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The Use of Geographical Information Systems (GIS) in the Environment and Ecology
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Chapter 34
The Use of Geographical Information Systems (GIS) in the Environment and Ecology
İskender DÖLEK*, Vedat AVCI**
INTRODUCTION
There are various definitions of the environment in different disciplines. The variety in the definitions of the environment does not solely stem from different scientific approaches. It also stems from the qualitative and quantitative differences of the elements which constitute the environment (Gülay et al., 2011). The word environment is generally used for events out of organism (Ünder, 1996). Everything which an organism takes place in and excludes the organism constitutes the external environment of the organism. In a general definition, the environment is the whole physical, chemical, biologic and social effects during a certain period of time that can have a direct or indirect impact on human activities and the living immediately or within a long period ((Erol, 2005, Güllü, 2007, Özcan, 2008, Gülay et al., 2011).
Ecology, on the other hand, has a much narrower scope compared to environment.
Derived from Greek words oikos (home or a place to live in) and logos (information), ecology can be defined as a science field which analyzes the living and their relationships with the environment (Muslu 2000). Therefore, the science of ecology investigates houses, living places and environments of the all living. The environment concept in this definition includes other animals, plants, climate and soil as well.
In conceptual terms, the environment is the whole of non-living and living organisms including humanbeing as a fundamental element; physical, chemical, biologic and social factors that affect all species and the behaviors of the living; natural, economic and cultural values.
The living and non-living organisms form a dynamic system called ecosystem based on a mutual matter exchange. As a living organism, humanbeing takes place among the elements of these systems. The survival of humanbeing depends on the presence of suitable food, shelter and other environmental conditions. Population growth and industrial development bring adverse pressure on limited environmental means and lead to change in the environment and extinction of plant and animal communities. The extinction of a community due to adverse effects generally makes it impossible to renew. It is inevitable for some species to completely extinct in case of decreases in population number and severe deteriorations. Since decreasing or lost species are the products of millions years of an evolutionary-ecology process, they should be reckoned as irrevocable values (Şişli 1996). For that reason, a sustainable environment approach is important. Sustainability consists of ecologic, social and economic factors. These systems constitute fundamental pillars of society. The sustainability of these factors shapes the future of a society (Kumler, 2009). Sustainable
* Assist. Prof. Dr., Muş Alparslan University. Education Faculty. Social Studies Education
** Assist. Prof. Dr., Bingol University. Faculty of Science and Letters. Dept. of Geography
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development is defined as planning today's and future life without jeopardizing needs and development by fulfilling the needs of today's and future generations without consuming natural resources through a balance between human and nature. What is essential in sustainable development is to ensure economic development through a planning to protect human health and natural balance without harming or completely consuming resources (Ekici et al., 2009).
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HUMAN AND ENVIRONMENT
As an element of the environment, human both affects the environment and is affected by it. All elements except for human on the earth constitute the environment while human also takes place in other people's definitions of environment.
Relationships between human and the environment are more complex and challenging compared to the relationship between non-living and living organisms in the environment. Human is the living organism which affects the environment most with dams, agricultural lands, cities. Human and the environment are inseparable.
Today, the relationship between human and the environment has gained a very unique dimension. Considering this relationship within historical process, it can be seen that while natural environment was once effective on human; now human is effective on natural environment through civilization. In terms of environmental problems, human is the leading factor which harms ecologic balance (Yavuz et al., 1983). The fundamental environmental problems mostly stem from residing, manufacturing and consuming habits of human which disturb natural balance. While a positive agricultural attitude was developed towards the environment in the first civilizations, negative attitudes increased erosion and deforestation. The relationship between land and humanbeing that adopted a sedentary life has gained new dimensions and continuity by changing in time.
The cultivation started to pose various threats, particularly destroying vegetation and erosion, on the environment (Demirtaş, 2007). In parallel with manufacturing, low level of consumption prevented increase in environmental problems. In other words, human's harm on the environment was on a level that can be dealt by the nature. Two great cultural transformations, Agricultural and Industrial Revolutions brought a different dimension to human-environment relationships (Miller, 2000). Along with development in agriculture, trees were cut in forests, habitats were destroyed, productive soil decreased due to erosion and desertification started. Industrial revolution and increasing mechanization led to increase in need of raw material and the use of coal led to air pollution. As a result human had to face with rapid population growth in addition to great dimensions of increasing and varying environmental problems.
Although human is the reason of environmental problems, he is also the most significant and the only element for the solution. In addition to the structure of environment which includes very different elements and interdependent yet complex relationships, varying and increasing environmental problems affect living conditions and quality of human. Since environmental problems started to vary and gain a global dimension, the tools to be used for the solutions of these problems must accelerate decision-making process, ensure anticipation and offer the opportunity of evaluating many different factors together. Geographical Information Systems (GIS) which is a part of geographical information sciences is used efficiently for different purposes by the environment and ecology sciences in addition to many other disciplines.
GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS
In parallel with rapid developments in technology within last 30 years, innovations in computer technology have led to new study fields and changes in application area for many science branches. Geographical Information Systems (GIS) is a technology which resulted from this development and started to be used by many science branches (Kavzaoğlu et al., 2011). Geographical information systems (GIS) is an information system developed to collect, input, store, interrogate spatial information (graphics and feature) in computer environment, to conduct and scan spatial analyses and print them in various formats (Aronoff, 1991).
GIS have a more common application opportunity thanks to advanced computer and satellite technologies today. However, technical maps designed by John Snav in 1854 to reveal the source of cholera epidemics in London were the first examples of GIS (Değerliyurt, 2015).
Basic functioning principle of GIS is associating graphics (spatial) and feature (graphic, non-spatial) data for a certain geographical region and storing these data in various layers, conducting analyses by using these layers. It is possible to conduct data processing, interrogations, spatial analyses, scenario analyses and various presentations about them through GIS. It is possible to process, update and transfer data in various environments and add data to GIS from other environments.
Data production is also possible through various analyses by using data in GIS.
Figure 1: Layer Logic in the Geographical Information System (Dölek et.al., 2011).
Since all these processes are conducted in digital environment, data processes can be carried out swiftly. A variety of spatial analyses can be conducted through GIS.
Multiple spatial analysis functions of GIS ensure to design and analyze various scenarios by means of data structure. This feature of GIS makes it indispensable element of spatial decision-support systems. Scenario analyses are among very efficient methods in activities such as evaluation of especially natural disasters, environmental effect or observation of time-related changes in systems.
GIS is a method having advantages for related subjects and a tool to fulfill a purpose. In terms of this approach, GIS applications are not the target of studies, but research methodology preferred to reach the real target.
Natural environment analyses can be conducted with GIS. GIS methodology can be used to conduct projects on researching and analyzing features of natural environment including atmosphere, earth and subterranean, using natural environment and preventing risks derived from natural environment. Natural environment analyses can be used for modeling
concrete elements that are visible and can be monitored clearly;
elements that cannot be monitored but have visible effects;
elements that can be found through periodical controls and differ.
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Figure 2: Thematic maps designed through digital elevation model (DEM) Digital Elavation Models (A), Slope (B), Topographic Wetness Index (C), Curvature (D) (Dölek, 2008).
The feature of GIS to describe events and phenomenon of the earth differs by each discipline. In this respect, De By (2001) reports that an urban planner can analyze the
development of a city, population growth and urban quality; a biologist can take better precautions against long-term threats of population growth and monitor distribution of species in various ecosystems; a natural disaster manager can reveal risk areas and take necessary precautions; a geology engineer can detect earthquakes through rock formation features and reveal the most suitable areas for new settlement.
GIS can acquire needed material by transferring data obtained through topographic measurements, photographic methods, remote sensing, data collection via GPS, manual digitalization of current maps, transfer of current databases and digitalization of data via screening (Yomralıoğlu, 2005).
Digital elevation model (DEM) created through GIS is a 3-D raster data and includes values of pixel latitude, longitude, and elevation from sea level. In this way, some thematic maps of the land (slope, aspect, slope curvature, hill shading) can be obtained and these maps can be used together (Figure 2).
GIS makes it possible to scan both humane and physical elements in 3D. The data obtained in this way can be used as both vector-based and raster-based data.
The obtained visual material shows a small model of earth with geographical coordination and can be used in various fields such as ecologic activities, environmental monitoring, constructional engine ering and architectural activities, mine search, 3-D urban mapping, landscape planning, defense and intelligence, command and control (Abdul-Rahman Et.al., 2008). Maps designed in GIS environment can be stored in computer environment and updated in time. In this way, data do not outdate.
Figure 3: A more detailed 3D image including contour line, rivers and buildings (Dölek et al., 2011)
THE USE OF GIS IN THE ENVIRONMENT AND ECOLOGY
Each discipline can interpret GIS in a unique way and use it in various ways in related application areas. It is a fact that potential application areas of GIS are almost infinite. Because, each element in the nature is about a position and has a geographical coordination.
Kavzaoğlu (2011) reports that GIS can be efficiently used to create an environmental information system, to manage and plan water resources, to analyze coastal changes and risky zones, to design noise pollution maps, to manage and plan solid waste and to design forest inventory maps and other activities related to the environment.
In our day, geographical information systems are increasingly used in geographical spatial and ecologic-based inventory, planning and management activities.
GIS has techniques and methods to detect, analyze, save, rearrange, model spatial data digitally and to present them in alpha numerical or graphics. Apart from these features, the important function of GIS is to help users detect complex and logical
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rational relations of non-geometrical data (Richter et al.,1997). This feature is very important to turn complex phenomenal and spatial relations in ecologic studies into an objective and measurement level (Miller et al., 2007).
Figure 5: The amount of dissolved oxygen in different zones of Lake Küçükçekmece (İstanbul) (A). Distribution of the amount of dissolved oxygen (B).
GIS offers technical and scientific basis to conduct nature protection and rural landscape activities (Vogel et al., 1996). Richet et al. (1997) summarizes the applica tion fields of GIS in this sense as follows;
Processing and interpreting digital images
Detecting living spaces of species and biodiversity
Protecting landscape structures (biotopes, land use, ecologic regions etc.)
Detecting and monitoring valuable ecologic zones.
Thanks to advancement of hardware and software fields, GIS offers a high application capacity in line with digital image interpretation methods (Ehlers, 2002).
Remote sensing and GIS data protection mutually complete each other by analyzing, interrogating and presenting data consecutively. A GIS integrated with remote sensing can be considered as the most significant holistic tool for the analysis, planning and management of landscape now (Lang et al., 2007).
Figure 6: Images of oil spill on the Gulf of Mexico in 2007 obtained via remote sensing and GIS (Kavzaoğlu et al., 2011).
GIS improves usability of data obtained via remote sensing. In addition, data obtained via remote sensing can be used to detect actual environmental-ecologic
conditions in GIS database and to update them based on monitoring (Millet Et al., 2007). GIS improves usability of data obtained via remote sensing.
Figure 7: Monitoring temporal changes in settlement and water resources in Marmara region via remote sensing and GIS (Orhon, 2007).
Miller and Rogan (2007) repot that data obtained via GIS and remote sensing in ecologic maps are merged in 4 different ways.
Use of multiple data type of GIS in management
Use of GIS analysis and application methods to manipulate and analyze remote sensing data (affinity or reclassification)
To obtain GIS data from remote sensing data
Use of GIS data as a channeler in image processing analyses to obtain more supplementary and reliable information.
Figure 8: The Irony of the reedy plant ecosystems and nature conservation areas (East Anatolia).
CONCLUSION
The environment consists of many different elements. Very complex relations between these elements constitute the environment. Main challenges for analyses on the
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environment result from various elements in the environment and their relationships with each other which are not completely understood by human; and temporal and spatial changes in these relationships.
GIS offers opportunity to conduct analyses with the purpose of creating new spatial information by using current information and analyzing multiple data layers together or individually. "Spatial Analysis" module of GIS which particularly includes measurement, classification and overlaying methods can be easily used.
The research and modeling of natural and humane systems and the analysis of changes in time can be efficiently conducted by means of remote sensing and geographical information technologies together.
Raster data on broad areas can be obtained in a more cost-efficient way through remote sensing technologies compared to conventional methods. Raster data can be defined as input data to GIS databases and transformation of related data into desired data forms for advanced level of analysis and modeling applications.
Remote sensing systems can collect data in different periods of time and thus it is possible to monitor temporal changes on earth. In addition, remote sensing technologies also ensure to detect biophysical parameters which have a significant importance to evaluate and model environmental features such as object temperature, biomass and height. In this sense, remote sensing data are significant resources to develop, update and maintain GIS databases.
While a position-based problem can be solved through the functions of GIS, another problem can be solved more easily though image processing techniques. For that reason, dynamic integrated information systems including the use of both remote sensing technologies and geographical information system will be an indispensable tool to manage, analyze and scan a variety of datasets such as sustainable land management together in the near future.
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