O trabalho realizado nesta dissertação comporta tamanha complexidade que o mode-lo proposto não foi inteiramente implementado a nível prático, pelas limitações materi-ais já anteriormente explicadas. Assim, como sugestão para futuros projetos sugere-se a implementação dos pontos que ficaram em falta, nomeadamente, o carregador de bateri-as, o conversor bidirecional e os controlos em malha dupla. Como é obvio, tudo isto poderá ser implementado para potências mais elevadas e, preferencialmente, com os valores nominais da rede elétrica.
A nível de melhorias do modelo proposto poderá ser estudada a possibilidade de in-serção de um transformador de alta frequência, com a finalidade de elevar a tensão do banco de baterias para tensões mais altas, permitindo à UPS trabalhar a 230 V. Duas opções poderão ser consideradas podendo o mesmo ser colocado no barramento CC ou à saída do inversor (antes do filtro LC).
A diminuição do tempo de comutação, em caso de cavas de tensão e sobretensões, pode ser conseguida com o aperfeiçoamento do comutador estático. Para tal sugere-se a utilização de comutadores totalmente controlados. Descarta-se aqui a utilização de relés por serem demasiado lentos, passando a solução pelo uso de pares IGBTs ou MOSFETs em antiparalelo.
Por fim, visto que as UPS Offline são bastante utilizadas para alimentar computado-res pessoais, sugere-se a implementação de uma aplicação em desktop que permita en-cerrar o mesmo assim que a bateria esteja próxima do descarregamento completo.
91
Referências Bibliográficas
[1] A. Emadi, A. Nasiri, & S. B. Bekiarov, “Uninterruptible Power Supplies and Ac-tive Filters”, CRC Press, pp. 1-62, 2005
[2] A. Baggini et al., “Handbook of Power Quality”, John Wiley & Sons Ltd., pp. 403-445, 2008
[3] A. King & W. Knight, “Uninterruptible Power Supplies and Standby Power Sys-tems”, McGraw-Hill, pp. 141-163, 2003
[4] RQS, “Regulamento da Qualidade de Serviço”, RQS, Agosto de 2009 [5] EDP, “Manual da Qualidade da Energia Eléctrica”, Dezembro de 2005
[6] S. Santoso, H. Beaty, R. Dugan, M. McGranaghan “Electrical Power Systems Quality”, McGraw-Hill, pp. 11-41, 2002
[7] “O Setor Eléctrico”, consultado em 31 de Janeiro de 2011:
http://www.osetoreletrico.com.br/web/component/content/article/58-artigos-e-materias-relacionadas/120-ups-qualidade-de-energia.html
[8] R. Krishnan & S. Srinivasan, “Topologies for Uninterruptible Power Supplies”, in Proc. IEEE Int. Symp. Ind. Electron., Budapest, Hungary, 1993, pp. 122–127 [9] J. Platts & J. D. St. Aubyn, “Uninterruptible Power Supplies”, Institution of
Engi-neering and Technology, 1992
[10] “American Power Conversion (APC)”, consultado em 31 de Janeiro de 2011: http://www.apc.com/corporate/history.cfm
[11] “Eaton – Powering Business Worldwide”, consultado em 17 de Março de 2011: http://powerquality.eaton.com/Portugal/Technology-Applications/technology-leadership/PT-technology-leadership.asp
[12] F. Ghetti, P. Barbosa & H. Braga, “A Study on Single-Phase Delta UPS Topology Alternatives”, in Power Electronics Conference – COBEP '09, Brazilian, 2009 [13] C. Branco1 et al., “A Transformerless Single Phase On-Line UPS with 110V/220V
Input Output Voltage”, in IEEE 2006 Applied Power Electronics Conference, 2006, pp. 348-354
Referências Bibliográficas
92
[14] A. McLennan, “Static UPS Technologies”, in IEE Savoy Place, London, United Kingdom, 1994
[15] B. Kwon, J. Choi, & T. Kim, “Improved Single Phase Line-Interactive UPS”, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, vol. 48, no. 4, pp. 804-811,2001 [16] C. Yehand & M. Manjrekar, “A Reconfigurable Uninterruptible Power Supply
System for Multiple Power Quality Applications”, in IEEE transactions on power electronics, vol. 22, No. 4, July 2007
[17] Sölter W., “A New International UPS Classification by IEC 62040-3”, in Proc. 24th Annu. Int. Telecommun. Energy Conf., 2002, pp. 541–545
[18] EN 62040-3, “Uninterruptible Power Systems (UPS) – Part 3: Method of specify-ing the performance and test requirements”, European Committee for Electrotech-nical Standardization (CENELEC), June 2001
[19] CEMEP, “Uninterruptible Power Supplies European Guide”, European Committee of Manufacturers and Power Electronics (CEMEP), Paris, December 1999
[20] IEC 62040-3, “Uninterruptible Power Systems (UPS) Part 3: Method of specifying the performance and test requirements”, 2001
[21] IEC 62040-2, “Uninterruptible Power Systems (UPS) Part 2: Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) Requirements”, 2006
[22] IEEE Std. 1159-1995, “IEEE Recommended Practice for Monitoring Electric Power Quality”, IEEE, 1995
[23] “Hybrid Rotatory UPS”, Power Systems and Control (PS&C), Whitepapers, [s.d.] [24] H. A. Kiehne, “Battery Technology Handbook”, Marcel Dekker Inc., pp. , 2003 [25] D. Linden & T. Reddy, “Handbook of Batteries”, McGraw-Hill, 3rd Edition, 2001 [26] “Automotive Industry Training Retail, Service and Repair AUR05 – Test, Service
and Charge Batteries”, Automotive Training Board NSW, 2008
[27] E. M. Valeriote, T. G. Chang & D. M. Jochim, “Fast Charging of Lead-Acid Bat-teries”, in Proc. Abcaa’94 Conf., 1994, pp. 33-38
[28] D. A. J. Rand, “Valve-Regulated Lead-Acid Batteries”, Elsevier, 2004
[29] G. Chiou, H. Lin, T. Chen & J. Chen, “A Single-Phase Full-Bridge Charger with Regeneration and Adjustable Power Factor”, in The 8th International Conference on Power Electronics and Drive Systems, 2009
[30] P. H. Cheng & C. L. Chen, “A High-Efficient Fast Charger For Lead-Acid Batter-ies”, 28th Annual Conference of the IEEE, 8 Nov. 2002
93
[31] Y. Podrazhansky & P.W. Popp, “Rapid Battery Charger, Discharger and Condi-tioner”, U. S. Patent 4 829 225, May 9, 1989
[32] “Battery and Energy Technologies”, consultado em 25 de Novembro de 2010: http://www.mpoweruk.com/chargers.htm
[33] M. Chagas, “Novas Tecnologias para Avaliação de Baterias”, Dissertação de Mes-trado IEP/LACTEC, Curitiba, 2007
[34] S. Minami, Y. Onishi, S. J. Hou & A. Kozawa, “A New Intense Pulse-Charging Method for the Prolongation of Life in Lead-Acid Batteries”, Journal of Asian Electric Vehicles, Vol. 2, No. 1, 541-544, 2004
[35] “Coupled Inductor Bidirectional DC-DC Converter for Improved Performance” [36] N. Mohan, T. Undeland, & W. Robbins, “Power Electronics: Converters,
Applica-tion and Design”, 2nd
Ed. New York: Wiley, 1995.
[37] M. Ryan & R. Lorenz, “A High Performance Sine Wave Inverter Controller with Capacitor Current Feedback and ‘Back-EMF’ Decoupling”, in Conf. Rec. IEEE-PESC, Atlanta, GA, 1995
[38] H. Wu, D. Lin, D. Zhang, K. Yao & J. Zhang, “A Current-Mode Control Tech-nique with Instantaneous Inductor-Current Feedback for UPS Inverters”, IEEE Power Electronics Specialists Conference, Vol. 1, June 1999
[39] D. Venkatramanan, & V. John, “A Resonant Integrator Based PLL and AC Cur-rent Controller for Single Phase Grid Connected PWM-VSI”, in 16th National Power Systems Conference, Hyderabad, 2010
[40] R. Santos Filho, P. Seixas, P. Cortizo, L. Torres, & A. Souza, “Comparison of Three Single-Phase PLL Algorithms for UPS Applications”, in IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Vol. 55, No. 8, pp. 2923-2932, August 2008
[41] R. E. Best, “Phase-Locked Loops: Design, Simulation, and Applications”, McGraw-Hill, 5th Edition, 2003, pp. 257-277
[42] B. Narasimharaju, S. Dubey, & S. Singh, “A Novel Voltage Clamped CI-BDC Converter and its Control for Battery Storage Applications”, in Power Electronics, Drives and Energy Systems 2010, pp. 1-7, 2010
[43] K. Hirach, M. Yamanaka, K. Kajiyama, & S. Isokane, “Circuit Configuration of Bidirectional DC/DC Converter Specific for Small Scale Load Leveling System”, in Power Conversion Conference 2002, Vol. 2, pp. 603-609, Osaka, 2002
Referências Bibliográficas
94
[44] S. Kancherla, & R. Tripathi, “Nonlinear Average Current Mode Control for a DC-DC Buck Converter”, in Sustainable Energy Technologies 2008, pp. 831-836, 2008
[45] C. Sun, B. Lehman, & R. Ciprian, “Dynamic Modeling and Control in Average
Current Mode Controlled PWM DC/DC Converters”, in 30th Annual IEEE Power
Electronics Specialists Conference, Vol. 2, pp. 1152-1157, 1999
[46] M. Ryan, W. Brumsickle & R. Lorenz, “Control Topology Options for Single-Phase UPS Inverters”, Industry Applications, IEEE Transactions on, Mar/Apr 1997
[47] I. Barbi, “Eletrônica da Potência”, Instituto de Eletrônica de Potência, Edição do Autor, 2006
[48] F. Z. Peng, H. Li, G. Su, & J. Lawler, “A New ZVS Bidirectional DC–DC Con-verter for Fuel Cell and Battery Application”, IEEE Transactions Power Electron-ics, vol. 19, no. 1, pp. 54–65, Jan. 2004
[49] A. David, K. Makeschin & I. Barbi, “A Study of a Single-Phase Sinusoidal Invert-er for Nonlinear Loads”, Ecole Navale – Projet de Fin D’Etudes, 2002
[50] A. Kusko & M. Thompson, “Power Quality in Electrical Systems”, McGraw-Hill, 2007
[51] K. Ogata, “Modern Control Engineering”, AEEIZH, 4th Edition, 2002, pp. 681-700 [52] “Interactive Power Electronics Online Text”, consultado em 6 de Maio de 2011:
http://services.eng.uts.edu.au/~venkat/pe_html/ch07s3/ch07s3p1.htm
[53] S. Hui, H. Chung, & S. Yip, “Study of a Single-Phase Bidirectional AC/DC Con-verter with a High Power Factor”, in IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, Vol. 15, 942-948, September 2000
[54] Y. Ang, C. Bingham, M. Foster, D. Stone, & D. Howe, “Design Oriented Analysis of Fourth-Order LCLC Converters with Capacitive Output Filter”, in IEE Proceed-ings Electric Power Applications, Vol. 152, pp. 310-322, March 2005
[55] A. Kusko, D. Galler, & N. Medora, “Output Impedance of PWM UPS Inverter - Feedback vs. Filters”, in Industry Applications Society Annual Meeting Conference Record of the 1990 IEEE, Vol. 2, 1044-1048, 1990
[56] S. Dewan, & P. Ziogas, “Optimum Filter Design for a Single-Phase Solid-State UPS System”, in IEEE Transactions Industry Applications, pp. 664-669, Novem-ber 1979
95
[57] Y. Lai, Y. Chang, & C. Kuo, “Robust Control of Digital-Controlled Buck Con-verter based upon Two-Degree-of-Freedom Controller”, in IEEE Industrial Elec-tronics Society 36th Annual Conference, pp. 692-697, November 2010
[58] J. M. Woodgate, “Rectifier Filter Capacitors”, The Institute of Sound and Commu-nications Engineers, Engineering Note 16.2, [s.d.]
[59] S. Rathmann, & A. Warner, “New generation UPS technology, the delta conver-sion principle”, in 31st
IAS Annual Meeting, Vol. 4, pp. 2389-2395, October 1996 [60] L. Balogh, “Design and Application Guide for High Speed MOSFET Gate Drive
Circuits”, Texas Instruments Literature No. SLUP133, [s.d.]
[61] Atmel Corporation, “AVR221: Discrete PID controller”, Application Note, Rev. 2558A, May 2006
[62] J. Aylor, R. Ramey, & G. Cook, “Design and Application of a Microprocessor PID Predictor Controller”, in IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics and Control Instrumentation, pp. 133-137, August 1980
[63] Maxim Integrated Products, “175V/2A, High-Speed, Half-Bridge MOSFET Driv-ers”, MAX15012/MAX15013, 19-0530, 12/07, Rev 1, 2007
[64] Texas Instruments, “120-V Boot, 4-A Peak, High Frequency High-Side and Low-Side Driver”, UCC27210 & UCC27211, November 2011, Rev. March 2012 [65] Vishay, “DC Film Capacitor MKT Radial Potted Type”, MKT 1820 Series
datasheet, December 2008
[66] Murata Power Solutions, “Bobbin Type Inductors”, 1400 Series datasheet, 2011 [67] Philips Semiconductors, “PowerMOS Transistor”, BUK453-100A/B, April 1998,
Rev. 1.100
[68] Philips Semiconductors, “Triacs”, BT138 Series, September 1997, Rev. 1.200 [69] NXP Semiconductors, “Rectifier diodes ultrafast, rugged”, BYV79E series, July
1998, Rev. 1.200
[70] Yuasa Battery Inc., “Sealed Rechargeable Lead-Acid Battery”, NP7-12 datasheet, January 2008
[71] Texas Instruments, “Fully-Differential Isolation Amplifier”, AMC1200 datasheet, April 2011, Revised August 2011
[72] Allegro Microsystems Inc., “Fully Integrated, Hall Effect-Based Linear Current Sensor IC with 2.1 kVRMS Isolation and a Low-Resistance Current Conductor”, ACS712 datasheet, 2010, Rev. 13
96
[74] LEM, “Voltage Transducer”, LV25-P/SP2, 060315/4, [s.d.]
[75] Fairchild Semiconductors, “High Speed 10MBit/s Logic Gate Optocouplers”, 6N137 datasheet, 2005, Rev. 1.0.8
[76] Fairchild Semiconductors, “N-Channel Enhancement Mode Field Effect Transis-tor”, 2N7000/2N7002/NDS7002A, November 1995, Rev. A1
[77] Fairchild Semiconductors, “6-Pin DIP Random Phase Optoisolators Triac Drivers (600 Volt Peak)”, MOC3051-M & MOC3052-M, 2004,
[78] Linear Technology, “Half-/Full-Bridge N-Channel Power MOSFET Drivers”, LT1160 datasheet, June 2008, Rev. B
[79] Texas Instruments, “Miniature, 2W, Isolated, Unregulated DC/DC Converters”, DCP02 series, March 2000, Rev. February 2008
[80] Texas Instruments, “The ‘Rail Splitter’ Precision Virtual Ground”, TLE2426 & TLE2426Y, August 1991, Rev. May 1998
[81] Microchip, “1.5 A High-Speed 30V MOSFET Drivers”, TC4431/TC4432, 2003, DS21424C
[82] Microchip, “28-pin High-Performance Digital Signal Controllers”, dsPIC-30F2010 datasheet, December 2004
97