanges with other individuals may also contribute to career adaptability.
The dimensions of career adaptability do not develop in a sequential order, nor at the same rate. Therefore, different occupational groups, and even within the same occupations, may show individual (e.g. personality, interests, role-models) and group (e.g. social contexts) differences that make some dimensions have more salience and be better developed than others (Borgen & Harmon, 1996; Savickas, 2002, 2013, 2015).
METHOD
The research was designed to be a mixed-method research, having two distinct moments for data collection: qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis based on the main purpose and research questions.
Main Purpose
Career narratives are integrated into life narrative. Designing life narrative through the life-designing paradigm enables clarity for the construction of career narrative. Career adaptability is an element of career construction, as it provides resources to cope with predictable and unpredictable tasks and transitions associates to work roles and career.
The objective of the current research is to comprehend if the life themes that emerge from life-design approaches for Career Construction Theory are congruent with the dimensions proposed for career adaptability, across different occupational groups.
Research Questions
The main research question is:
R: Characterise the similarities and differences between the life-career themes of Management and Psychology undergraduate students, based on the dimensions of career adaptability.
Moreover, and given the inductive nature of the present qualitative research, another secondary research question emerged during data analysis:
R: Describe any gender differences regarding life-career themes within and across Psychology and Management undergraduate students.
Design
The present research is designed as a mixed-method research, using both qualitative and quantitative methods, to cover the usual concerns with validity and reliability in qualitative research, adopting an approach of data consolidation through a
concurrent design. While not completely carrying out triangulation since there is no statistical testing, the research applies the principles of triangulation by inference based on both data sets. It is used a qualitative instrument, My Career Story (Savickas & Hartung, 2012), and then a quantitative instrument, Career Adapt-Abilities Scale (CAAS) - Portugal Form (2011).
Sample
The following (Table 1.) displays demographic information gathered from participants.
TABLE 1.
Demographic characteristics of Management and Psychology Students
Management (n =9, 50%) Psychology (n=9, 50%) Male (n=4, 44.44%) Female (n=5, 55.56%) Male (n=4, 44.44%) Female (n=5, 55.56%) M SD M SD M SD M SD Age (y/%) 19.75 0.96 19.08 0.84 20.75 0.96 19.02 0.45
The research sample consisted of 18 subjects undergraduate students, distributed by two different subsamples: Management students (n =9) and Psychology students (n =9). Participants had to be on their 2nd or 3rd year when the instruments were applied, since the transition from High School to University during the 1st year may create bias.
In the subsample of Management undergraduate students, 50% of the sample, 44.44% were males (n=4), and 55.56% were females (n=5). The sample made of Psychology undergraduate students, the other 50%, has the same percentages since the distribution was the same across samples for females (n =5) and males (n =4).
Participants were between 19 and 22 years-old. The mean age of the sample was 19.83 years (SD= 0.92), with 19.77 years for Management undergraduate students (SD=0.83), and 19.88 years for Psychology undergraduate students (1.05).
Every participant was Portuguese, with Portuguese as native language.
It was chosen a quota sampling, a type of purposive sampling, for both subsamples throughout the earlier stages of research designing, as it was desired two subsamples that had belonged to different occupational groups. Management students and Psychology students were recruited based on word-to-mouth spread by the researcher, social contacts, and career offices at universities teaching undergraduate programs on the desired occupational groups.
Measures
My Career Story (Savickas & Hartung, 2012)
Life-career narrative from which themes emerge was described by using My Career Story (MCS) (Savickas & Hartung, 2012), comprising a self-guided autobiographical workbook that promotes career construction through life-designing counseling. It may be used by individuals, groups or educators.
The workbook is divided into three major parts: Part I: "Telling my Story": Individual answers questions about oneself, telling the life-career story; Part II: "Hearing my Story": Individual works with the answer that provided to enhance self-awareness about life-career story, and the future of career based on Part I; Part III: "Enacting my Story": helps the individual making a realistic plan and setting achievable objectives based on Part I and Part II.
By extracting a life-career narrative that exposes life themes underlying the career problem that the user has, which is the reason for using the workbook, the individual reaches life-design goals: adaptability, narrativity, intentionality, and orientation to action. The emerged themes allow to better comprehend which dimensions are behind career construction and life-career narrative.
Career Adapt-Abilities Scale (CAAS) - Portugal Form (2011)
The Career Adapt-Abilities Scale (CAAS) - Portugal Form, was adapted and translated to European Portuguese by the Life Design International Design Group during the Career Adaptability project, under the international coordination of Mark Savickas and
national supervision of Maria Eduarda Duarte. The instrument evaluates the degree through which career adaptability resources are available during career construction. The resources are distributed by four dimensions: concern, control, curiosity and confidence. After being adapted, translated and tested in Portugal in a Portuguese population (Duarte, Soares, Fraga, Rafael, et al., 2012), the CAAS - Portugal Form has 28 items (4 more than the CAAS - International), distributed through four scales that match the dimensions of career adaptability (Concern, Control, Curiosity, Confidence). It is used a Likert scale, from 1 to 5, where 1 means Not Strong, 2 means Somewhat Strong, 3 is for Strong, 4 is Very Strong and 5 is Strongest. The CAAS-International reported a total reliability of .92, with the subscales concern (.83), control (.74), curiosity (0.79), and confidence (.85); the CAAS-Portugal Form has total reliability of 0.90, with the subscales concern (.76), control (.69), curiosity (.78) and confidence (0.79). No reliability nor alfa was run in the present study due to the diminished size of the sample (n=18).
Procedure
Data was collected across different campus in Lisbon, Portugal, where the researcher met with each one of the participants in different occasions depending on the availability of both parties. The informed consent was orally disclosed to the participants that upon wishing to continue in the research signed a written version of the consent. My Career Story (Savickas & Hartung, 2012) was the first applied instrument. The researcher provided the workbook to the participants, walking them through the initial instructions and providing explanations if doubts were presented. After being reassured about the anonymous and confidential nature of the research, the participant filed the book. The process always occurred in a room or space at universities with the least noisy and most isolated possible. A short break was provided between Part II and III to the few participants that requested one. Right after filing My Career Story, the researcher provided Career Adapt-Abilities Scale (CAAS) - Portugal Form (2011), shortly providing a spoken reminder of the informed consent. The participants then filed CAAS - Portugal Form.
Data Analysis
Data analysis was divided into qualitative (1st moment of analysis) and quantitative (2nd moment of analysis).
Qualitative analysis adopted the method proposed by Watson, Bimrose, and McMahon (2014), extracting codes (thematic analysis) or themes from the narrative provided by the participants upon filing My Career Story; it is a method based in the inductive processes of Grounded Theory. The first phase corresponded to data familiarisation. Followed by the emergence of codes during a second phase, data was interpreted and described in different moments to search for saturation. During a third and fourth phase, respectively, the codes were verified by an independent coder and discussed with the researcher. Codes were then worked in themes by the researcher during a fifth phase, searching for common life-career themes, later on gathered in organising themes and in global themes. The results found through My Career Story (Savickas & Hartung, 2012), were reached by applying thematic analysis on both subsamples, from subcodes to codes, and from codes to themes. Each theme was first described to present results since those are the broader units. Some initial codes did overlap across the two subsamples during the initial moments of thematic analysis, and there was also the need of attributing sub-codes to the codes with higher salience exposed specificities for Management and Psychology undergraduate students. While all themes manifested similarities across subsamples, there were also sub-codes that pointed out the existence of differential constructs within each theme, across subsamples. The emergent sub-codes that provide evidence of those variations and differential constructs were described subsequently in the Results section.
Quantitative analysis was the second moment of the data analysis. Basic descriptive statistics were applied to the sample as a method of applying principles of triangulation, guarantee better performance of psychometric variables (validity, reliability, generalisability). Then, life-career themes emerged from thematic analysis were merged with quantitative data, where they tried to answer problems and challenges.
RESULTS
Qualitative Analysis: My Career Story (MCS) (Savickas & Hartung, 2012)
The themes, codes, and subcodes obtained during the thematic analysis driven by grounded theory were represented in Figure 1. The results found through My Career Story (Savickas & Hartung, 2012), were reached by applying thematic analysis on both subsamples, from subcodes to codes, and from codes to themes. Each theme was first described to present results since those are the broader units. Some initial codes did overlap across the two subsamples during the initial moments of thematic analysis, and there was also the need of attributing sub-codes to the codes with higher salience exposed specificities for Management and Psychology undergraduate students. While all themes manifested similarities across subsamples, there were also sub-codes that pointed out the existence of differential constructs within each theme, across subsamples. The emergent sub-codes that provide evidence of those variations and differential constructs were described subsequently in the Results section.
FIGURE 1. Thematic analysis of life-career themes, codes, and subcodes obtained through My Career Story
As illustrated in (Figure 1.), the global theme - Career Adaptability emerged through 4 organizing themes - self-concept, social support, career concern and personal growth -, that in turn were described through 18 codes and 11 sub-codes, identified during the first moment of the thematic analysis driven by Grounded Theory, carried out on the data provided by My Career Story (Savickas & Hartung, 2012).
Self-Concept
The theme Self-Concept is important to the construction of life-career narratives (Savickas, 2015). Both subsamples described their self-concepts through different types of role-models: Management students had more role-models from their family and everyday figures that strived to achieve their goals (e.g. Participant #6 Oldest sister: “She always studied and worked at the same time to reach her goals.”; Participant #5 Maternal grandfather: “He was a fighter, came from a village in the North of Minho, without having any possessions, and build his business and fortune. He was a very hardworking person.”). Psychology students were more focused on fictional characters, mostly from childhood movies, or people that carried out the current vocational identity and occupational choice (e.g. Participant #13 Bela from Beauty and the Beast: “She taught me to see beyond what is obvious. She was also dedicated to family and people that she considers innocent.”; Participant #10 School Psychologist: “She helped me cope better with bullying, and to have better relationships with other people.”). Both subsamples also described salience for locus of control. For example, Participant #9, an undergraduate Management student, explained that her favourite quote is "Nothing will work unless you do.". Participant #18, a male Psychology student, explains that is favourite show is How I Met You Mother because “It’s about the life of several characters. Basically, it talks about life as it could be happening to us.”. Despite having a salient locus of control, there were differences in way it manifested itself: Management students reported more constructs related to internal locus of control while Psychology students reported more indicators of possessing an external locus of control. The internal locus of control reported by Management students was frequently associated with the codes pursuit of objectives and conscientiousness, with an apparent connection based on self-sacrifice (e.g. Participant #5 Favorite Movie: “My favorite movie is The Pursuit of Happyness. It tells the story of a real, successful, businessman, Christopher Gardner, with a wife that leaves him to raise their young son by himself.
The story shows how it doesn’t matter how hard the situation is, there is always a solution that we can reach with strength and determination.”. Such codes weren’t saturated in the Psychology subsample except for one participant that indicated the intention of pursuing an occupation related to Work and Organisational Psychology, strongly related to Business. This same participant often displays the same life-themes as the majority of participants in the subsample Management, such as the pursuit of objectives and conscientiousness. The Management subsample displayed more salience for self-efficacy (e.g. Participant #5: “When I enter the job market, my proactivity and doing my best upon being challenged are the things that will set my future. Being the best now to reap a better future is an adequate way to achieve personal fulfillment.”. The subsamples presented more differences regarding salient codes: emotivity didn’t emerge from My Career Story, but Psychology students did report affectivity, while Management students didn’t, hinting at the influence of vocational occupation according to role requirements: since individuals with people-oriented self-concepts have an increased tendency to apply affectivity and emotions on tasks, in detriment of individuals with task-related self-concepts (Seibert & Kraimer, 2001).
Social Support
Role-models are essential to the creation of possible selves, being the result of observing salience in social contexts, roles, and relations (Gibson, 2003). Role-models and Social support were reported together by both subsamples, indicating similarities in the level of influence they have. Breaking social stereotypes was another code present in both subsamples. Role-models are essential to the creation of possible selves, being the result of integrating observations from social contexts, roles, and relations (Gibson, 2003).
The relevance of Social support is congruent with previous research that found support for social support as reinforcing internal locus of control, and overall perceptions of control upon being provided with emotional support and integration (Krause, 1987). Yet, the relevance and sources of social support were different across subsamples: Management students pointed out family, when asked with who would they speak to about their career, and an organizational aspect - highlighting the importance of both leadership, competitiveness in organizations - as the most important (e.g. Participant #3: I will be the happiest and most successful when I’m able of
developing myself in a positive and unconscious manner, at a workplace where people won’t judge themselves or each other, to balance out personal ambitions and interests with public sphere and others.). Psychology students relied more on friends. The descriptions seem congruent with previous research. Authors such as Kenny and Bledsoe (2005) indicated that social support provides potential resources and opportunities to overcome contextual obstacles while developing career adaptability.
Career Concern
Another life-career theme was Career Concern. Finding career satisfaction was present across subsamples, as well as finding motivation. Both subsamples displayed optimism despite differing time tense-wise: Psychology students described optimism oriented to the present (mindfulness) while Management students focused optimistic in surpassing negative past experiences in a way that helps building a better future. Psychology students described optimism along with curiosity and openness to experience especially volunteer experiences or opportunities that allowed them to experience new cultures. Those results are supportive of the relationship between the Artistic vocational interest proposed by Holland in his Big Six Interests of vocational interest, and openness. Additionally, Investigative vocational interests overlap with Openness (Larson, Rottinghaus & Borgen, 2002). The majority of participants attending Psychology have one of those two vocational interests, and always had a Social interest. On the other hand, Management students were more focused on being conscientiousness although constantly searching for new opportunities to learn and improve such as through summer internships, career workshops, social and interpersonal skills workshops, and similar activities. They mostly had interests of Enterprising and Investigative, with a notable lack of Social interests.
Personal Growth
The last emerged life-career theme was Personal Growth, coding for personal development and motivation in both subsamples, sub-coding self-knowledge as well as self-report in Psychology students, and skills and competencies of Management students. Spirituality also played a very important role for Psychology students (e.g. Participant #10 Jesus Christ: “Fought for a new law based on love and tolerance towards the other person.”; Participant #11 Favorite book - The Book of Light: Ask
Heaven Will Answer by Alexandra Solnado: “It’s my favorite book because it provides hope messages. Peace and faith for those that need it the most. I like it because I feel that it was a book which supported me a lot when my aunt died.”). Moreover, curiosity also emerged in personal growth, especially for Management students engaging in career exploration through contextual and role exploration which is supported by the idea that personal growth initiative predicts career and vocational identity exploration (Robitschek & Cook, 1999), and the Career Construction Theory (2002, 2005, 2011, 2013, 2015).
Quantitative Analysis: Career Adapt-Abilities Scale (CAAS) - Portugal Form (2011)
It was carried out a basic quantitative analysis of the scores gathered from the Career Adapt-Abilities Scale (CAAS) - Portugal Form. (Table 2.) displays the means and standard deviations of the answers given by Management and Psychology students by Dimension of Career Adaptability (Concern, Control, Curiosity, Confidence).
TABLE 2.
Means and Standard Deviations by Dimensions of Career Adaptability (Four C’s) and Sex of Management and Psychology Students
Dimension (M, SD) Subsample M SD Concern (M=3.83, SD=0.83) Management 4.10 0.78 Psychology 3.57 0.80 Control (M =4.09, SD =0.82) Management 4.00 0.84 Psychology 4.17 0.79 Curiosity (M =3.85, SD=0.79) Management 4.06 0.80 Psychology 3.63 0.73 Confidence (M =4.02, SD=0.77) Management 4.13 0.66 Psychology 3.90 0.86
As it is possible of verifying (Table 2.), Management students displayed stronger means in the dimensions of Concern (Management: M= 4.10; SD=0.78; Psychology: M= 3.57; SD= 0.80), Curiosity (Management: M =4.06; SD=0.80; Psychology: M=3.63; SD=0.73), and Confidence (Management: M=4.13; SD=0.66; Psychology: M=3.90; SD=0.86). On the other hand, Psychology students had stronger means in the dimension of Control (Management: M=4.00; SD=0.84; Psychology: M=4.17; SD=0.79).
TABLE 3.
Means and Standard Deviations by Dimensions of Career Adaptability (Four C’s) and Sex of Management and Psychology Students
Management Psychology
Feminine Male Feminine Male
Dimensions M SD M SD M SD M SD
Concern 4.17 0.75 4.00 0.82 3.80 0.72 3.29 0.81
Control 3.97 0.89 4.04 0.79 4.06 0.76 4.06 0.76
Curiosity 4.09 0.82 4.04 0.79 3.69 0.83 3.57 0.57 Confidence 4.14 0.65 4.11 0.69 4.17 0.75 3.56 0.89
But upon analysing gender differences in means across subsamples in (Table 3.), there was evidence regarding female students in Psychology (M=4.17; SD=0.75) having higher Confidence than female students in Management (M=4.14; SD=0.65), while male students in Psychology had lower Confidence (M=3.56; SD=0.89) than male students in Management (M=4.11; SD=0.69).
An aspect to take into consideration with the quantitative analysis of means and standard deviations, is that regarding the dimension Confidence, female students in Management (M=4.14; SD=0.65) have less confidence than female students in Psychology (M=4.17; SD=0.75). Though male students in Management (M=4.11; SD=0.69) have a notable discrepancy in confidence than male students in Psychology (M=3.56; SD=0.89).
A further analysis of mean and standard deviations per item displayed some exceptions in terms of answer distribution per subsample (Table 4.).
TABLE 4.
Mean and Standard Deviation of Items per Management and Psychology Students
Dimension Item Subsample M SD
Controlo Item 11 Sticking up for my beliefs Management 4.56 0.53 Psychology 4.44 0.73
Controlo Item 12 Counting on myself
Management 4.67 0.50 Psychology 4.00 0.71
Curiosidade Item 15 Exploring my surroundings Management 3.22 0.44 Psychology 3.67 0.50
As (Table 4.) indicates, the dimension Control, which had congruency with qualitative data in terms of engagement with conscientiousness-associated behaviours and generalized self-efficacy, as well as locus of control, wasn’t congruent. In Item 11. Sticking up for my beliefs where Management students had better means (M=4.56; SD=0.53) than Psychology students (M=4.44; SD=0.73); and Item 12. Counting on myself where Management students having better performance (M=4.67; SD=0.50) than Psychology students (M=4.00; SD=0.71). The dimension Curiosity also showed an exception within Item 15. Exploring my surroundings, with Management students registering a lower score (M=3.22; SD=0.44) than Psychology students (M=3.67; SD=0.50).
TABLE 5.
Mean and Standard Deviation of Items per Male and Female Students
Dimension Item Subsample M SD
Controlo Item 10 Taking responsibility for my actions Male 4.50 0.53 Feminine 4.60 0.52
Controlo Item 11 Sticking up for my beliefs Male 4.38 0.74 Feminine 4.60 0.52
Curiosidade Item 18 Observing different ways of doing things
Male 3.75 0.71 Feminine 3.60 0.84
Curiosidade Item 19 Probing deeply into questions I have Male 4.38 0.74 Feminine 4.30 0.82
In (Table 5.) are represented items that aren’t congruent with qualitative data, nor with the overall results in descriptive statistics, regarding gender.
Item 10. Taking responsibility for my actions and Item 11. Sticking up for my beliefs displayed a contradiction on the tendency of male students showing more Control. In fact, male students display less control on those two items (Item 10: M=4.50, SD=0.53; Item 11: M=4.38, SD=0.74) than females (Item 10: M=4.60, SD=0.52; Item 11: M=4.60, SD=0.52), even though they do have higher control on the rest of the dimension Control. Male students are more curious in Item 18. Observing different ways of doing things (M=3.75, SD=0.71) than female students (M=3.60, SD=0.84), and in Item 19. Probing deeply into questions I have (Male: M=4.38, SD=0.74; Female: M=4.30, SD=0.82), contradicting the overall tendency of gender qualitative and quantitative data in the present research. Nonetheless, this is not a surprise since male students have indicated the most, especially in Management, that they would enrol in internships and other technical knowledge.
