Autistic individuals tend to have poorer EFs, and increased autistic traits are associated with poorer EFs (Mason et al., 2021). It has been suggested that individuals from the general population who have elevated autistic traits may also experience EF problems (Mason et al., 2021). Autistic traits appear to be normally distributed in the general population and the autistic population consistently scores higher than the neurotypical population (Ruzich et al., 2015).
Superior musical abilities, especially perceptual abilities, have been observed among autistic individuals (Bonnel et al., 2010), and autistic traits are positively associated with pitch discrimination (Dohn et al., 2012). On the other hand, EF difficulties are common among autistic individuals (Demetriou et al., 2018) and those with elevated autistic traits (Mason et al., 2021). Quality of life is conceptualized as subjective well-being in multiple dimensions such as social, physical and emotional well-being (Gill et al., 2013).
There are indications that regular participation in musical activities (e.g. listening to music) has a positive effect on quality of life (Ashley, 2002; Särkämö et al., 2014).
Language Matters: The Autism-Spectrum Quotient in English, Mandarin and Bahasa Malaysia Mandarin and Bahasa Malaysia
Moreover, Malaysian students score higher on the AQ than British students, suggesting cultural differences (Freeth et al., 2013). The participants scored higher on the English AQ compared to the Mandarin AQ (see Table 2.2). The participants displayed a more extreme RS on the Mandarin AQ than on the English AQ (see Table 2.2).
Participants were more likely to show an extreme RS on the English AQ than on the Bahasa Malaysia AQ (see Table 2.2). Participants showed a more agreeable RS in English than in Bahasa Malaysia AQ (see Table 2.2). In contrast, a more extreme RS was seen on the English than on the Bahasa Malaysia AQ.
Malaysia/English sample was more likely to display an extreme RS on the English AQ than on the Bahasa Malaysia AQ.
The Factor Structure and Measurement Invariance of the Autism Spectrum Quotient-28: A Cross-Cultural Comparison between Autism Spectrum Quotient-28: A Cross-Cultural Comparison between
In light of this, the AQ-28 was developed and validated in Dutch and British samples (Hoekstra et al., 2011). Apart from the factor structure, the measurement invariance of the AQ-28 across cultures has not been confirmed. I further researched which elements of the AQ-28 work differently in Malaysia and the Netherlands.
Each item of the AQ-28 is rated on a 4-point Likert scale (strongly agree, slightly agree, slightly disagree, strongly disagree). Dutch participants in this study completed the AQ-28 together with the Sensory Perception Quotient - Short online (Tavassoli et al., 2014). As expected, the hierarchical structure of the AQ-28 fitted well to the Dutch general population sample.
The present results showed that the factor structure of the AQ-28 is stable in Malaysia and the Netherlands.
Replication of the Music Preference (MUSIC) Model and Evaluation of its Association with Personality and Autistic Traits Evaluation of its Association with Personality and Autistic Traits
First, I hypothesized that the MUSIC model would be confirmed, specifically the soft, sophisticated, intense, and contemporary factors (Heng et al., 2018). Finally, I hypothesized that autistic traits would be positively associated with intense and sophisticated music (Greenberg et al., 2015). In line with previous research (Bonneville-Roussy et al., 2013), age negatively predicted a preference for intense music.
Cultural differences in music-evoked emotions may explain the discrepancy, as perceived psychological properties of music explain unique variance in the MUSIC model (Rentfrow et al., 2012). Furthermore, as highlighted by Rentfrow et al. 2012), both psychological and acoustic features shape the formation of the MUSIC factors. However, the TIPI is a frequently used instrument in the music preference literature (e.g., Greenberg et al., 2022).
Although systemizing has been associated with autistic traits (Wheelwright et al., 2006), it is only a small part of the picture.
The Effects of Listening to Preferred Music on Executive Function Performance and Electrodermal Activity in relation to Autistic Function Performance and Electrodermal Activity in relation to Autistic
Since then, many studies have shown cognitive improvement after exposure to music (Hallam et al., 2002; a meta-analysis suggests that there is little evidence for a Mozart effect (Pietschnig et al., 2010). In addition to EDA, subjective arousal (i.e., arousal self-reported) increases after listening to music, and this increase is accompanied by improved cognitive performance (Schellenberg et al., 2007).
Autistic individuals show a stronger increase in physiological responses to preferred music compared to neurotypical individuals (Hillier et al., 2016). Autonomic dysregulation is commonly reported in autistic individuals, but depending on the branch of the autonomic nervous system investigated, hyper- and hypo-arousal are observed (Arora et al., 2021). In the current study, I investigated whether listening to music while performing EF tasks had a positive impact on EF, after controlling for musical sophistication, as musical sophistication is known to be positively related to EFs (Meyer et al., 2020).
Working memory was assessed with a modified version of the Corsi Blocks Test (Kessels et al., 2000). Given the evidence of practice effects on the Trail Making test ( Buck et al., 2008 ), the location of dots was randomly generated in each trial. Since the relaxing musical excerpts are quite familiar, and familiarity influences the effects of music on cognition (Chew et al., 2016), I looked at whether familiarity differed between self-selected and relaxing music.
The current findings are consistent with research that showed no influence of listening to music on EF, particularly on working memory (Giroux et al., 2020; Schellenberg et al., 2007). In an attempt to mimic the impact of music on working memory in a Rwandan sample, no positive effects were found (Giroux et al., 2020). Ceiling effects may be an alternative explanation for the null effects of listening to favorite music on EF performance, as ceiling effects on EF tasks are commonly observed among college students and in the general population (Chew et al., 2016; Friedman et al., 2016 ; Patrick et al., 2008).
Contrary to the findings that EDA is increased in response to self-selected or favorite music (Rickard, 2004; Salimpoor et al., 2009), EDA did not differ between the three conditions in the current study. EDA exclusively provides information about the sympathetic activity that regulates fight-or-flight responses (Braithwaite et al., 2013), while others.
Musical Sophistication and its Relationship with Executive Functions, Autistic Traits and Quality of Life Functions, Autistic Traits and Quality of Life
Several autistic traits are associated with greater difficulties in EC and lower quality of life (Christ et al. Pisula et al., 2015), but are also associated with better musical abilities (e.g., pitch. Given that some evidence supports improvements in EF after musical music training (Bugos et al., 2007), the Furthermore, it was argued that working memory plays a significant role in contributing to musical sophistication in addition to musical ability (Baker et al., 2020).
Youth with ASC were found to have difficulties in EF, leading to lower quality of life (Dijkhuis et al., 2017). Recent meta-analytic findings suggest moderate-quality evidence for a positive impact of music interventions on quality of life (McCrary et al., 2022). Specifically, autistic traits appear to be positively related to pitch discrimination performance (Dohn et al., 2012; Stewart et al., 2018).
General musical sophistication as operationalized by the Gold-MSI includes many items related to musical training and singing ability (Müllensiefen et al., 2014), hence autistic traits may not be. Quality of life was measured using the Pediatric Quality of Life Inventory™ (PedsQL™; Varni et al., 2001). In addition, more EF problems were associated with increased anxiety and maladaptive coping strategies (O'Rourke et al., 2020).
A negative association was found between autistic traits and quality of life, in line with previous findings in university students (Pisula et al., 2015; Reed et al., 2016) and children with ASD (de Vries & Geurts, 2015). However, previous studies of university students also noted that it may not be autistic traits per se that contribute to a lower quality of life (Pisula et al., 2015; Reed et al., 2016). Considering that musical training can positively influence EF (Benz et al., 2016), and the importance of EF on quality of life (Diamond, 2013), the indirect effect of musical sophistication on quality of life is with EF as a mediator seems supported.
The present findings are consistent with findings from a general Japanese population where no relationship was found between autistic traits and EF (Kunihira et al., 2006). Third, general fluid intelligence, which has been shown to be associated with musical sophistication (Baker et al., 2020), was not considered.
General Discussion
Therefore, the results generally support the use of the AQ-28 in measuring autistic traits among the Malaysian general population. Surprisingly, autistic traits were unrelated to self-report EF, although autistic traits as measured with the AQ have been reported to correlate with self-report EF measures, e.g. the Barkley deficits. Higher autistic traits are associated with poorer quality of life and a reduced preference for contemporary music.
Negatively worded items of the Autism Spectrum Quotient function differently for groups with and without autism. Personality correlates of the broader autism phenotype as assessed by the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ). Gender difference in the association between executive function and autistic features in typically developing children.
Factor structure, reliability and criterion validity of the autism spectrum quotient (AQ): A study in Dutch population and patient groups. The construction and validation of a shortened version of the autism spectrum quotient (AQ-short). Investigation of the reliability and factor structure of the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ) in a non-clinical sample.
Structural validation of the Autism Spectrum Quotient-Short Form in a clinical sample of people with autism spectrum disorders. Exploring cultural differences in autistic traits: A factor analytic study of children with autism in China and the Netherlands. On the relationship between autistic traits and executive functioning in a non-clinical Dutch student.
Autistic traits in male and female students and individuals with high-functioning autism spectrum disorders as measured by the Polish version of the autism spectrum quotient. Measuring autistic traits in the general population: a systematic review of the autism spectrum quotient (AQ) in a non-clinical population sample of 6,900 typical male and female adults. Psychometric properties of the autism spectrum quotient for assessing low and high levels of autistic traits in college students.
Psychometric properties of the autism spectrum quotient in clinical and non-clinical samples: A Chinese version for Mainland China.
