THOLOS TOMB GAMMA

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THOLOS TOMB GAMMA

A Prepalatial Tholos Tomb

at Phourni, Archanes

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THOLOS TOMB GAMMA

A Prepalatial Tholos Tomb at Phourni, Archanes

by

Yiannis Papadatos

with a contribution by Sevi Triantaphyllou

PREHISTORY MONOGRAPHS 17

Published by INSTAP Academic Press Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

2005

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Design and Production INSTAP Academic Press

Printing

CRWGraphics, Pennsauken, New Jersey Binding

Hoster Bindery, Inc., Ivyland, Pennsylvania

Printed in the United States of America Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Papadatos, Giannes.

Tholos tomb gamma : a prepalatial Tholos tomb at Phourni, Archanes / by Yiannis Papadatos ; with a contribution by Sevi Triantaphyllou.

p. cm. -- (Prehistory monographs ; 17) Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 1-931534-17-9 (hardcover : alk. paper)

1. Phourni Site (Greece) 2. Tombs--Greece--Phourni Site. 3. Minoans--Greece--Phourni Site.

4. Exacavations (Archaeology)--Greece--Archanes Region. 5. Archanes Region (Greece)--Antiquities.

I. Triantaphyllou, Sevi. II. Title. III. Series.

DF221.C8P36 2005 939'.18--dc22

2005030291

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To my parents

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LIST OF TABLES . . . .ix

LIST OF FIGURES . . . .xi

LIST OF PLATES . . . .xiii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . .xv

ABBREVIATIONS . . . .xvii

1. INTRODUCTION . . . .1

2. EXCAVATION AND STRATIGRAPHY . . . .3

History of Excavation . . . .3

Stratigraphy of the Tholos . . . .4

Stratigraphy of the Dromos . . . .5

Architecture . . . .6

Location of the Finds inside the Tholos . . . .7

Location of the Finds in the Dromos . . . .12

3. POTTERY . . . .13

Description of Wares . . . .13

Stratigraphic Sequence and Parallels . . . .15

Pottery Catalog . . . .19

4. OTHER FINDS . . . .27

Burial Containers . . . .27

Figurines . . . .29

Copper Artifacts . . . .33

Silver and Lead Artifacts . . . .34

Pendants . . . .35

Jewelry: Beads . . . .38

Jewelry: Bands . . . .39

List of Tables

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1. Maps of Crete and the Archanes area. Plan of the Phourni cemetery (from Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, 152).

2. Plan of Tholos Gamma.

3A. Section of Tholos Gamma interior.

3B. Section of Tholos Gamma dromos.

4A. Stratigraphic section of Tholos Gamma interior.

4B. Stratigraphic section of Tholos Gamma dromos.

5A. Distribution of larnakes in Stratum II.

5B. Distribution of burials and finds in Stratum II.

6A. Distribution of finds in Stratum III.

6B. Distribution of copper and silver objects in Stratum III.

7A. Distribution of figurines in Stratum III.

7B. Distribution of beads in Stratum III.

8A. Distribution of gold bands in Stratum III.

8B. Distribution of clay vases, seals, and stone, bone, and ivory objects in Stratum III.

9A. Distribution of pendants in Stratum III.

9B. Distribution of obsidian objects in Stratum III.

10. Pottery from Stratum I, Layers 1–2.

11. Pottery from Stratum I, Layer 3.

14. Pottery from Stratum III. From dromos: pottery from Stratum I.

15. Clay vases from Strata I, II, and III.

16. From dromos: pottery and clay vases from Strata IIA and IIB.

List of Figures

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THOLOS TOMB GAMMA xii

17. Larnakes from Stratum II.

18. Larnakes and pithos from Stratum II.

19. Copper objects from Strata II and III.

20. Figurines from Stratum III.

22. Figurines, lead, and silver objects from Strata II and III.

23. Pendants, bone objects, and ivory objects from Strata II and III.

24. Ivory handles from Stratum III.

25. Jewelry from Stratum III. From dromos: jewelry from Strata IIA and III.

26. Seals from Strata II and III.

27. Stone objects and obsidian from Strata II and III.

28. Obsidian from Stratum III. From dromos: obsidian from Stratum IIB.

29A. Bone representation of the postcranial skeleton.

29B. Prevalence of dental disease.

29C. Prevalence of dental disease by sex group.

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1A. Tholos Gamma from the west with the Archanes valley in the background.

1B. Tholos Gamma interior from the west showing the entrance and window.

2A. Tholos Gamma interior walls from the west showing the entrance and window.

2B. Tholos Gamma interior walls from the north.

3A. Tholos Gamma interior walls from the east.

3B. Tholos Gamma interior walls from the south.

4A. Tholos Gamma from the west at the beginning of the excavation.

4B. Tholos Gamma interior from the east. Stratum I, Layer 1.

5A. Tholos Gamma interior from the west. Stratum I, Layer 1.

6A. Tholos Gamma interior from the east. Stratum I, Layer 3.

7A. Tholos Gamma interior from the west. Stratum II.

7B. Tholos Gamma interior from the northeast.

8A. Tholos Gamma interior. Stratum II from the west.

8B. Tholos Gamma interior. Stratum II. Burials inside larnax L4 from the northwest.

9A. Tholos Gamma interior. Stratum II. Larnax L5.

9B. Tholos Gamma interior. Stratum II. Burial inside larnax L5.

10A. Tholos Gamma interior. Stratum II. Burials inside larnax L6 from the west.

10B. Tholos Gamma interior. Stratum II. Burials inside larnax L10 from the southwest.

11A. Tholos Gamma interior. Stratum II from the west.

11B. Tholos Gamma. Stratum II. Entrance from the west.

12A. Tholos Gamma interior. Stratum III. Area beneath larnax L7 from the east.

List of Plates

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THOLOS TOMB GAMMA xiv

12B. Tholos Gamma interior. Stratum III. Area beneath larnax L7 from the north.

13A. Tholos Gamma interior. Stratum III. Area beneath larnax L1 from the west.

13B. Tholos Gamma interior. Stratum III. Area beneath pithos L12 from the northwest.

14A. Tholos Gamma interior. Stratum III. Area beneath larnax L4 from the west.

14B. Tholos Gamma interior. Strata II and III, entrance from the west.

15A. Tholos Gamma dromos from the northeast. Stratum I.

15B. Tholos Gamma dromos from the east showing the window.

16A. Tholos Gamma dromos from the north. Stratum IIB showing cup V6.

16B. Tholos Gamma dromos from the north. Stratum IIB showing burial K42.

17. Pottery, clay vases, pendants, copper daggers, and silver scraper from Strata I–III. From dromos: clay vases from Stratum IIB.

20. Pendants, jewelry, obsidian, bone, ivory, and stone objects from Strata II and III.

21. Human skeletal remains.

22. Human skeletal remains.

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This book is largely based on the research for my Ph.D. dissertation, submitted to the University of Sheffield, in Sheffield, UK. It also resulted from a process longer than the period of the doctoral research. For this reason, I would like to thank several people involved in this process, although not always related directly to the pre - paration of this book.

I am grateful to Prof. Yiannis Sakellarakis and Dr. Efi Sapouna-Sakellaraki for ac cepting me to the “University of Archanes” and entrusting me with the study of such an important and controversial assemblage as Tholos Gamma. They were always of great help by providing the excavation journals and photographs and dis- cussing the excavation, material, and implications with me.

Prof. Keith Branigan and Dr. Peter Day, my supervisors at the University of Sheffield, generously offered their guidance and encouragement during my post- graduate research. They represent two different generations of scholars in the study of the Prehistoric Aegean, and I had the opportunity to benefit from their combined experience, knowledge, and advice.

To Prof. Christos Doumas and Prof. Eleni Mantzourani at the University of Athens, I owe my initiation into the knowledge and the problems of Cycladic and Mi no an archaeology, which constitute the two major poles of this archaeological material.

I wish also to thank Alexandra Karetsou, former director of the KG v Ephoreia in Herakleion, for permission to study the Tholos Gamma material. Special thanks also go to the personnel of the museums in Herakleion and Archanes for their valuable assistance during the study of this material.

This work benefitted also from discussions with Christos Boulotis, Cyprian Brood bank, Tristan Carter, Christos Doumas, Theodoros Eliopoulos, Yiannis Georgiou, Paul Halstead, Valasia Isaakidou, Alexis Karytinos, Despina Katapoti, Michalis Kata potis, Carl Knappett, George Korres, Olga Krzyszkowska, Vaggelio Kyriatzi, Alexan dros Lachanas, Christofilis Maggidis, Marissa Marthari, Panayiotis Moutzouridis, Kostas Nikoletzos, Eleni Nodarou, Diamantis Panagiotopoulos, Olia Peperaki, Maria Relaki, Vaggelis Saltos, Ilse Schoep, Sue Sherratt, Peter Tomkins, Sevi Triantaphyllou, Metaxia Tsipopoulou, Giorgos Vavouranakis, Andreas Vlachopoulos, Sofia Voutsaki, Peter Warren, Todd Whitelaw, and David Wilson.

The INSTAP Study Center for East Crete provided the necessary facilities and the ideal atmosphere for studying during the final stages of the preparation of this book.

I would like to thank the director, Dr. Tom Brogan, and the staff at the Center for their support.

Acknowledgments

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THOLOS TOMB GAMMA xvi

All the figures have been prepared by the author, except Figs. 2 and 3, which are by Giorgos Padermarakis, and Fig. 26 is by Douglas Faulmann. The photographs are courtesy of Yiannis Sakellarakis.

Financial support for the doctoral research was provided by the Greek State Scholarship Foundation (IKY). Prof. George S. Korres is gratefully acknowledged for providing supervision on behalf of IKY. The preparation of the book was fund- ed by the Institute for Aegean Prehistory (INSTAP).

Acknowledgments to the Appendix

by

Sevi Triantaphyllou

I would like to warmly thank Prof. Yiannis Sakellarakis and Dr. Yiannis Papadatos who invited and entrusted me with the study of such an important prehistoric assemblage. Yiannis Papadatos introduced me to modern and Minoan Archanes some eight years ago and made my stay there particularly enjoyable. I am grateful to Prof. Keith Branigan, my internal examiner at the University of Sheffield, who suggested my work to Yiannis. They both gave me the opportunity to extend, for the first time, my study area to Crete. This contribution as well as any study I am currently performing on human bones in the prehistoric Aegean would be impossible without the generous funding from the Institute for Aegean Prehistory. Lastly, I thank the staff of INSTAP Academic Press who converted my text into readable English.

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AM Catalog number in the Archanes Ar - cha e o logical Museum

c. circa

CMS Corpus der Minoischen und Mykeni - schen Siegel

d. diameter

d. base diameter of base d. hole(s) diameter of hole(s) d. neck diameter of neck d. rim diameter of rim d. spout diameter of spout

EBA Early Bronze Age

EC Early Cycladic period

EM Early Minoan period

ext. d. exterior diameter FAFs Folded Arm Figurines

h. height

HM Catalog number in the Herakleion Archae o logical museum

int. d. interior diameter

l. length

LM Late Minoan period

m meter

max. maximum

max. d. maximum dimension

max. pr. d. maximum preserved dimension

min. minimum

min. d. minimum dimension

MM Middle Minoan period

pr. preserved

th. thickness

w. width

Abbreviations

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One of the ideas concerning Prepalatial Crete that has gained broad acceptance and has been repeated in almost every study is that most of our knowledge derives from cemeteries and tombs.

However, the common, frustrating conclusion is that, despite the adequate body of evidence, the reconstruction of the Prepalatial period faces seri- ous problems. This situation is due to the quality of the evidence and the character of Prepalatial mortuary practices themselves (Branigan 1988; 1993;

Soles 1992; Watrous 1994).

The Prepalatial tombs were of collective character with continuous use for several centuries and for a large number of burials. This practice resulted in many periodical cleanings of the old burial remains, including the funerary goods, during the history of use of each tomb. Consequently, the picture emerging from many tombs is rather fragmen- tary; the burial remains are often very disturbed and the information poor.

A large number of tombs, especially in southern Crete, have been looted in modern times, and the contents have been sold to private collections. These looting activities were sometimes extensive and well organized. They did not only break down the contextual link between the tombs and their contents, but they also disturbed the stratigraphy and sometimes demolished the tombs themselves.

The method of excavation of a large number of tombs and cemeteries has left something to be desired, and much information has not been recorded properly. Most of these tombs were excavated before World War II, and much information was not documented. Unfortunately, it is frustrating to note that, despite the developments in the discipline and methods of archaeology, this situation continued even as late as the 1970s, with only a few excep- tions.

A large number of Prepalatial tombs are not published. In most cases the excavation report may be little more than a few paragraphs, while pottery and finds may not have been studied and properly documented.

With the above in mind, the study of Tholos Gamma in the cemetery of Phourni provides a real challenge and unique opportunity. The tomb was excavated in 1972 by Y. Sakellarakis. The detailed excavation diaries contained much information about the stratigraphy, the location of the finds, and the burials. Moreover, all the pottery and a large portion of the skeletal material were collected, un - like the case in many other Prepalatial tombs. All of this data, together with the drawings, photographs, and other recorded details provide useful in for ma - tion. The fact that it was possible to reconstruct and date the stratigraphy of the tomb in a different way

Introduction

1

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than the initial suggestion (Sakellarakis 1972) clearly illustrates the effectiveness of the excavation sys- tem. Last, but not least, Tholos Gamma remained unlooted and almost undisturbed since the moment of the last interment, unlike most of the Prepalatial tombs.

This publication includes a detailed discussion of the pottery, the finds and their parallels, and a reconstruction both of the excavation and of the

stratigraphy of Tholos Gamma. This evidence is used to date the tomb and give the “scenario,” that is, the historical outline of the tomb from its foundation in EM IIA until its excavation in 1972. At a second level, we discuss several problems concerning Prepalatial mortuary practices, with particular reference to the case of Tholos Gamma, and especially to the new evidence coming from the study of this funerary assemblage.

THOLOS TOMB GAMMA 2

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Archanes is situated 23 km south of Herakleion and the north Cretan coast and 15 km south of Knossos (Fig. 1). The focal point of the area is the small valley in the center, which is the southern- most part of the larger Herakleion plain, consisting of rich, fertile, marl deposits. Until very recently the economy and organization of life of the local popu- lation depended largely on the agricultural production of the valley, mainly olive oil, grapes, and wine.

The valley is surrounded by low and high hills and is relatively separated from other neighboring areas.

One of the few natural passes is the gorge of the Myristis rivulet, which until some decades ago was the main road to Knossos and the north coast.

The modern town of Archanes, of c. 4500 people, lies in the southern part of the valley, directly on top of the Minoan settlement. The latter appears to be founded in EM II (Sakellarakis and Sakel - laraki 1997, 30, 381), and it continued almost until the end of the Late Bronze Age. The main periods of prosperity were the New and Post Palace periods, when the re mains of the monumental palatial building of Tourkoyeitonia is dated. To the west of the valley, Mt. Juktas rises rather abruptly to the height of 811 m. Due to its height and length, Juk - tas actually dom inates the landscape and the lives

of the Archaniots. The mountain is an important religious center for the modern inhabitants, as it was for the Minoans 4,000 years ago. Juktas was one of the most important peak sanctuaries on the entire island, not surprising considering that it served not only Archanes, but also all the neighboring sites including the palatial center of Knossos.

The cemetery of the Minoan settlement lies on the low hill of Phourni, overlooking the valley and the settlement from the northwest (Fig. 1; Pl. 1A).

The cemetery was discovered in 1964 and excavated by Yiannis Sakellarakis and Efi Sakellaraki almost continuously until 1989. It has been con sidered to be one of the most important cemeteries in the Aegean for its size, duration of use, pre servation, unlooted character, number of tombs and burials, quantity and quality of the contained funerary goods, and wealth of mortuary evidence (Sakel lara kis 1994; Sakellara - kis and Sakellaraki 1991, 1997).

The available evidence shows that the cemetery was founded in EM IIA, perhaps in the same period as the settlement, and it continued to be used until the end of the Late Bronze Age. The two tholos tombs (Tholoi Gamma and Epsilon), which were built in EM IIA, were accompanied by a large number of rectangular house tombs in the later

Excavation and Stratigraphy

History of Excavation

2

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THOLOS TOMB GAMMA 4

Prepalatial periods of EM III and MM IA (Burial Buildings 5–9, 12, 16, 18, and 19). Toward the end of the Prepalatial period, the first elaborate tombs were built (Tholos B and Burial Building 3). It seems that in the Old Palace period, the cemetery becomes the burial place of the local elite, although it certainly received commoners’ burials in the old house tombs that continued in use from the previous period. The New Palace period is not well known because no burials have been revealed yet. However, the important Building 4 shows that the cemetery was the focus of rituals and activities related to the buried ancestors. In the Post Palace period, Phourni became the exclusive elite cemetery of the settlement because only important burials took place in a few tombs, such as Tholoi Alpha, Beta, and Delta, and the Mycenaean Grave Enclosure.

Tholos Gamma lies in the central part of the cem - etery (Figs. 1–3; Pls. 1–4) and was founded in EM IIA. Along with Tholos E, which lies further to the south, they were the first tombs erected in the area and served the burial needs of the first inhabitants of the Archanes settlement. Originally, the tomb was freestanding, but in later periods (EM III and MM

IA) it was surrounded by rectangular house tombs (Burial Buildings 5 and 9).

Tholos tomb Gamma was excavated in July 1972, during the excavations of the Archaeological Society of Athens (En Aqhvvnai~ Arcaiologikhv Etaireiva) in Phourni, under the direction of Yiannis Sakellarakis. The excavation was complet- ed in July 1973 with the excavation of the entrance of the tomb and the area outside it (dromos).

The excavation proceeded with the removal of horizontal layers of soil of various thickness. In the upper part of the fill, the tomb was excavated as a whole. When the larnakes of the burial stratum appeared, the tomb was divided into four quarters (Sectors A, B, C, and D), which were excavated sep - arately. The pottery was collected in separate groups from each layer and section, and several times from smaller areas of the tomb. The find spot was recorded for all the finds, and the depths were recorded reg ularly. The detailed diaries accompanied by many drawings and photographs constitute an ex - cellent documentation of the excavation. They allow the reconstruction of the excavation process and stratigraphy with a high level of precision.

Stratigraphy of the Tholos

The soil fill of the tomb interior is divided into three separate strata (Strata I–III) on the basis of several criteria related to the texture of the soil, the number and the size of the stones, and the depth (Fig. 4A).

Stratum I

The first, uppermost stratum can be divided into three separate layers (Layers 1–3).

Layer 1: It is the surface filling of the tomb and consists of brown, soft soil with a large number of stones. These are mainly flat and had fallen from the vaulted roof into the tomb in a specific order. In the upper part of the soil fill, the stones were close to the tholos wall, they inclined inward, and it is clear that they were the last stones to fall from the upper part of the tholos wall toward the interior (Pl. 4B). Some of them had moved only very slightly from their original position, probably the result of modern

plowing. At a deeper level the stones continued to be inclined inward, but they were close to the center of the tholos (Pl. 5A). Large gaps with no soil were found between the stones, a typical characteristic of collapsed roofs.

Layer 2: It consists of pure soil of the same nature, texture, and kind as Layer 1, but without stones (Pl.

5B).

Layer 3: It consists of soil of the same texture, but, unlike Layer 2, it contains a large number of stones. They have also fallen from the tholos roof but are smaller than the stones of Layer 1 (Pl. 6A).

Because the stones are at such a depth, just above the burial stratum of the tomb, they seem to have fallen from the central, upper part of the vaulted roof, in an earlier phase than the stones of Layer 1.

During the excavation of this layer, the rims of the larnakes appeared (Pl. 6B), and the layer continues until the depth of c. 0.20 m below the rims.

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EXCAVATION AND STRATIGRAPHY 5

Stratum II

There is no significant change in the texture of the soil, but the stones fallen from the roof are fewer. Stratum II is the upper burial stratum of the tomb and contains all the burial containers and many bones (Fig. 5; Pls. 7–11). It starts c. 0.20 m below the rims and reaches the level of the bases of the burial containers.

Stratum III

Stratum III lies between the bases of the larnakes and the natural rock. The texture is very different from the other strata because it is black, hard, and contains many small fragments of limestone and bones (Figs. 6–9; Pls. 12–14A). As will be discussed in the conclusions, this is the lower burial stratum of the tomb. Its thickness varies,

and in several parts of the tomb it is nothing more than a shallow filling of the irregularities of the natural rock. The stratum was thinner in the west and north part of the tomb and thicker in the south and east part (Sakellarakis 1972, 333). During the excavation of Stratum III, the foundations of the tholos walls were revealed lying directly above the natural bedrock.

Entrance

The same strata also occur in the tomb’s entrance, except that due to the small height of the entrance and the in situ preservation of the lintel, the first two layers of Stratum I were not present.

Moreover, Strata II and III in the entrance are separated by a large flat stone that serves as a thresh- old (Pl. 14B). There are no finds from the area between the two doorjambs.

Stratigraphy of the Dromos

In the area outside the entrance, the so-called

“dromos,” the stratigraphy differs from the tholos in - terior and entrance because the area was filled with soil in different periods and in different ways (Fig.

4B). However, the two lower strata of the dromos (Strata IIB and III) correspond to Strata II and III of the tholos interior.

Stratum I

It is the uppermost destruction level of the dromos area. It consists of brown, soft soil with many large stones fallen from the nearby walls (Pl. 15A).

Stratum IIA

With no change in the texture of the soil, Stratum IIA is distinguished from Stratum I by the lack of stones. It is also separated from Stratum I by a large capstone that was placed horizontally in front of the

entrance as a projection of the lintel. In this stratum, the two walls defining the dromos were erected. It should be emphasized that the two dromos walls had been founded at a higher level than the natural bedrock and the foundations of the tholos wall.

Stratum IIB

Although it displays no change in the texture of the soil, this stratum can be distinguished from the upper Stratum IIA because it is beneath the foundations of the two dromos walls, therefore it pre-dates them (Pl. 16).

Stratum III

Stratum III lies directly over the natural rock. It is hard with many small fragments of limestone, similar to the soil of Stratum III from the tholos interior.

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THOLOS TOMB GAMMA 6

Tholos Gamma (Figs. 2–3; Pl. 1) is a typical tholos tomb, similar to those found in large numbers in southern Crete. Together with the neighboring Tholos Epsilon and 2 more tholoi in Krasi, they constitute the only secure examples of Prepalatial tholos tombs in northern Crete in EM II. In contrast, c.

80 such tombs have been discovered in southern Crete (Branigan 1970; 1993; Panagiotopoulos 2002, 168). The tomb is circular, with an internal diameter of 3.5 m, and it was built directly on the natural bedrock. Like all the other Prepalatial tholos tombs, it was not covered by soil, so it was totally visible above ground. The wall is built of large, irregular, unworked stones (Fig. 3A; Pls. 2–3). The entrance (Pls. 1B, 2A) is located on the east side as in almost all the tholos tombs of southern Crete (Branigan 1998, 19). It is very small and consists of three large stones (two doorjambs and the lintel) in the form of a trilithon, a feature seen mainly in the earlier tholos tombs dated to EM I or EM II (Branigan 1970, 34). A unique feature of Tholos Gamma is a small opening, like a window, just above and to the south of the entrance (Pls. 1B, 2A, 15B). It was created during the original building of the tomb, and its function remains unknown. It does not seem to be a relief opening for the lintel because it is not located immediately above the lintel, but to the south of it.

The exceptionally well-preserved wall of Tholos Gamma that reaches a height between 2 and 2.20 m, together with the detailed observations made during the excavation of Stratum I about the collapse of the roof, offer valuable information about the form of the roof. Large, irregular, unworked stones were used for the lower part of the wall that was built in irregular courses (Fig. 3A; Pls. 2–3). The natural rock is irregular, but no effort had been made to level it before the erection of the tholos wall. The latter was entirely exposed above ground, while the walls of the attached Burial Buildings 9 and 5 func- tioned as buttresses. These walls were built much later, however, in EM III or MM IA.

In contrast to the irregular stones of the lower part, the stones are large and flat in the upper preserved part of the wall (Pl. 1B) and, although unworked, they seem to have been selected deliberately for this part of the wall. These flat stones were placed with a slight overhang, clearly indicating the

start of a corbelled roof. The corbelled overhang is a maximum of 0.40 m at the height of 2–2.20 m, which gives a vertical deviation of 1:5.5. The diameter of the tomb is reduced from 3.5 m at the base to 3 m at the highest preserved point. This deviation is higher than some tombs, such as the example at Christos, but lower than others, such as those at Hagia Kyriaki and Trypiti (Branigan 1993, 48).

Some of these stones, more specifically those from the upper preserved part of the tholos wall, were discovered fallen inside the tomb, in the upper part of the soil fill (Stratum I, Layer 1; Pls. 4B, 5A). Fi - nally, the stones found deep inside the tomb during the excavation (Stratum I, Layer 3 and Stratum II) were also flat, yet significantly smaller (Pl. 6A).

Again, they seem to have been deliberately selected for the uppermost part of the wall and the central part of the vaulted roof. They were found fallen from the roof in various directions and with a down ward inclination.

The difference in the stones used for the various heights of the tomb wall has been noticed also by Xanthoudides in the tomb at Christos (Xanthou - dides 1924, 70), and it is typical in the modern mita- ta, or shepherds’ huts, on Mount Ida (Warren 1973) and in other modern corbelled huts in Crete (Branigan 1994). In all of these cases, the stones used in the lower part of the building were large, irregular, or rectangular, while in the upper part, where the corbelling starts, the stones always be - come flat. In the case of Tholos Gamma, it seems clear that the flat stones of the initial, lower courses of the corbelling were larger than those used for the top and center of the roof, probably to achieve better stability for the corbelled roof (Cavanagh and Laxton 1982). An interesting feature of Tholos Gam ma is also the diameter to wall thickness ratio, which is 1:3, one of the lowest ratios among the 48 tholos tombs with such available evidence (Brani - gan 1993, 42–3).

The above evidence indicates clearly that Tholos Gamma had a fully corbelled stone roof (Sakel - larakis 1972). Branigan has already suggested that most of the tholos tombs could have a stone vaulted roof, with the possible exception of some large tombs with very thin walls (Branigan 1993, 55). The evidence from Tholos Gamma reinforces this idea.

Architecture

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Stratum I

Layers 1–2

Layers 1 and 2 contained only a few sherds (P1–P9; Fig. 10), fragments from larnakes, and some broken human bones. All these were found at least 0.30–0.50 m above the rims of the larnakes of the burial stratum (Stratum II), so they do not seem to relate to the burials.

Layer 3

The upper part of Layer 3, above the larnax rims, produced a few sherds (P10–P17; Fig. 11), fragments of larnakes, and some animal teeth. In the lower part of the fill, that is from the level of the larnax rims until 0.20 m below them, many more finds were collected. These finds come from either the upper part of the soil fill inside the larnakes or the area outside them. The latter was divided in four sectors (A, B, C, and D).

Stones from the vaulted roof had fallen inside the larnakes in addition to fragments from the larnax walls and lids. In some cases, stones had fallen into the bottom of the larnakes (Pl. 8A), and it is clear that at the time of the roof collapse the larnakes had no soil fill.

The following finds derive from the upper part of the fill of the larnakes (nothing was found inside larnakes L5, L6, L9–L11, and pithos L12). Larnax L1 contained 1 sherd of unknown date (P22).

Larnax L2 yielded 4 sherds: 2 dated to LM III (P23–P24; Fig. 12; Pl. 17), 1 dated between EM III and MM II (P25; Fig. 12), and 1 of unknown date (P26). Larnax L3 held a leg from a MM IIB–IIIA tripod cooking pot (P27; Fig. 12). Larnax L4 contained a false spout and handles from a LM III stir- rup jar (P30; Fig. 12). Larnax L7 yielded 5 sherds:

1 of unknown date (P31; Fig. 13), and 5 dated to LM III (P32–P35, P38; Fig. 13; Pl. 17). This larnax also contained some large sherds belonging to at least three Geometric pithoi. Larnax L8 held 2 LM III sherds (P28–P29; Fig. 13; Pl. 17) and the handle from a serpentinite vase (D2). There were also a few finds from the area outside the larnakes, all of them coming from the level of the rim of the larnakes.

Sector A is the northwest sector of the tomb. This region and especially the area south of larnakes L1, L2, and L11 was very disturbed as shown from the large number of stones fallen from the roof and the heavily damaged larnakes of this part (L1, L2, L7, L8, and L11). Two sherds were found in this sector:

a fragment from a modern cup (P18) and a leg from a tripod cooking pot of unknown date (P19; Fig.

11), but certainly not earlier than the Old Palace period.

Sector B is in the northeast part of the tomb. The disturbance was not significant, and larnakes L3, L5, and L10 were found almost intact. The only find was a leg from a MM IIB–IIIA tripod cooking pot (P20; Fig. 11). It belongs to the same cooking pot as P27, which was found inside L3.

Sector C is the southwest part of the tomb. It was the most disturbed region as indicated by the large number of stones collapsed from the roof and the poor state of preservation of the west part of larnakes L2, L8, and the entire upper part of larnax L9.

This picture is reinforced also by the sherds of the Geometric pithoi collected with larnax L7, mentioned above. The same disturbance was observed in the neighboring Sector A, and it seems that the whole west and southwest part of the tomb had been largely affected by the collapse of the roof. The only find from this sector was a handle from a bowl dated between EM III and MM II (P21; Fig. 11).

Sector D is the southeast part of the tomb, which was not seriously disturbed by the roof collapse.

The only finds come from the area in front of the entrance. One skull (K14) and an intact vase (V1;

Fig. 15) were found in this area. They were both found just 0.20 m below the lintel, suggesting that they were placed there through the entrance after the collapse of the roof, when the tomb had been filled with soil and stones. Vase V1 is a one-handled bowl dated to MM IIB–IIIA.

From an unknown area of this layer also come 3 sherds dated to LM III (P36–P37, P39; Fig. 13).

Finally, inside the entrance were also found 13 sherds, of which only 6 are diagnostic: 5 dated be - tween EM III and MM II (P67–P71; Fig. 11) and one, which cannot be dated precisely (P66; Fig. 11).

The finds of Layer 3 do not seem to have any relation to the burials of the lower stratum (Stratum

Location of the Finds inside the Tholos

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THOLOS TOMB GAMMA 8

II), because they were found at least 0.30 m above them. This is reinforced by the observation that roof stones fell inside the larnakes in addition to larnax wall and lid fragments (Pls. 8A, 9A). Moreover, in some cases the stones had fallen onto the bottom of the larnakes. It seems clear that at the time of the roof collapse the larnakes had no soil fill.

Therefore, the finds of Layer 3 could not fall on top of the larnakes before, but only during or after, the collapse of the roof. Of particular importance is the intact MM IIB–IIIA cup (V1; Fig. 15), which was found directly under the lintel of the entrance, because it provides a terminus ante quem for the collapse of the roof (see Chapter 5).

A final point must be made concerning the disturbance of the tomb. The evidence suggests a higher degree of disturbance in the west part. Sectors A and C contained the largest number of stones from the collapsed roof. Moreover, all the larnakes of this part were partly (L1, L2, and L8) or entirely (L9 and L11) damaged (Pl. 7B). Pottery reinforces this picture because this part of the tomb yielded all the LM III sherds (P16, P23, P24, P28–P30, P33–P39;

Figs. 11–13; Pl. 17), fragments from Geometric pithoi, and the fragment from a modern cup (P18).

In contrast, the east part of the tomb (Sectors B and D) did not suffer to the same degree from the roof collapse. The fallen stones are fewer, and the larnakes (L3, L4, L6, and L10) are preserved almost intact.

Stratum II

Stratum II constitutes the upper burial stratum of the tomb. Burial remains were found inside 11 larnakes (L1–L11; Figs. 17–18), one pithos (L12;

Fig. 18) and in the spaces between them (Fig. 5).

The larnakes had been placed without any particular orientation, although they surrounded the pithos, which was in the center of the circular tholos. During the removal of the soil from inside and between the larnakes several finds were revealed.

All the burials and the objects of Stratum II (Tables 1, 2; Fig. 5) were found just above the level of the base of the larnakes and clearly beneath the stones of the destruction level that had fallen from the collapsed roof (Stratum I, Layer 3). Most of the burial containers had more than one burial (Table 1). Only one, or possibly two burials were articulated and partly in situ, while all

the others were very disturbed. In most cases only the skull, some teeth, and some long bones were preserved, while a few burials were identified solely on the basis of teeth. Generally speaking, the burials found inside the containers were better preserved than those outside, although this was not always the rule. Only a few funerary objects accompanied the burials of Stratum II, and surprisingly, these artifacts accompanied only burials found outside the larnakes and pithoi, not those found inside them (Table 2). If we exclude burial K14 found in Stratum I, Layer 3 and burial K9 found in Stratum III, then Stratum II contained all the rest. The burials identified during the excavation numbered 43 (18 inside and 25 outside the larnakes), while the osteological study by S.

Triantaphyllou (Appendix) counted 44 individuals (20 inside and 24 outside the larnakes).

It is also rather surprising that the pottery of Stratum II consists of only 2 intact vases (V2, V3;

Fig. 15; Pl. 17). The other finds consist of 3 pendants (A4, A5, A22; Fig. 23; Pls. 17, 20), 6 seals (S1, S2, S5, S7–S9; Fig. 26), 3 copper artifacts (B1, B17, B18; Fig. 19), a lead object (C1; Fig. 22), a bone object (I5; Fig. 23), and an obsidian flake (O5; Fig. 27).

Larnax L1 contained the burial of a prime adult of unidentified sex (K10.1). The burial was only partly in situ. Several long bones were found in the west part of the larnax while the skull was found in the northeast corner, facing to the southeast. Ad di - tionally, five teeth from a second, young adult were collected (K10.2).

Larnax L2 contained the burial of a prime adult of unidentified sex (K12). The burial was not in situ. Several long bones were found in the western part of the larnax, while the skull was found in the east. The remains from another individual were also identified.

Larnax L3 contained the burial of an adult male (K13). The burial was not in situ. Some long bones were found in the eastern part of the larnax, while the skull was found in the southwest corner.

Larnax L4 contained the burial remains of 2 individuals (Pl. 8B). The first burial (K21) be longed to a prime adult female and the second (K22) to a mature/old adult male. Very few long bones were found in the west long side of the larnax, while both skulls were found in the northwest corner. Neither of the burials was in situ.

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Larnax L5 contained the burial of a prime adult female (K1). Several long bones were found in the southern part of the larnax and the skull was in the northeast corner (Pl. 9). From the position of the long bones and the skull, it was probably a primary burial, which was preserved in situ and placed in a contracted position with the head pointing to the north and facing eastward.

Larnax L6 contained the remains of 3 burials identified solely from the skulls (Pl. 10A). The skull of a mature adult male (K16) was found in the north side, another skull of a mature adult female was discovered in the middle of the west long side (K15), and a third example from a mature adult female (K17) was uncovered to the south. A few long bones were found scattered. Remains of an additional burial belonging to a child were identified. The burials were not in situ.

Larnax L7 contained the remains of an adult female (K24.1). The skull was in the middle of the north long side and two long bones were in the southeast. The burial was not in situ. Additionally, some teeth and bone fragments were found and belong to at least one more adult (K24.2).

Larnax L8 contained only 2 teeth and fragments from a long bone. The small quantity of skeletal remains is probably due to the poor state of preservation of the larnax.

Larnax L9 contained only some teeth and a few fragments of bones. The small quantity of skeletal remains is probably due to the poor state of preservation of the larnax.

Larnax L10 contained 3 burials (Pl. 10B). The first example (K18) came from the north part of the larnax and belonged to a mature adult male. In the opposite (southeast) part of the larnax, an adult female skull (K20) was found in addition to another specimen from an adult of unidentified sex (K19). Several long bones were found be - tween the skulls. Additionally, remains of a child burial were also identified. No burial was in situ.

Larnax L11 contained no burial remains, which was probably due to the damage caused by the collapsed roof.

Pithos L12 contained the remains of at least 4 individuals: a mature adult female (K23.1), a prime adult male (K23.2), an adult male (K23.3), and a child (K23.4). The burials were mainly identified from the skulls, while very few other bones were found. No burial was in situ.

Sector A, the northwest sector of the tomb, was heavily disturbed. This may explain why it contained no other burials except those made inside larnakes L1, L2, and L5. The only finds are 2 seals (S2 and S9; Fig. 26), an unidentified copper object (B17; Fig. 19), and an obsidian flake (O5; Fig. 27).

Neither was associated with any burial.

Sector B, the northeast sector of the tomb, contained four burials outside the burial containers. A skull (K11) was found outside the northeast corner of L5 and another one (K6) outside the southeast corner. Just a few bones accompanied these skulls, and no burial was in situ. Between the 2 skulls a seal (S1; Fig. 26) and a copper rivet (B1; Fig. 19) were found. In the area between L1, L5, L10, and L12 the remains of 3 burials were found; one belonged to a prime adult female (K8.1), and the other 2 were children (K8.2 and K8.3). A cylindrical bone pendant (A5; Fig. 23; Pl. 17) found in the same area was probably associated with one of the burials. Finally, in the area between L3 and the tholos wall, 2 more burials were discovered (K2.1 and K2.2). Both examples belonged to adults, and one of them was male (K2.1).

Sector C, the southwest sector of the tomb, was the most disturbed. This explains the lack of identifiable burial remains in larnakes L8 and L9 and in the area around them. The only human remains found in this sector consist of a skull belonging to a young adult female (K4) found between L7 and L8. A fragment from a copper object, possibly a punch (B18; Fig. 19), was also found nearby.

Sector D, the southeast sector of the tomb was the least disturbed, and, not surprisingly, in this area most of the burials and the finds of Stratum II were found. It should be emphasized that this sector is in front of the entrance, so it contained some of the last burials and artifacts placed in the tomb. Due to the large number of skeletal remains, the burials are presented in groups.

Group 1 contained a skull (K35) that was found in the small triangular space between L4, L9, and the tholos wall. The skull was found together with a jug (V3; Fig. 15; Pl. 17), a seal (S5; Fig. 26), and a cylindrical bone pendant (A4; Fig. 23; Pl. 17).

Group 2 yielded the remains of 5 burials between L6 and the tholos wall. Again, they were mainly identified from the skulls. The 2 burials in the north belonged to a mature adult male (K32) and an individual of unknown sex and age (K33). No other

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THOLOS TOMB GAMMA 10

bones were found nearby. The 3 burials to the south belonged to an adult (K34.1), a child (K34.2), and an adult female (K36).

Group 3 included the skulls of at least 4 individuals who were found outside the southeast corner of L10. The skulls formed a small heap. Two skulls on the top of the pile belonged to a male adult (K7.1) and a female mature adult (K7.2). The other 2 spec- imens (K37, K40) were of unknown sex and age, and they were found in a lower level that corre- sponded to the larnax base. A seal (S7; Fig. 26) was also uncovered nearby.

Group 4 contained a large number of burial remains that were revealed between L4, L7, and L8.

More specifically, the skulls and a few bones of 6 individuals formed a small heap of 3 layers in front of the east side of L8. The skull of an adult male (K3) came from the upper layer, in the middle were the remains of another burial of unidentified sex and age (K31), and the lower layer yielded the remains of 3 more burials. These 3 burials include a prime adult female (K38.1) and 2 neonates (K38.2 and K38.3). A lead discoid object (C1; Fig. 22) was also found with these burials.

Group 5 included the remains of 5 adults that were found in the area between L4 and L7: 2 adult females (K25 and K26), a prime adult male (K30), and 2 adults of unidentified sex (K28 and K29).

The skeletal remains consisted mainly of skull fragments.

Group 6 comes from the last area with burials, which was located in front of the entrance and in - cluded the remains of 3 individuals. They were the last burials made in the tomb. They belonged to an adult male (K41) and to 2 individuals of un known age and sex (K5 and K39). A jug (V2; Fig. 15; Pls.

11B, 17), a seal (S8; Fig. 26), a pendant of white paste (A22; Fig. 23; Pl. 20), and a bone pointed object (I5; Fig. 23) were found in the area, and they were possibly associated with these burials.

Stratum III

In contrast to Stratum II, Stratum III held no identifiable burials, with the possible exception of a young adult female (K9). However, it was full of small fragments of human bones. It also contained most of the artifacts found in the tomb, and a relatively large quantity of pottery (P40–P55, P59–

P65; Fig. 14). Some 239 sherds were collected from

the whole area of the tomb and there is no evidence for any particular concentrations with the exception of 76 sherds (P59; Fig. 14) found beneath L4. The majority of the pottery (P40–P48, P59–P63) is dated to EM IIA, while a few sherds (P49–P55, P64–P65) can be dated anywhere between EM III and MM II.

The funerary objects were found not only beneath the burial containers, but dispersed throughout the entire tomb (Table 3; Figs. 6–9). They include 2 clay vases (V4, V5; Fig. 15; Pl. 17), 16 copper objects (B2–B16, B19; Fig. 19; Pl. 17), 10 figurines (F1–

F15; Figs. 20–22; Pls. 18–19), 42 beads of gold, serpentinite, rock crystal, and bone (J1–J38, J59– J62;

Fig. 25; Pl. 20), 14 gold objects (J39–J46, J49–J54;

Fig. 25; Pl. 20), 19 pendants of bone, gold, and malachite (A1–A3, A6–A21; Fig. 23; Pls. 17, 20), 6 silver objects (C2–C7; Fig. 22; Pl. 17), 4 bone artifacts (I1–I4; Fig. 23; Pl. 20), 6 ivory objects (I7–I12; Figs. 23–24; Pl. 20), 4 stone artifacts (D1, D3–D5; Fig. 27; Pl. 20), 3 seals (S3, S4, S6; Fig.

26), 45 obsidian finds (O1–O4, O6–O43, O45–

O47; Figs. 27–28; Pl. 20), and 2 chert (O44, O56) chipped stone objects.

The finds will be presented in groups related to the sectors of the tomb (Sectors A, B, C, and D) and the areas beneath the larnakes (Table 3; Fig.

6A). However, this grouping is purely for description/practical reasons and, as will be shown, the objects found in the same sector or beneath the same larnax were not necessarily associated. Also, it is certain that these objects were not related to the burials made in the upper burial Stratum II (see Chapter 5).

Beneath Larnax L1, a fragment from an object made of green chlorite schist (D3; Fig. 27; Pls.

13A, 20) was discovered.

Beneath Larnax L3, a drop-shaped bone pendant (A10; Fig. 23; Pl. 17) and a gold band (J45; Fig. 25;

Pl. 20) came to light.

Beneath Larnax L4, 2 groups of objects were found. One group was discovered under the middle of the larnax, and the other group came from under the southwest corner. The first group includes 9 obsidian blades (O17, O22–O29; Figs. 27–28), a chert flake (O56), a gold bead, the head from a marble figurine (F2; Fig. 20; Pl. 18), fragments from a jug (V5; Fig. 15), a copper dagger (B12; Fig. 19; Pl.

17), a copper rivet (B14; Fig. 19), a copper fragment (B15; Fig. 19), a bone drop-shaped pendant (A18;

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Fig. 23), an ivory figurine head (F15; Fig. 22), an ivory handle (I12; Fig. 24), an ivory object of unidentified character (I8; Fig. 23), and 10 rounded pebbles (D6). Under the southwest corner were found a copper dagger (B10; Fig. 19; Pl. 17), a copper rivet (B13; Fig. 19), and fragments from 16 obsidian blades (O8–O15, O32–O39; Figs. 27–28;

Pl. 20). Finally, beneath L4 were also found 76 sherds (P59; Fig. 14), all dated to EM IIA, and two gold beads.

Beneath Larnax L5, a copper rivet (B2; Fig. 19), a seal (S3; Fig. 26), a gold band (J44; Fig. 25; Pl.

20), and a silver cosmetic scraper (C2; Fig. 22; Pl.

17) were uncovered.

Beneath Larnax L6, a seal (S6; Fig. 26), a tubular gold bead (e.g., J1–J14; Fig. 25), a biconical gold bead (e.g., J25–J37; Fig. 25), 3 bone pins (I1–I3; Fig. 23; Pl. 20), 3 bone drop-shaped pendants (A12–A13, A17; Fig. 23; Pl. 17), a bone forked pendant (A7; Fig. 23; Pl. 17), a fragment of gold sheet (J47), an L-shaped gold sheet (J39; Fig.

25; Pl. 20), an obsidian blade (O16; Fig. 27), an ivory handle (I10; Fig. 24; Pl. 20), the leg from a marble figurine (F4; Fig. 20; Pl. 18), a tiny schist figurine (F12; Fig. 22; Pl. 19), and a stone cylindrical object (D5; Fig. 27; Pl. 20) were collected.

Beneath Larnax L7 (Pl. 12), 2 obsidian blades (O1–O2; Fig. 27), a bone figurine (F14; Fig. 22; Pl.

12B, 19), a gold tubular bead (e.g., J1–J14; Fig. 25), a copper dagger (B11; Fig. 19; Pl. 12, 17), and a bone drop-shaped pendant (A9; Fig. 23; Pl. 17) were revealed.

Beneath Larnax L8, a copper pin (B9; Fig. 19) and a seal (S4; Fig. 26) came to light.

Beneath Larnax L9, an obsidian blade (O7; Fig.

27), a silver awl (C4; Fig. 22), a gold band (J41; Fig.

25; Pl. 20), and a gold sheet (J48) were un covered.

Beneath Larnax L10, 2 groups of objects were found. The first group was located under the north part of the larnax and contained a silver pin (C3;

Fig. 22) and 12 gold beads of tubular, barrel, ring, and biconical shape (e.g., J1–J7, J16–J17, J21–

J24, J25–J37; Fig. 25). The second group was under the south part and contained 16 gold beads of the same shapes just mentioned in addition to 2 bone drop-shaped pendants (A11, A16; Fig. 23), 2 rock crystal beads (J59–J60; Fig. 25), and the head from a marble figurine (F1; Fig. 20; Pl. 18).

Beneath pithos L12, a clay vase (V4; Fig. 15; Pl.

17), a copper cosmetic scraper (B8; Fig. 19), and 2

gold beads, one of them of tubular shape (e.g., J1–J14; Fig. 25; Pl. 20), were collected.

Sector A yielded the only identifiable burial of Stratum III. Only part of the skull is preserved, and it belongs to a young adult female (K9). In the area close to the burial were found a marble bowl (D1;

Fig. 27; Pl. 20) and 2 intact figurines (F9 and F10;

Fig. 21; Pl. 19). The figurines were found practically lodged between two stones of the tholos wall. It is noteworthy that they were not discovered during the excavation of 1972, but 8 years later during the cleaning and restoration of the tholos wall (Sakel - larakis and Sakellaraki 1980, 400–401; 1981, 215).

Other finds from Sector A include a bone fish- shaped pendant (A2; Fig. 23) and a worked piece of chert (O44).

Sector B revealed a gold pendant (A20; Fig. 23;

Pl. 20), a malachite pendant (A21; Fig. 23; Pl. 20), a fragment from a marble object (D7), 3 copper rivets (B3–B4 and B7; Fig. 19), a gold biconical bead (e.g., J25–J37), and a marble figurine (F11;

Fig. 22; Pls.13B, 19).

Sector C included 3 silver awls (C5–C7; Fig. 22) that were probably related to the identical silver awl C4 found nearby beneath L9, a gold band (J43;

Fig. 25; Pl. 20), 3 obsidian blades (O3, O20–O21;

Figs. 27–28), a bone fish-shaped pendant (A1; Fig.

23), and a stone object (D4; Fig. 27) of unidentified character.

Sector D yielded most of the finds of Stratum III, which derive from the southeast sector of the tomb and especially the area of the entrance. This situation is probably due to the greater depth of Stratum III in this part of the tomb. The objects were found in 4 groups. The first group was located in the area between L4, L8, and L7 and in cludes 2 legs (F5, F7; Fig. 20; Pl. 18) and a head (F3; Fig.

20; Pl. 18) from at least 2, perhaps 3, different marble figurines; 3 obsidian blades (O40– O42; Fig.

28); 2 copper rivets (B5–B6; Fig. 19); 3 gold beads, one of which is of tubular shape (e.g., J1–J14; Fig. 25); 2 gold sheets (J40, J42; Fig. 25;

Pl. 20); and a gold shield-shaped object (e.g., J49–

J54; Fig. 25; Pl. 20). The second group of finds was in the area between L6, L7, and L10, and it included the leg from a marble figurine (F6; Fig.

20; Pl. 18), an ivory handle (I11; Fig. 24; Pl. 20), a forked bone pendant (A8; Fig. 23; Pl. 17), a copper fragment (B19; Fig. 19), a gold tubular bead (e.g., J1–J14; Fig. 25), and a gold band (J46; Fig. 25; Pl.

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THOLOS TOMB GAMMA 12

20). The third group was found between L4, L6, and L7, and it contained the leg from a marble figurine (F8; Fig. 20; Pl. 18), a gold ring-shaped bead (e.g., J21–J24; Fig. 25), a bone drop-shaped pendant (A19; Fig. 23), a bone bead (J62; Fig. 25), and a serpentinite bead (J61; Fig. 25). Finally, the

fourth group was directly in front of the entrance and contained an ivory object (I9; Fig. 23), a bone pendant (A6; Fig. 23), a bone pin (I4; Fig. 23; Pl.

20), a bone bird-shaped pendant (A3; Fig. 23; Pl.

20), and fragments from obsidian blades (O30–

O31; Fig. 28).

Location of the Finds in the Dromos

Stratum I

The only finds from Stratum I were some pottery sherds (P72–P103; Fig. 14) that all dated between EM III and MM II.

Stratum IIA

Stratum IIA contained the only larnax in the dromos. The base of the larnax was at the same level as the foundations of the dromos wall. The larnax occu- pied the entire width of the dromos and blocked the entrance, so it was almost impossible to make any more burials inside the tholos (Sakellarakis 1973, 180). For this reason, the placement of the larnax in the dromos constitutes a terminus ante quem for the end of the use of Tholos Gamma.

The larnax was destroyed by the stones fallen from the nearby walls. A human long bone is all that remained from the burial(s) made inside the con- tainer. It was found together with some small animal bones. The only finds from the larnax interior were a gold ring (J55; Fig. 25) and 6 sherds; one fragment dated to EM IIA (P104), 4 pieces (P105–

P108; Fig. 16) dated between EM III and MM II, and one more sherd (P124) from a modern bottle.

Stratum IIB

In the west part of the dromos, beneath the south wall, and at the point where this wall joined with the doorjamb of the tomb, a skull was found (K42.1)

that belonged to a young adult female. A child’s tooth (K42.2) was collected with this skull. The space was very limited, and the skull was actually jammed beneath the wall (Pl. 16B). A footless EM III goblet (V6; Fig. 16; Pl. 17) was turned upside- down near the skull (Pl. 16A), and several animal teeth were found below this vase. Finally, from the same area derives a single sherd (P109; Fig. 16), dated between EM III and MM II. At the opposite side of the dromos and beneath the foundation of the north wall was found half of an EM III–MM IA double vase in the shape of a jug (V7; Fig. 16; Pl.

17). Like the footless goblet, it was also turned upside-down, and it contained 80 shells. Both vases are significant not only because they date the burial, but also because they offer a terminus post quem for the erection of the dromos walls (Pl. 16).

In the east part of the dromos, right below the base of the larnax, some sherds (P110–P123; Fig.

16) were collected, and all dated between EM III and MM II. Finally, beneath the larnax were found small fragments of human bones and some shells.

Stratum III

From this stratum come 8 fragments of obsidian blades (O48–O55; Fig. 28), one chert flake (O57), and 3 fragments from gold bands (J56–J58; Fig.

25). It should be noted that all these were found in the west part of the dromos in front of the entrance, and not in the area beneath the larnax to the east.

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The pottery of Tholos Gamma is small in quantity and in most cases very fragmented, worn, and non-diagnostic in terms of shape and decoration.

For this reason, the distinction of wares on the basis of fabric and surface treatment is essential for dating most of the sherds. In many cases, however, wares cannot provide a precise date, especially when other data, such as shape and decoration, cannot be identified. That is why many sherds are dated to rather broad chronological horizons.

Dark-Gray Burnished Ware

P40–P48, P59–P63, P104

This ware is characterized by a very distinctive fabric with reddish, brown, or gray biscuit. It is fine with a few white inclusions. The exterior is dark, ranging from black to gray or brown, due to firing in a reducing atmosphere in the last stages of firing. Most of the sherds are well burnished. In the case of open-shaped vases, the interior is dark and burnished similar to the exterior, whereas in the close-shaped vases it is red, unmodified, and quite rough. In one case (P59) there are traces of pattern-burnished decoration. Similar decoration possibly existed also on other sherds, but it is not preserved.

This ware belongs to the burnished tradition, which characterizes the early phases of the Pre - palatial period, that is EM I and EM IIA. Unfor tu - nate ly, the surface treatment alone is not a safe criterion, and the lack of identifiable shapes does not allow a more precise dating of the sherds of Tholos Gamma.

This ware is quite common all over Crete (Betan - court 1985, 26–27). Very similar pottery to that of Tholos Gamma has been found in the West Court House at Knossos and was dated to EM IIA (Wilson 1985, 295). Also, identical pottery with the same state of preservation has been found else- where at Phourni, in the lower burial stratum of Tholos Epsilon that is dated to EM IIA (Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, 379; Panagiotopoulos 2002, 32–33), and in the Area of the Rocks (Sakellarakis and Sakellaraki 1997, 379).

To this ware belong 146 sherds. All but one of these sherds were found in the lower burial stratum inside the tholos (Stratum III). The association of this ware with Stratum III is reinforced by the fact that 145 of the 154 (94%) diagnostic sherds of this stratum belong to Dark-Gray Burnished Ware (P40–P48, P59–P63; Tables 4–6). Although it is difficult to give a precise figure, the minimum number of Dark-Gray Burnished vases that these