The dimension of products and processes

I. 3.4.3.1. Higher order questioning

Higher order questioning strategies have shown to be effective as promoters of critical thinking, increased literacy levels and more language production (Taylor, Pearson, Clark & Walpole, 2000). Learning activities emphasise higher order thinking processes such as application, analysis, evaluation and synthesis. In a study conducted by Henderson (2004, p. 68) a participant stated, “...I think it has made everybody open minded and to think. We have had to think about big questions and you had to be

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excited about it to learn and you really had to think.” Looking at the big picture rather than the details is also a characteristic of higher order thinking skills.

When higher order questions are implemented systematically there is a result in higher order thinking. Higher order thinking is when students transform the meaning and implications of something by making links and interconnections. A study conducted by VanTassel-Baska (1996) found that when learners were asked to provide a title for a text and justify their choice through an expository text, more positive results were found. Worryingly, however, according to John Goodlad (1983) only about 1% of classroom discussion invited students to put forth their own reasoning.

I. 3.4.3.2. Socratic thinking

Socratic thinking encourages teachers to respond to all answers with a further question, to discover the ultimate foundation for every comment that is verbalised and to treat each point as a connecting point for further thought. Good learning as stated by experts in education, involves good questioning, not answers. Evidence of this practice has been found in elementary students as well as graduate students (Philips, 2000). In his study he describes the “Philosophers Gang”, a program to introduce philosophical inquiry to elementary school children in a school in California which resulted in more engagement and other positive outcomes.

I. 3.4.3.3. Critical thinking

Linked to the above is critical thinking. A longitudinal study named Project Athena (VanTassel-Baska & Bracken, 2008) tested 1346 students in third to fifth years over a three year period using Paul’s Elements of Reasoning. This school had a significantly high percentage of students from disadvantaged backgrounds. Teachers received formal training and pre and post reading comprehension tests as well as critical thinking tests were applied to the students. Students of all abilities in the experimental group benefitted from teachers’ fostering of critical thinking and creative thinking.

Additionally, teachers were found to use progressively more target differentiating techniques if they had received formal training. Yet another aspect which purports critical thinking is synectics, where creating links via analogies helps in problem solving and may be particularly pertinent to learning a foreign language.

68 I. 3.4.3.4. Creative thinking

The ability to create something novel is an aspect which is probably not favoured by all teachers. Gifted students are said to have an ease in creative thinking i.e., making and communicating connections and thinking of many possibilities, of new and unusual possibilities. In the debate of what constitutes giftedness, a few authors have reverted to highlighting creativity. Nurturing creativity in gifted learners can be intrinsically motivating. Clark (1996) explains that teachers who fostered creativity in class possessed other very appealing characteristics for teaching gifted students, such as inviting reasoning and alternative answers and possibly unexpected hypotheses too.

I. 3.4.3.5. Metacognition

Gifted learners also possess more increased levels of metacognition and this has been found to be an effective teaching and learning strategy. Making students aware of their own cognitive strategies when in the learning process can be a fundamental aspect.

Authors have suggested small group discussions, journals and self-reflection as excellent tools for fostering metacognition.

I. 3.4.3.6. Synectics

This facility, which gifted learners demonstrate, in the bringing together of apparently unrelated elements is referred to as synectics. It is in the forging together of new information to information that we already know that leads to learning. It was through a metaphor of riding a beam through the universe that led Einstein to construct his theory of relativity. Winner (1997) explains that “that ‘metaphor’ is at the root of creativity and openness of language” (p.16). The advanced metalinguistic capabilities of gifted children and their flexibility of thinking enables them to understand the symbolism of metaphor and analogies at a younger age (Fraser, 2003).

In other words, the joining together of seemingly unrelated concepts can lead to insights which may be potential solutions to problems (Weaver & Prince, 1990). It is these kind of synectic methods that are used by think tanks, research groups and inventors and have been the reason behind many modern creations. These are essential for learners to “make the strange familiar and the familiar strange” in order to view objects and concepts differently (Clapham, 2003).

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In 1995, Meador carried out an experimental design to understand the impact of synectics on creativity, self-concept and verbal skills of 107 gifted and non-gifted kindergarten learners. The strategy seemed to qualitatively increase levels of abstract thinking amongst the gifted and was found to promote creativity amongst all the children. Due to its impact on thinking skills, the researcher recommends synectics as a gifted friendly practice. Metaphors, analogies and similes carry with them great potential for reinforcing thinking skills and conceptual understanding and may be a key for both the identification and education of the gifted population (Alvermann & Phelps, 1998).

I. 3.4.3.7. Learners as practitioners

Students taking on the role of historians, scientists, shop assistants are all part of acting as practitioners in the field. This is intrinsically related to doing and hands-on approaches to learning, often referred to as active learning. In language learning, students can act as storytellers and writers.

I. 3.4.3.8. Authentic assessment

Good curricula involves authentic assessment which has the objective of evaluating students’ abilities in “real-world” contexts. According to some authors, although there is controversy as to what authentic assessment is, it is important that assessment takes into account skills which are viewed as essential in the context outside school (Palm, 2008). As a reflection of gifted friendly curriculum, which is heavily reliant on conceptual teaching and understanding, traditional standardised tests no longer make sense (Archbald, 1991; Dana & Tippins, 1993). These researchers go on further to say that they also fail to capture the essence of problem solving processes which are fundamental aspects of theory driven recommended practice for the gifted.

Moon, Brighton, Callahan & Robinson (2005) found evidence for the use of differentiated authentic assessment as providers of true information about learning amongst the gifted population. Gifted learners could benefit from alternative assessment which is more advanced, open-ended, geared towards problem-solving and encourages students to use and demonstrate higher thinking processes (VanTassel-Baska et al., 2008).

70 I. 3.4.4. Student choice

Student choice seems to be a pervasive tool for the gifted and talented as it allows for a wider choice of interests and passions both in terms of depth and breadth and enables for a flexible pace of learning. The involvement of students in the decision-making process enables the considerations of their needs, preferences and learning styles (Tomlinson et al. 2003) and the resulting engagement has been suggested to reduce underachievement (Gentry, Rizza, & Owen, 2002).

Drain (2008, 2009) expressed her concern regarding the paucity of empirical evidence to support student choice as gifted friendly practice. However, student choice is ever-present in effective implementation of gifted programs as well as successful differentiation measures. This is present within all the above suggested strategies and should be considered a pillar on which appropriate gifted education hinges on. Research supporting the Parallel Curriculum (Tomlinson et al., 2002) also places emphasis on student choice. Hence, it has been included here as an effective and readily accessible practice that caters for the highly able.

From the students’ standpoint, Kanevksy’s study (2011) demonstrated that gifted students desire choice of content, materials and resources, product, grouping dynamics as well as choice in the pace of work. Similarly, Bishop (2000) revealed choice of content and product as vital components of independent research for gifted students.

Evidence has also identified choice, ownership and interest as strong motivation for learning in a sample of secondary students (Gentry & Springer, 2002). Research does however, express the need for teachers to support students in making appropriate choices (Bishop, 2000).