GCSE Case
Study Revision Booklet
Paper 1: Living with the physical environment Paper 2: Challenges in the human environment Natural hazards
- Tectonic hazards - Weather hazards - Climate change
Urban issues and challenges
The living world - Ecosystems
- Tropical rainforests - Hot deserts
The changing economic world
Physical landscapes in the UK - UK physical landscapes - Coastal landscapes - Glacial landscapes
The challenge of resource management - Resource Management
- Energy
Paper 1: Living with the physical environment Natural Hazards
Tectonic hazards
Use named examples to show how the effects and responses to a tectonic hazard vary between two areas of contrasting levels of wealth.
Case study: HIC: L’Aquila, Italy & LIC: Gorkha, Nepal
L’Aquila, Italy HIC Gorkha, Nepal LIC
Primary Effects - 308 killed - 1,500 injured - 67,500 homeless
- San Salvatore Hospital severely damaged so could not cope with injured victims
- US$11.4million cost of damage Secondary Effects
- Aftershocks triggered landslides and rockfalls causing damage to housing and transport - Landslide and mudflow caused by burst main
water pipeline in Paganio
- Number of students at L’Aquila university has decreased since the earthquake
Primary Effects - 8,841 dead - 16,800 injured - 1 million homeless
- Destruction of 26 hospitals and 50% of schools - A reduced supply of water, food and electricity Secondary Effects
- An avalanche was triggered on Mount Everest which swept through Everest Base Camp killing 19 people
- Tourism and employment shrunk in Nepal after the earthquake
- Rice seed stored in homes was ruined causing food shortages and income loss
Immediate Responses
- Hotels provided shelter for 10,000 homeless people
- 40,000 homeless given tents
- Within one hour the Italian Red Cross was searching for survivors. Helped by 7 dog units, 36 ambulances and a temporary hospital.
- British Red Cross raised £171,000 in support - Mortgages and utility bills were suspended Secondary Responses
- Residents did not have to pay tax in 2010 - Students were given free public transport and
were exempt for university fees for 3 years.
- Homes took several years to rebuild and historic centres expected to take approx..15 years
Immediate Responses
- International help from the UK Disasters Emergency Committee (DEC) raised US$126 million
- Temporary shelters were set up – The Red Cross provided 225,000 people with tents
- The United Nations (UN) and the World Health Organisation (WHO) gave out medical supplies to the worst-affected districts
- Facebook launched a safety feature so people could indicate they were ‘safe’.
Secondary Responses
- Durbar Square heritage sites were reopened in June 2015 in time for tourist season
- Mount Everest reopened for tourists in August 2015 and climbing permits bought in 2015 were made valid until 2017 to encourage climbers back - Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian
Affairs (OCHA) reported that US$274million of aid had been committed to recovery efforts
Weather hazards
Use a named example of a tropical storm to show its effects and responses.
Case study: Typhoon Haiyan Primary Effects
- 6,190 killed
- US$12 billion overall damage
- 1.1 million tonnes of crops destroyed (damage to rice cost US$53 million)
- 75% of farmer and fishers lost their income - 1.1 million houses damaged
- 4.1 million people made homeless
- One kilometre inland was flooded by a 5m storm surge and 400mm of heavy rainfall
Secondary Effects
- An oil barge ran aground at Estancia in Iloilo causing an 800,000 litre oil leak. Most of this washed ashore contaminating 10 hectares of mangroves.
- Looting was rife as survivors fought for food and supplies
- Rise prices rose by 11.9%
Immediate Responses
- 800,000 people evacuated
- The government sent out essential equipment and medical supplies.
- Emergency aid supplies arrived 3 day later by plane once the main airport was reopened - One week before power was restored
- A curfew was imposed 2 days after the typhoon to reduce looting
- More than $1.5 billion was pledged in foreign aid
Secondary Responses
- Government scheme ‘Build Back Better’ is the intention to rebuild and upgrade to protect from future disasters
- New storm surge warning system - Mangroves replanted
- A ‘no build zone’ along the coast
An example of a recent extreme weather event in the UK to illustrate:
• causes
• social, economic and environmental impacts
• how management strategies can reduce risk.
Case study: Somerset Floods Causes
- Wettest January since records began in 1910
- 350mm of rain fell in January and February, 100mm above average
- High tides and storm surges swept up the rivers from the Bristol Channel preventing river water reaching the sea and so spilled over the river banks
- Rivers had not been dredged for 20 years and had become clogged with sediment Impacts
Management strategies Immediate Responses
- Villagers used boats to go shopping or attend school
- Local community groups and volunteers gave invaluable support Long-term responses
- £20 million Flood Action Plan has been launched by Somerset County Council - March 2014, 8km of rivers dredged to increase the capacity of the rivers
- Road levels raised to maintain communications and allow businesses to continue during floods - River banks raised and strengthened
- More pumping stations built
Evidence that weather is becoming more extreme in the UK (although this is not a case study you need named evidence to support your answer)
Drought and extreme heat - European heatwave 2003.Over 20,000 people died and UK ha their highest temperatures Prolonged rainfall - UK floods 2014 (Somerset) see case study above
‘Beast from the East’ – heavy snow and extreme cold
Thunderstorms – July 2014, 3000 lightning strikes across southern Britain
The living world
An example of a small scale UK ecosystem to illustrate the concept of interrelationships within a natural system, an understanding of producers, consumers, decomposers, food chain, food web and nutrient cycling.
Case study: Epping Forest Characteristics
- High biodiversity
- Large number of native tree species eg. Oak, elm, ash
- Lower shrub layer of holly and hazel overlying a field layer of field grasses, brambles, bracken and fern.
- 700 species of fungi, which are important decomposers
Interdependence of ecosystem
- Producers, consumers and decomposers are all interdependent - Trees are deciduous so lose leaves in winter.
- Winters and colder than summers so trees grow broad green leaves in spring in order to maximise photosynthesis during the summer.
- Leaves are shed in autumn to conserve energy in winter.
- Mid-autumn, the forest floor is covered in leaves and by spring, the leaf litter has disappeared due to the work of decomposers.
- Nutrients in the leafs are converted to humus in the soil ready to be absorbed for plant growth - This will include fruits and berries ready to support primary consumers.
Characteristics of Epping Forest nutrient cycle
- Biomass store is large because of the great height of the trees and dense undergrowth beneath them - Soil store is large as there is always plenty of humus
- High flow rates between litter, soil and biomass reflects fast cycle of new growth each year - Forest also loses a lot of nutrients each year due to heavy rainfall and leaching
Tropical rainforests
A case study of a tropical rainforest to illustrate:
• causes of deforestation – subsistence and commercial farming, logging, road building, mineral extraction, energy development, settlement, population growth
• impacts of deforestation – economic development, soil erosion, contribution to climate change.
Case study: The Amazon rainforest Causes of deforestation
Logging – this accounts for 3%. Timber companies are interested in trees such as mahogany and teak and sell them to other countries to make furniture (selective logging). Smaller trees are often used as wood for fuel or made into charcoal. Vast areas of rainforest are cleared in one go (clear felling).
Mineral extraction – Some of the minerals that richer countries need are found beneath rainforest. In the Amazon, mining is mainly about gold. In 1999, there were 10, 0000 hectares of land being used for gold mining.
Today, the area is over 50,000 hectares. The rainforest suffers badly from this.
Energy development – An unlimited supply of water and ideal river conditions have encourage dams to be built to generate hydroelectric power. This involves flooding large areas of rainforest.
Commercial Farming: cattle. This accounts for 80% of tropical rainforest destruction in Brazil. However, the land cannot be used for long.
Commercial Farming: crops. The forest is being cleared to make way for vast plantations, where crops such as bananas, palm oil, pineapple, sugar cane, tea and coffee are grown. The cultivation of soy bean has also caused a lot of clearance in the Amazon. The amount of rainforest cleared for this crop doubled between 1990 and 2010.
Growing sugar cane is a bio fuel beginning to become a major crop.
Road building: Roads are needed to bring in equipment and transport products to markets, but road building means cutting great swathes of rainforest. The Trans- Amazonian highway began construction in 1972 and is 4000km long. It has played a major part in opening up remote areas of the Amazon.
Impacts of deforestation
Global warming: When trees are felled, more carbon dioxide remains in the air. Also, fire is often used in clearing rainforests, which means that the carbon stored in the wood returns to the atmosphere.
Loss of biodiversity
Biodiversity will be reduced and individual species will become endangered or extinct. It is estimated that 137 plant, animal and insect species are being lost every day.
This amounts to 50,000 species a year. As the species disappear, so do many cures for life threatening diseases.
New research shows that parts of the Amazon could lose between 30 and 45% of their species by 2030.
Local Impacts
Climate change – Deforestation disrupts the water cycle.
With the felling of trees, evapotranspiration is reducing so there is less moisture in the atmosphere. The local climate becomes drier. Once the recycling of water is reduced, the local climate becomes warmer. This is bad for farming.
Soil erosion and fertility – As soon as any part of the forest cover is cleared, the thin topsoil is quickly removed by heavy rainfall. Bare slopes are particularly prone to soil erosion. Once the top soil has been removed, there is little hope of anything growing again.
River pollution – Gold mining not only causes
deforestation but the mercury used to separate the gold from the ground is allowed to enter the rivers. Fish are poisoned as well as people living in nearby towns.
Decline of indigenous (native) tribes – There are now only around 240 tribes left compared with over 330 in 1900. Many have been forced out due to the construction of roads, logging, and the creation of ranches and the opening of mines.
Hot deserts
A case study of a hot desert to illustrate:
• development opportunities in hot desert environments: mineral extraction, energy, farming, tourism
• challenges of developing hot desert environments: extreme temperatures, water supply, inaccessibility.
Case study: Western Desert Opportunities
• In the Western Desert, people earn their living from farming, mining, energy and tourism industries. All of these industries provide employment, contributing to the local economy and the multiplier effect as local people earn more money and spend this in their local area, meaning more services are developed, and improvements are made to infrastructure.
• Farming -Farming in Coachella Valley produces lush crops of vegetables, lemons, peppers and grapes (this helps the wine industry). Most canals are used for large scale industrialised agricultures. Farmers are allocated 80%
of Colorado water, even though they make up just 10% of the economy.
• Mineral Extraction -The Western Desert states are rich in minerals including copper, uranium, lead, zinc and coal. Copper mining has taken place for centuries in the Sonoran Desert.
• Energy - The Sonoran Solar Project in Arizona is a new solar power plant project that will ultimately produce energy for 100,000 homes and requires 360 workers to help build it.
• Hydroelectric Power (HEP) plants also supply Western Desert communities with some of their electricity. These are powered by water leaving Lake Mead.
At the peak of its construction in the mid 1930s, the Hoover Dam employed 5000 people.
• Fossil Fuels bring opportunities to the Western Desert too. People have been drilling for oil in Arizona since 1905.
Today, there are 25 active oil production sites, all of which are on land owned by the Navajo people.
More than 100 employees work to produce oil worth US $50billion.
• Tourism - Tourism has become the Western Desert’s most important source of income. The national parks offer visitors a chance to experience a wilderness area. Important areas
Challenges
Accessibility - The low population density of less that one person per square kilometre means that parts of the Western Desert lack surfaced roads. Accessibility is therefore limited in areas of Nevada north of Las Vegas.
Tourists and explorers must find their own way.
• The extreme temperatures make it a dangerous place if your car breaks down. In 2015, an elderly tourist died of dehydration in the Los
Coyotes Reservation near the edge of the Mojave Desert.
Water Supply - Already, 30 million people in SW USA depend on water from the Colorado. Phoenix takes the maximum share of its water allowed, but it is predicted to double its population by 2050.
• While the cities of the
Western Desert grow, there is a limit to how much water can be taken from the Colorado.
There is also a political limit because of an international agreement which states that water must be allowed to flow into Mexico.
• The region’s water security is further threatened by climate change. Scientists have suggested that reduced rainfall could occur in places where water is already naturally low. In 2014, Lake Mead reached a record low level. The Western Desert is predicted to warm faster than the whole world in the next few decades. By 2100, temperatures could be 5 degrees higher than they were in the 70s.
How challenges have been overcome
Dams and Reservoirs- In 1935, work began on the Hoover Dam, which stores 2 years river flow in Lake Mead. The Glen Canyon Dam followed in 1963.
Together, the two dams smooth out the Colorado’s river flow and stop
flooding. Colorado’s giant reservoirs bring water to cities including Phoenix, Tucson, Albuquerque, San Diego, Las Vegas and Los Angeles. However, dams create environmental problems in an already fragile environment.
Improving Accessibility- By the late 1800s, railroad developers moved in. Their choice of sites for stations influenced the growth of future key settlements. For instance, developers determined that the water- rich Las Vegas Valley would be a perfect location for a train station. Soon after, the first saloon bars, shops and hotels were built.
Better roads were laid in the 1900s. Soon people were driving through the desert in buses or in their own cars.
Major cities can now be reached directly by air. Las Vegas airport receives over 40 million people annually.
include the Grand Canyon and
California’s Joshua Tree National Park.
The heritage and culture of Native Americans are celebrated at the Colorado Museum in Parker, Arizona.
The entire economy of Las Vegas is built around entertainment, attracting 37 million visitors per year. Two major lakes have been created as part of water management projects. Lake Mead and Lake Powell. Combined, they attract 2 million visitors a year and offer sailing, power boating, water skiing and fishing.
Physical landscapes in the UK
Coastal landscapes in the UK
An example of a section of coastline in the UK to identify its major landforms of erosion and deposition.
Case study: Isle of Purbeck Major landforms of erosion
Cave, Arch, Stack, Stump – Old Harry’s Rocks - Old Harry's rock is a formation of stacks and
stumps made of chalk (the reason why they have been so easy to erode) below the cliffs of Ballard directly east of Studland.
- They were formed by erosion – particularly hydraulic action.
- Eventually the waves would bring down the stack and turn it into a stump this is what happened to Old Harry's rock, and the same will happen to Old Harry one day.
Lulworth Cove
- Lulworth is a circular, sheltered bay by the village of west Lulworth on the Jurassic coast world heritage site in Dorset.
- Lulworth Cove was formed by the sea breaking through a comparatively thin layer of hard Portland Stone that runs parallel to the shoreline.
Once through, the waves allowed much softer clays to be eroded away, much slower than the hard rock.
- When a straight wave hits a barrier with a hole in it, the wave pattern on the other side is semi- circular. The curved waves radiate out from the Cove entrance showing how Lulworth got its shape.
Major landforms of deposition Beaches - Swanage Bay
- Beaches consist of all the material (sand, shingle etc.) that has built up between the high and low tide mark.
- The main source of beach material is rivers, where fine muds and gravels are deposited at the river mouth.
- Other sources of beach material include longshore drift (bringing material from elsewhere along the coast); constructive waves and from cliff erosion.
An example of a coastal management scheme in the UK to show:
• the reasons for management
• the management strategy
• the resulting effects and conflicts.
Case study: Coastal realignment, Medmerry Reasons for management
- A shingle ridge was the only protection from the sea and from the 1990s beach re-profiling took place every winter, at an annual cost of £200,000.
- This was becoming unsustainable. If breached, then 348 properties in Selsey, a water treatment plant and the main road between Chichester and Selsey would be flooded along with many holiday homes and rental cottages.
- The last breach, in 2008, cost £5 million.
Management strategy Work to realign the coast begin in 2011 and was completed in 2014. Managed retreat was achieved by the following:
• Building a new
embankment, up to 2km inland from the shore, using clay. This enclosed future intertidal area and protected the properties behind it.
• Behind the embankment, a channel was built along its whole length to collect draining water. Four outfall structures were built into the embankment to take the water into the inter-tidal area.
• Rock armour was then placed on the seaward edges of the embankment, where it linked up with the remaining ridge. This used 60,000 tonnes of rock from Norway.
• Once the embankment and rock armour were in place, a 110 metre breach was made in the shingle bank to allow the sea to flood the land to create a new intertidal area.
Effects
- Selsey now has a 1 in 1000 chance of coastal flooding, which provides the best level of
protection in the UK.
- A maintenance access path behind the
embankment provides a cycle route and footpath.
- Tourism is expected to increase. Two new car parks and four viewing points give easy access.
- The newly flooded area is expected to become an important fishing nursery that will boost the fishing industry in Selsey.
- Designers were able to take measures to protect existing species, such as water voles, crested newts and badgers.
- 300 hectares of new intertidal habitats are forming seaward of the embankment. Mudflats, salt marshes and
transitional grasses have already attracted large numbers of ducks and lapwings. The area is turning into a huge nature reserve managed by the RSPB.
Conflicts
• Some locals still feel that the EA should not have given up the land so easily and insist they should have looked into other options.
• Some opponents of the scheme came from outside the area:
they resented such an expenditure in a sparsely populated area. Would the money not have been better spent draining Somerset levels for example?
• At £28 million, the scheme was very expensive. It will cost
£0.2 million a year to maintain the shingle wall.
• For this to take place, the farms growing oilseed and winter wheat had to be abandoned. Losing good agricultural land raised questions regarding the priority given by the EU for protecting buildings over farmland.
• Habitats of existing species such as badgers would have been disturbed.
Glacial landscapes in the UK
An example of an upland area in the UK affected by glaciation to identify its major landforms of erosion and deposition.
Case study: The Lake District Landforms of erosion Arête: Striding Edge Corrie lake: Red Tarn Hanging valley: Grisedale
Ribbon Lake: Lake Coniston, Lake Windermere U shape valley: Keswick
Landforms of deposition
Terminal moraine: Fields in Borrowdale use terminal moraine as boundaries
Swarm of drumlins: Swindale
Glacial erratic: Bowder Stone in Borrowdale
An example of a glaciated upland area in the UK used for tourism to show:
• the attractions for tourists
• social, economic and environmental impacts of tourism
• strategies used to manage the impact of tourism.
Case study: The Lake District Attractions for tourists Physical attractions
- Lake Windermere and Ullswater offer water sports, cruises and fishing
- Mountain landscapes like Scafell Pike are popular for walking and mountain biking - Adventure activities
include: abseiling, gorge scrambling and rock climbing
Cultural/historical attractions - Landscape inspired
writers and poets e.g.
William Wordsworth - Beatrix Potter (author
of Peter Rabbit) lived close to Lake
Windermere and her home is now a National Trust attraction
- Scenic towns and villages are very popular e.g. Ambleside
- Monuments e.g.
Muncaster Castle
Impacts of tourism Social
- In 2014, 14.8 million tourists visited The Lake District – impact on 40000 locals
- 89% of visitors arrive by car.
Narrow roads and traffic congestion are major issues - House prices have increased – 20%
of homes are either holiday rentals or second homes – less for locals - Jobs in tourism are mainly seasonal,
poorly paid and unreliable Economic
- In 2014, tourists spent £1000 million in the Lake District. This supports hotels, shops and restaurants.
- Thousands of local people work in shops, hotels and other services.
- New businesses like adventure tourism provide jobs for local people
- Traffic congestion slows down business communications Environmental
- Honeypot sites and footpaths show signs of overcrowding – footpath erosion, litter, damage to verges by cars.
- Pollution from vehicles and boats can damage ecosystems
- Walkers can damage farmland by trampling crops or leaving litter.
Dogs can disturb sheep and cattle.
Strategies to manage tourism Managing traffic congestion
- Several dual-carriageways have been built around the Lake District to improve access
- Transport hubs e.g.
Ambleside, help create an interchange between parking, buses, ferries, walking and cycling. This helps to relieve congestion elsewhere.
- Park-and-ride bus schemes e.g. the Honister Rambler, have been expanded for tourists
- Traffic calming measures introduced e.g. speed bumps Managing footpath erosion
- The Upland Path Landscape Restoration Project has successfully repaired paths, created steps, re-surfaced paths with local stone and re- planted native plants
- ‘Fix the Fells’ maintain and repair mountain paths - However, there are still 100s
of kilometres of footpath needing constant attention and their on-going
maintenance represents a huge challenge.
Paper 2: Challenges in the human environment Urban issues and challenges
A case study of a major city in an LIC or NEE to illustrate:
• the location and importance of the city, regionally, nationally and internationally
• causes of growth: natural increase and migration
• how urban growth has created opportunities:
• social: access to services – health and education; access to resources – water supply, energy
• economic: how urban industrial areas can be a stimulus for economic development
• how urban growth has created challenges:
• managing urban growth – slums, squatter settlements
• providing clean water, sanitation systems and energy
• providing access to services – health and education
• reducing unemployment and crime
• managing environmental issues – waste disposal, air and water pollution, traffic congestion.
Case study: Rio de Janeiro
Location and importance of the city, regionally, nationally and internationally
• Last year Rio received $7.3 billion in foreign direct investment—seven times more than the year before, and more than twice as much as São Paulo.
• It is the second most populated city in Brazil, but the city’s market is much larger because it includes visitors from around the globe.
• Over 1.6 million tourists arrive through five harbours and three airports in a normal year, with no major events such as the World Cup or the Olympic Games.
• 56% of Brazil’s GDP is concentrated within a 500 km radius around the city.
• The unemployment rate is on decline. In Rio, you work and consume more every year.
• The city is the largest producer of oil in Brazil & home to Petrobas. Information and Communication Technology (ICT).
• Films produced in Rio correspond to 85% of the national film industry’s box office.
Causes of growth: natural increase and migration
2nd largest city in Brazil with 6.5 million people in the city itself and 12.5 million people in the surrounding area
Grown rapidly in the last 50 years to become a major industrial, administrative, commercial and tourist centre.
These activities have attracted many migrants from Brazil and other countries who have contributed to the economic development.
Migrants come to Rio from:
- Other parts of Brazil e.g. Amazon basin
- Other countries in South America e.g. Argentina and Bolivia - South Korea and China
- The common language still attracts people from Portugal - Skilled workers attracted from the USA and UK
How urban growth has created opportunities
• Rural to urban migration accounts for 65% of all population growth in Rio de Janeiro. Urban growth creates urban opportunities. An increasing work force means and increase in taxes being paid that can be spent on improving local infrastructure.
• In Brazil around 25% of the poorest children do not attend school. In Rio the illiteracy rate is 4% while in some states such as Alagoas the illiteracy rate is 22%. In Rio there are 1000 primary schools and 400 secondary schools. Rio contains 19 of the top 50 schools in the country. The city also has 6 major universities.
• Healthcare in Rio de Janeiro has improved rapidly in comparison to other areas in Brazil. There are 105 hospitals in Rio however only 34% of these are public. As a result of these improvements life expectancy in Rio is 77 years in comparison to a 73-year average for Brazil. Infant mortality rates are also lower, 6.2 babies die in Rio per 1000 live births compared to an average of 18 per 1000 live births for the whole of Brazil.
• 95% of the population has mains water supply in Rio de Janeiro compared with only 65% of the rural population.
• In rural northern Brazil 1 in 4 homes do not have access to an electricity supply. The lowering of energy costs and building of hydroelectric power plants in Rio now means that 99% of the city has access to the power grid. The Simplicio hydroelectric complex built in 2013 supplies the city with 30% more energy.
• More jobs are available in Rio than there are in the North and North East of Brazil. It is the 2nd most important industrial centre after Sao Paulo. The city provides 6% of all employment in Brazil. You can work in the formal or informal sector.
• Rio is the top visitor destination in South America and tourism is the city’s biggest industry.
• Rio’s main manufacturing industries include chemicals, pharmaceuticals, clothing, furniture and processed foods.
• Service industries are also very important and Rio is a major centre for banking, finance and insurance.
• Land Rover has recently opened a £240 million car-manufacturing factory in Rio employing 300 people.
• More recently the construction industry has become a large employer due to the FIFA world cup in 2014 and the 2016 Olympic games.
How has urban growth created challenges
• The problem with such rapid urbanisation, though, is that the cities do not have the time or resources to
accommodate and employ these people. Therefore, the migrants arrive to find themselves living in poor conditions and fighting for a degree of quality of life.
• This has led to informal settlements, called shanty towns or favelas, being established around the urban centres. In fact, in Rio de Janeiro alone, there are approximately 2 million favela inhabitants.
• In fact, the geographical split of the wealthy and the poor within one area is a common characteristic of urbanisation.
• Unemployment and poverty are major issues of urbanisation. Another enormous problem for those living in the favelas of Brazil is the rapid spread of diseases and the distinct lack of adequate health care. These issues have to be addressed for the progress and development of a country like Brazil.
• It is estimated that 37% of water is lost through leaky pipes, fraud and illegal access.
• There is a shortage of electricity with frequent blackouts.
• Air pollution is estimated to cause 5000 deaths per year in Rio.
• Many children drop out of school at 14.
An example of how urban planning is improving the quality of life for the urban poor.
Case study: Favela Bairro Problems
• Infant mortality rates are as high as 50/1000.
• Unemployment rates are as high as 20%
• Many houses are illegally connected to electricity pylons.
• Sewers are often open drains.
• The slopes are very steep so there is limited road access.
• There is a high murder rate of 20/1000 people .
• Waste cannot be disposed off and builds up in the street spreading diseases.
• Much employment is poorly paid and is irregular.
• Many people work in the informal sector.
• Drug gangs dominate the favelas.
• Burning rubbish often sets fire to the wooden houses. Smoke harms peoples health.
Urban planning strategies in Rio Self Help Schemes
• Residents of Rocinha transformed the favela into a small city; Buildings have been upgraded to brick and tile;
People have set up own shops and small industries - the 'informal sector.‘; Authorities have now accepted the existence of favelas and added electricity, paved and lit some streets and added water pipes.
Site and Service Schemes
• City authorities set aside £200 million to improve 60 of the 600 favelas.
• The plan include - replacing wood buildings and those built on dangerous slopes with larger (5x4m) brick houses, widening streets, laying pavements, laying water pipes and electricity cables, improving sanitation, providing health and sports facilities, using local residents as labour.
Favela Bairro Project
• Wealthy residents of Rio looked for a safer place to live with more space. Nearest flat land was 20km along coast.
1970: 4 lane motorway cut through mountains and on stilts over sea.
1995: New town of Barra had population of 130,000.
• It has 5km of shops, schools, hospitals and offices.
• There is an efficient local bus service linking the apartments, shops and leisure amenities.
Pacification
Authorities are attempting to transform favelas through a city-wide policy called ‘pacification’.
Stage one - Armed police units, backed by soldiers and marines, go into favelas to drive out criminal gangs. Permanent police presences are established in what had often been no-go areas for security officials.
Stage two - With the shanty town secured, staff from Rio's municipal authority can start to provide social services such as schools, healthcare centres, and rubbish collection.
Complexo do Alemao
- With a population of 100,000 people, stretching for more than two miles, the Complexo do Alemao favela is one of the largest favelas in Brazil.
- Opened in 2011, the Teleferico do Alemao cable car system is the most obvious outward example of how the lives of people in Complexo do Alemao have been transformed. The cable cars enable residents to get from one end of the favela to the other in just sixteen minutes. To walk it would take two hours, and each local person gets a free return ticket every day.
- The system also connects to Rio's railway network, enabling the people of Complexo do Alemao to get quickly into the city centre, opening up the opportunity of better paid work than is locally available.
A case study of a major city in the UK to illustrate:
• the location and importance of the city in the UK and the wider world
• impacts of national and international migration on the growth and character of the city
• how urban change has created opportunities:
• social and economic: cultural mix, recreation and entertainment, employment, integrated transport systems
• environmental: urban greening
• how urban change has created challenges:
• social and economic: urban deprivation, inequalities in housing, education, health and employment
• environmental: dereliction, building on brownfield and greenfield sites, waste disposal
• the impact of urban sprawl on the rural–urban fringe, and the growth of commuter settlements.
Case study: Bristol
The location and importance of Bristol in the UK and the wider world
- Bristol is a city and county in South West England with a population of 454,200 in 2017. The district has the 10th largest population in England.
- Two Universities - Two Cathedrals
- Developed in the 18th century as part of the Triangular trade linking West and Africa and the West Indies.
- Largest concentration of Silicon chip manufacturing outside California.
- UK’s 8th most popular tourist city
- Strategic position on the M4 corridor, international airport, good rail links, ferry services to Europe - Largest concentration of silicon chip manufacturing outside California
Impacts of national and international migration on the growth and character of the city
- Between 1851 and 1891 Bristol’s population doubled as people arrived looking for work.
- Migrants work in wide range of industries including retail, manufacturing and Health.
- Bristol’s population is made up from 50 countries
- A large number of migrants come from the EU but also Somalia, India and Jamaica
- St Paul’s Carnival attracts 40000 people each year and has been inspired by the large African and Afro- Caribbean population
How urban change has created opportunities Social and economic:
Cultural mix
- Bristol’s youthful population means there is a vibrant underground music scene - Colston Hall has concerts and entertainment by major names in music
- Bristol Old Vic, Bristol Hippodrome and the Tobacco Factory provide a wide range of entertainment e.g. plays, dance, opera and musical theatre
Recreation and entertainment Sport
- Bristol as two professional football teams and a rugby union team. It is also the headquarters of Gloucestershire County Cricket
- All these teams are developing their stadiums to provide a range of leisure and conference facilities and accommodation. Bristol Rovers are planning to move to a new stadium to improve all of these.
Shopping
- Cribbs Causeway (out-of-town shopping centre) affected the Broadmead shopping development in the city centre which had become outdated.
- Improved shopping facilities were needed to reduce crime, improve the environment , attract employment and compete with other cities
- Developments to encourage people to come back to the CBD include: pedestrianizing the area and installing CCTV to improve safety, development of open street markets and providing a more attractive shopping environment with street furniture and floral displays
- E.g. Cabot Circus – opened in 2008 at a cost of £500 million. This included shops, offices, cinema, a hotel and 250 apartments
Employment
- Large number of high-tech businesses attracted by:
- £100 million government grant to become a SuperConnected city with broadband speeds of 80 Mbps
- Close links between the city council and university
- Different industries working together in research and development - Example companies:
- Aardman Animations – famous for Wallace&Gromit
- Defence Procurement Agency – built on a greenfield site. Employs over 10,000 people. As more people were employed this contributed to urban sprawl with the demand for more housing.
- The aerospace industry – 14 of 15 main global aircraft companies are found in the Bristol region e.g.
Rolls-Royce, Airbus and GKN Aerospace. This has lead to supply chain industries appearing to supply these high-tech companies.
Integrated transport systems
- In 2012 Bristol was the 2nd most congested city in the UK
- A journey during rush hour took 31% longer than at other times of the day.
- 57% of people walk and cycle (higher than any other UK city). Aim to double the number of cyclists by 2020 - An integrated transport system (ITS) connects different methods of transport making journeys smoother.
- Aim is to encourage people to switch from cars to public transport = greater sustainability
- The Rapid Transit Network consists of 3 bus routes linking Temple Meads Station with the city’s Park and Ride sites.
- Electrification of rail line to London = greener transport and more reliable journeys Environmental
Urban greening
- Queen Square used to be a dual carriageway but was transformed into an open space with cycle routes - Sites of Nature Conservation Interest (SNCI) to be raised to top conservation condition by 2026
- 27% of the city to be part of a wildlife network - 30% of the city to be covered by trees
How urban change has created challenges
Social and Economic: urban deprivation, inequalities in housing, education, health and employment
Filwood Stoke Bishop
Health - Life expectancy: 78 years
- Death rates from cancer above average
- Poor access to shops selling fruit and vegetables for a healthy diet
- Life expectancy: 83 years - Despite the proportion of
older people is 8% higher than the average in Bristol, the death rate is
comparatively low
Education Only 36% of students get top grades
at GCSE
94% of students get top grades at GCSE and 50% have a degree Urban deprivation - Over 1300 crimes per year
- 62% of people feel unsafe at night
- More than one-third of people living in Filwood are in very low-income households - Problems local residents face
include: bullying, crime, drug use and poor environment
- Less than 300 crimes per year - Home to many millionaires in
Sneyd Park
Employment 33% of people aged 16-24 are
unemployed
Only 3% of people aged 16-24 are unemployed
Inequalities in housing - Mix of owner occupied and those rented from the council - Mostly council houses which
are poorly insulated - Designs of the new council
areas were not successful and plans to replace 1000 homes were abandoned after local opposition
- Large Victorian and Edwardian villas which overlook Clifton Downs - 81% of housing is owner
occupied
Environmental Dereliction
- Mainly inner city areas where there is a concentration of redundant industrial buildings - Stokes Croft
- Area became notorious for derelict housing and abandoned properties. Many empty houses taken over by squatters and the area has seen riots and antisocial behaviour.
- Bristol City Council obtained lottery grants to help improve the area economically and environmentally.
The area is now well known for its music, independent shops, nightclubs and graffiti art Building on brownfield and greenfield sites
Greenfield sites
- Only 5% of the greenbelt is controlled by city authorities
- There is lots of opposition from local people to building houses on the green belt land.
- National shortage of new houses has meant government policy has encouraged the use of greenfield sites - Local people objected to the Harry Stoke development because:
- Increased traffic congestion, noise and pollution - Loss of habitat
- Loss of open space and recreational areas - Effect of development on local flood risk Brownfield sites
- Bristol Harbourside – not everyone is happy about the architecture of the waterfront properties.
- The cost of the flats is too high for most people on the city’s housing waiting list Waste disposal
- Strategies to reduce the impact of waste
- Reduce the amount of waste that has to be sent to landfill sites - Reduce the amount of waste generated per household by 15%
- Increase the amount of waste recycling by 50%
- Reduction in household waste achieved by:
- Agreeing higher targets with contractors who handle household waste - Educating school pupils the importance of recycling and how to at home - Making technological improvements in recycling
- Atmospheric pollution
- Estimated 200 people die in the city each year as a result of air pollution
- Air pollution blown over the city from industrial area of Avonmouth due to prevailing wind from the South West
- Strategies to reduce air pollution:
- Reducing speed limits
- Frome Gateway – walking a cycling route around the city - Bristol’s eco friendly ‘poo bus’
The impact of urban sprawl on the rural–urban fringe, and the growth of commuter settlements - Bristol’s growing population since WW2 has lead to an increase demand for housing.
- Urban sprawl has extended particularly to the north west of the city.
- Impacts on the rural-urban fringe
- Increased traffic congestion, noise and pollution - Loss of habitat
- Loss of open space and recreational areas - Effect of development on local flood risk - Reducing urban sprawl
- Between 2006-2013 only 6% of new housing developments were on greenfield sites - By 2026 over 30,000 new homes are planned on brownfield sites
- Brownfield sites will have an average of 210 houses per hectare compared with 60 on greenfield sites
An example of an urban regeneration project to show:
• reasons why the area needed regeneration
• the main features of the project.
Case study: Temple Quarter, Bristol Why was regeneration needed?
- Temple Quarter was very run down
- Gave a bad impression to visitors as it was the first part of the city seen by people arriving by car or via Temple Meads station
- Previously it had been a successful industrial area due to the ‘Floating Harbour’ and Brunel’s first railway station built there.
- As the main industries disappeared the area was left with many derelict and disused warehouses and old industrial buildings
Main features of regeneration
- Enterprise Zone Status encourages economic growth and create jobs. Businesses given incentives to move there e.g. low rent and business rate relief
- New bridge across the River Avon to Bristol Arena on ‘Arena Island’
- Used for major conventions, exhibitions and sporting events for up to 12,000 spectators.
Outdoor ice rink in the winter.
- Brunel’s Engine Shed is an example of the re-use of a listed historic building
- New centre is home to high-tech, creative ad low-carbon sector companies
- 18 micro-electronics, media and digital production companies
- A further 44 companies developing the next generation
- Bristol University to build student accommodation and academic facilities
- Temple Meads Station – major redevelopment to make it a modern transport hub for the city Negatives
- Little has been invested in new open spaces in the area with a focus on economics
- Housing is expensive and unaffordable for local people
- Little has been invested in facilities for local people e.g. health care.
- For regeneration to be successful there should be a focus on economic, social and environmental equally.
The changing economic world
An example of how the growth of tourism in an LIC or NEE helps to reduce the development gap.
Case study: Jamaica Economy
- 2014 tourism = 24% of GDP - 2024 set to rise to 32%
- Income from tourism is US$2 billion each year – with extra taxes this helps the government to reduce the development gap
- 1.1 million cruise passengers spend on average US$70 per day - Other 2.5 million visitors average US$120 per day
Employment
- Tourism 200,000 people employed either directly in hotels, transport and attractions or indirectly in shops and manufacturing. These are mainly around tourist towns.
- Employment from tourism helps to boost the local economy.
- Employed people learn new skills that can help them in getting better paid jobs in the future.
Infrastructure
- High levels of investment in the north of the island
- New port ad cruise-liner facilities built at Trelawny with new hotel accommodation - However, road and airport improvements have been slower
Quality of life
- Northern areas such as Montego Bay have wealthy Jamaicans and high-quality housing with a high standard of living. These areas have benefited from tourism.
- Large numbers of people live nearby in poor housing with limited food supply and lack of access to healthcare, fresh water and education
Environment
- Montego Bay improved by landscaping and a new water treatment plant at Logwood has reduced pollution from hotels
- The Negril Marine Nature Park attracts many tourists and brings income
- Community tourism and sustainable ecotourism is expanding in more isolated regions with people running small-scale guesthouses or acting as guides
A case study of one LIC or NEE to illustrate:
• the location and importance of the country, regionally and globally
• the wider political, social, cultural and environmental context within which the country is placed
• the changing industrial structure. The balance between different sectors of the economy. How manufacturing industry can stimulate economic development
• the role of transnational corporations (TNCs) in relation to industrial development. Advantages and disadvantages of TNC(s) to the host country
• the changing political and trading relationships with the wider world
• international aid: types of aid, impacts of aid on the receiving country
• the environmental impacts of economic development
• the effects of economic development on quality of life for the population.
Case study: Nigeria
The location and importance of the country, regionally and globally
• Nigeria is a country in West Africa that is over three times larger than the UK.
• It lies just North of the Equator, with its south coast on the Gulf of Guinea, which is part of the Atlantic Ocean.
• It has a population of 184 million people, which is much larger than any other African country.
• Nigeria has graduated from being an LIC to an NEE.
• It overtook South Africa as the largest economy in Africa in 2014.
The wider political, social, cultural and environmental context within which the country is placed
• It has more than 500 different ethnic groups, each with its own language. Three ethnic groups dominate – Igbo, Yoruba and the Hausa.
• Moving north from the Equator, the climate becomes drier and this determines the type of vegetation in the area.
• Since independence in 1960, Nigeria has progressed from civil war (67-70), through several military dictatorships when the army ruled the country (until 1998), to a stable democracy today. Political
improvements have allowed Nigeria to develop more rapidly as businesses now have confidence at investing in the region.
• However, there is still conflict. In the north of the country, Boko Haram (an extremist organisation) wants to abolish democracy and set up its own government under its version of Islamic law. At least 17000 people have been killed in the conflict since 202 and over 500,000 people have fled the region.
The changing industrial structure
• Nigeria is changing from a mainly agricultural economy into an industrial economy. Over 50% of the GDP comes from manufacturing and service industries. This reflects the change from a mainly rural to urban population.
Some of the fastest growing industries are:
• Telecommunications , Retail and wholesale, The film industry – Nollywood .
• Importance of Oil and Manufacturing
• Oil was discovered in Nigeria in the 1950s and is a vital part of the country’s economy.
• Oil and gas account for 14% of Nigeria’s GDP and 95% of its export earnings.
• Income from oil has helped Nigeria move from a LIC to an NEE. However, the country’s dependence on oil makes it vulnerable to changes in the global oil prices.
• When the prices fell in 2015, it damaged the economy.
Advantages and disadvantages of TNC(s) to the host country
Benefits Problems
- Shell companies in Nigeria employ 6,000 direct employees and contractors (90% Nigerian).
- As of year-end 2010, Shell companies in Nigeria had trained some 1,900 service providers in general contracting, developed 8 local dredging companies, awarded 10 UK scholarships and trained more than 3,000 people in entrepreneurship, scaffolding, project management, welding, catering, and other vocations.
- Shell paid some $31 billion in taxes to the Nigerian government between 2006 and 2010.
- The Delta region contains important wetland and coastal ecosystem. Most people depend on the natural environment for their livelihood, either through farming or fishing. Oil pollution kills fish in the sea.
- Oil spills from leaking pipelines damage farmland so crops no longer grow.
- Oil heated by the sun becomes highly flammable and can burn out of control. Gas flares are used to burn off gas from the oil. Apart from being
- In the past, Shell has also been heavily involved in the provision of infrastructure in the communities.
They were building roads, schools, clinics and providing portable water. They have also been a major supporter of education of young children, with over 17,000 children on Shell scholarship at any point in time.
wasteful, the fumes affect people’s health and contribute to global warming.
- Tensions arose between the native Ogoni people of the Niger Delta and Shell. The concerns of the locals were that very little of the money earned from oil on their land was getting to the people who live there, and the environmental damages caused by the recurring sabotage of pipelines operated by Shell. Shell also forced the Ogoni people to live in poverty and poor health while the company made millions.
The changing political and trading relationships with the wider world
• Britain has had a trading relationship with West Africa for over 300 years. From 1650, the British traded enslaved African people and took them to America and the Caribbean. When slavery was made illegal in 1807, trade with West Africa turned to palm oil, used in Britain to make soap.
• In the late 19th century, Nigeria became part of the British Empire. The country was ruled by Britain until it gained independence in 1960. By then, a pattern of trade was established where Nigeria exported natural commodities to Britain in exchange for importing manufactured goods.
• Nigeria still trades with the UK but more of its trade is now with some of the world’s largest economies, which include the USA, China, India and other countries in the European Union.
• Since independence, oil has replaced other natural commodities as Nigeria’s main export, but the country still imports manufactured goods like machinery, chemicals and transport equipment.
• Nigeria’s main import partner for manufactured goods is now China. China’s influence on Nigeria’s economy goes beyond the goods it sells. There is also growing investment in Nigeria.
- Nigeria needs huge investment in infrastructure, particularly its transport network and power supply. China is now able to bring that expertise to Nigeria. In 2014, the China Railway Construction Corporation won a US$12 billion contract to build a new 1400km railway along the coast of Nigeria.
- China’s fast growing economy needs more resources than the country can provide for itself. It can find these resources in Nigeria. In 2014, another Chinese corporation agreed to invest $10billion in exploration and drilling in a new oilfield in Nigeria.
International aid: types of aid, impacts of aid on the receiving country Why is aid needed?
• 60% of population living in poverty (less than $1/day)
• Birth rates high
• Infant mortality rates high
• Life expectancy low
• Nigeria has one of the highest death rates from Malaria in the world – the diseases cause long term health problems.
How does aid benefit Nigeria?
• In 2014, the World Bank approved $500million to fund development projects and provide long term loans and businesses. This helps to reduce the over-dependence on oil exports.
• Aid from the USA helps to educate and protect people against the spread of AIDS/HIV.
• The USAID-funded Community Care in Nigeria project provides support packages for orphans.
• The UK Department for International Development has funded a health and HIV programme, providing health education in rural areas.
• The NGO Nets for Life provides education on malaria prevention and distributes anti-mosquito nets to many households.
BUT:
• Donors may have political influence over what happens to aid
• Money may be used to promote the commercial self interest of the donor
• Corruption in the government and by individuals means some aid doesn’t reach those intended.
The environmental impacts of economic development
• 70-80% of forests have been destroyed through logging, farming, urbanisation etc.
• Nigeria’s energy consumption has increased. Fossil fuels like oil release lots of pollution and greenhouse gasses. Lagos is one of the world’s most polluted cities. Demand for oil leads to destruction of the area around the Niger Delta and destroys habitats.
• Waste disposal is a big issue- there are too many people for the system to cope with all of their rubbish!!
• Desertification (the drying out of ground) is now a big problem due to dams being created and stopping/changing the natural flow of water.
• There have been many oil spills in the Niger delta, polluting water systems and harming the environment.
The effects of economic development on quality of life for the population
• Squatter settlements are common. Living conditions are cramped and access to services and essentials eg:
schools, clean water, hospitals is limited.
• New developments in some areas have causes violent conflicts between locals as there is competition for success in these areas.
• There are more jobs and daily wages have increased. This means people have more money to improve their life, for example by securing access to clean water, a higher quality home and medical care.
Economic futures in the UK:
• causes of economic change: de-industrialisation and decline of traditional industrial base, globalisation and government policies
• moving towards a post-industrial economy: development of information technology, service industries, finance, research, science and business parks
• impacts of industry on the physical environment. An example of how modern industrial development can be more environmentally sustainable
• social and economic changes in the rural landscape in one area of population growth and one area of population decline
• improvements and new developments in road and rail infrastructure, port and airport capacity
• the north–south divide. Strategies used in an attempt to resolve regional differences
• the place of the UK in the wider world. Links through trade, culture, transport, and electronic communication. Economic and political links: the European Union (EU) and Commonwealth.
Causes of economic change
• De-industrialisation and the decline of the UK’s industry – fewer jobs are available in manufacturing.
• Globalisation – a lot of manufacturing has moved oversea, where labour costs are lower, though HQ of
manufacturing companies have remained in the UK. Trade with other countries is an important part of UK GDP.
• Government policies – decisions on investment in infrastructure and technology and support for businesses (e.g. tax breaks) affect how well the economy grows. Membership in groups like the World Trade Organisation make it easier for companies to operate across the world.
Moving towards a post-industrial economy
• Tertiary and quaternary industries are growing. In 2011, they employed 81% of the UK’s workforce.
• Services – e.g. retail (employs 4.4 million people), entertainment and personal services (hairdressers).
• IT – Over 60,000 people are employed in IT by companies like Microsoft or IBM.
• Finance – London, especially, is home to many global financial institutions. Some, like HSBC, have their HQ in the UK.
• Research – Research and development is increasing, making use of university graduates. In 2013, nearly £30 billion was spent on R&D in the UK.
• Science and Business Parks:
Quaternary industries are found here.
1) On the outskirts of cities near to good transport links e.g. motorways.
2) Close to housing to accommodate workforce.
3) New universities that research businesses in science parks can have access to, allowing them to develop cutting edge technology.
They have grown because:
1) large, growing demand for high-tech products.
2) The UK has a large number of strong research universities for businesses on science parks to for links with.
3) Clusters of related businesses in one place can boost each other.
Cambridge Science Park Background information
• The Cambridge Science Park, founded by Trinity College in 1970 is the oldest Science Park in the United Kingdom.
• It is a concentration of science and technology related businesses, and has strong links with the nearby city of Cambridge.
• Cambridge Science park is home to more than 100 businesses which are involved in lots of areas of expertise such as medical , IT and environmental.
• There is a large range of services on site to help the people who work in the Park. Some of the environmentally friendly services include recycling facilities and landscaping to attract more wildlife to the area
Location
• It is close to Cambridge University for educated graduates.
• Can attract a good workforce as it is an attractive place to live with open spaces and excellent shopping.
• Close to major transport links e.g. airports and M25.
Impacts
• Hi-technology provides jobs – they employ ¼ of workers in Cambridge.
• Other companies have developed to supply the hi-technology with equipment, services etc. These companies also create employment: multiplier effect.
• The city has become overcrowded making it difficult to drive or park
• House prices are high and still rising
Impacts of industry on the physical environment. An example of how modern industrial development can be more environmentally sustainable: Torr Quarry
Impacts of industry
• Manufacturing plants can look very dull and can have negative visual effect on the landscape
• Industrial processes can cause air and water pollution, as well as degrading the soil
• Waste products are often taken to landfill and when in the ground can pollute the air, water and soil
• Transport of raw materials is often by road increasing air pollution and damage to the environment when roads need to be widened or new ones built
• Destroy natural habitats
• Scar the landscape
How to make industrial development more sustainable?
• Technology can be used to reduce harmful emissions from power stations and heavy industry
• Desulphurisation can remove harmful gases such as sulphur dioxide from power station chimneys
• Heavy fines imposed when industrial pollution incidents occur Example: Torr Quarry, Somerset
• Quarry is being restored to create wildlife lakes for recreation and water supply
• Characteristic limestone features will be created to make the landscape look natural
• 200 acres landscaped to blend in with the surrounding environment, including planting grass and trees
• Rail transport minimises the impact of local roads and villages
Improvements and new developments in road and rail infrastructure, port and airport capacity
• Airports are important to the economy of the modern UK.
• Airport simply over 300,000 people and 3.6% of GDP.
• Over 2 million tonnes of freight pass through the UK’s airports each yr.
• More than 750,000 international flights depart from the UK annually to 400 airports in 114 countries around the world!
• There are also over 420,000 domestic flights to over 60 airports within the UK.
• The UK port industry is the largest in Europe, due to the long coastline and trading history.
• Some ports specialise in passenger ferries others in cargo transporters.
• Most are all purpose with a range of goods and services.
• Dover is the UK’s main port for freight (lorries, cars etc).
• Felixstowe is the largest container port.
e.g Heathrow Expansion
• It is already by far the largest airport in the UK. By 2030, it could expand further. A new runway will be built at an estimated cost of £18.6 billion. Heathrow currently operates at almost full capacity, with 480000 flights a year.
• It will help London to compete with rivals like New York and Paris.
• It is already the largest emitter of CO2 in the UK. This would increase with expansion.
• One village will be demolished and 2 others would be threatened.
• The airport employs 76000 people and supports a similar number of jobs in London – this would increase.
• Expansion would boost the UK’s economy by £200 billion.
• Noise pollution will get worse for 1 million people who live below the flight path.
• Some people think it is further evidence of development being prominent in the south and suggest the runway should be built at Manchester to speed up development in the North.
Social and economic changes in the rural landscape in one area of population growth and one area of population decline
An area of population increase
• South Cambridgeshire is the mostly rural area surrounding the city of Cambridge. The population of 150,000 is increasing due to migration into the area.
• The proportion of people aged 65 or over is expected to reach 29% of population by 2031 which means an increased demand on health and housing and the total population is estimated to reach 182,000 by 2031, an increase of 32,000 people in 15 years.
Impacts
• Commuters who still work in Cambridge using services there rather than local ones, which has a negative effect on the local rural economy.
• 80% car ownership on narrow rural roads is leading to congestion and pollution,
• Gentrification means young people are being priced out of the housing market.
• Reduction in the primary industry as farmers sell their land to housing developers who are offering attractive prices.
• Lack of affordable housing.
An area of population decline
• The Outer Hebrides has a population of 27,400 people, about 5 times less than South Cambridgeshire. It is made up of a chain of 65 different small Islands in close proximity, with most living on the Isle of Lewis.
• There has been an overall decline of 50% of it’s population since 1901 due to outward migration. With limited opportunities, younger people are choosing to live elsewhere.
Impacts
• School closures are likely due to the falling number of school aged children
• Fewer people of working age resulting in less taxes being paid
• Number of fishing boats has declined from 900 in 1948 to just a few now, due to reduced fish stocks and loss of jobs to overseas areas.
• Ageing population leading to issues with health care and housing provision The north–south divide. Strategies used in an attempt to resolve regional differences
Issues
• The decline of heavy industry has been worse for the North of the UK but the growth of a post-industrial economy has benefitted the south.
• Wages are generally lower in the north. In 2014, average weekly wage was 40% lower in Huddersfield than in London.
• Health is generally worse in the north. Life expectancy is much higher in the south.
• Education – GCSE results are generally better in the south.
Solutions
• 1. Devolving more powers – Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have their own governments and this allows them to use money on schemes they feel will benefit the community e.g. regeneration projects.
• 2. Creating Enterprise Zones – These offer a range of benefits for locating in enterprise zones: reduced taxes, simpler planning rules, financial benefits, improved infrastructure.
• 3. The Northern Powerhouse is the government’s plan to reduce the inequality by attracting investment to the north and improving transport links between northern cities e.g. via HS2.
• Roads – capacity on motorways in being increased by upgrading to smart motorways with extra lanes.
• Rail – HS2 will link London, Birmingham, Leeds and Manchester. It will allow faster journeys between major English cities.
• Airports – a new runway is needed at Heathrow.
• Ports – London Gateway is able to handle to world’s largest container ships.
The place of the UK in the wider world. Links through trade, culture, transport, and electronic communication.
Economic and political links: the European Union (EU) and Commonwealth
• Trade – the UK trades globally, with links to the USA, Europe and Asia. Overseas exports are worth over £250 billion per year.
• Culture – the UK’s strong creative industries mean that the UK culture is exported worldwide e.g. Shaun the Sheep.
• Transport – the Channel Tunnel links the UK to France by rail.
• IT – most of the trans-Atlantic cables (for phone and internet connections) linking Europe with the USA are routed via the UK.
• EU – This gives EU citizens access to a large market without trade barriers. Over £130 billion trade exports were to the EU in 2015.
• Commonwealth – this makes up 53 independent states and exists to improve the wellbeing of everyone in it.
