The term "Gamification" means "the use of game design elements in non-game contexts"
(Deterding et al., 2011, p. 10). Although games have been used for years not only to entertain children and adults but also to exercise their minds and promote social events (Terlutter & Capella, 2013 apud Brito et al., 2018), the word gamification recently entered the conventional vocabulary (Dichev & Dicheva, 2017). The emergence and rapid spread of gamification in diverse areas is, according to Brito et al. (2018), a reflection of the increasing importance of games in society due to the advance of technology and digital games.
Investments have been made in technologies applied to digital games, making them more attractive and increasing their presence in diverse areas such as business, marketing, corporate management, health, politics, and education (Brito et al., 2018; Dicheva et al., 2015; Dichev &
Dicheva, 2017; Freitas et al., 2017). Besetti (2019) explains that researches on gamification have been shifting their emphasis to analyze not only the aesthetic appeal of game elements but also their influences on users’ experience. Therefore, the growing popularity of gamification is mainly
due to the belief in its potential to promote “motivation, behavioral changes, friendly competition and collaboration in different contexts” (Dichev & Dicheva, 2017, p. 1).
Even though gamification has been used in diverse areas and for a variety of objectives, the analysis developed in this study will focus on gamification applied in learning contexts. Dichev and Dicheva (2017) claimed that gameful education supports learning in different contexts and areas of study through the introduction of game elements and experiences in the learning processes.
To Brito et al. (2018), games are structured and challenging systems that can make learning more gratifying. Games designed to convey learning material while being played are called by Deterding et al. (2011) as serious games. To Wrzesien and Raya (2010, p. 178), serious games (SGs) can be defined as “the combination of curricular content and computer games”.
According to Wrzesien and Raya (2010), the common characteristic of all computer games that most explain their success among teachers is their capacity to deeply engage the player. Serious games help instructors to enhance students’ motivation and engagement (Besetti, 2019), which are the two biggest challenges of traditional learning process (Dicheva et al., 2015). Brito et al. (2018) also highlighted serious games capability of engagement, as well as their efficiency in developing students’ sense of autonomy and power. Games used for educational purposes are an effective learning strategy for other reasons, such as use actions instead of explanations, create personal satisfaction, reinforce skill mastery, accommodate multiple learning styles and abilities, enhance problem-solving ability, and provide a context for interactive decision-making and cognitive skills development (Wrzesien & Raya, 2010).
Despite the benefits presented, the effective adoption of gamification in learning contexts requires a certain technical infrastructure and appropriate pedagogical integration. Therefore, to be successful, serious games should follow the constructivist strategies proposed by Osterman (1998 apud Dicheva et al, 2015), which are: to involve the learner, to offer opportunities to explore, articulate and represent knowledge; to challenge existing conceptual views and raise awareness of problems; and to allow students to test the effectiveness of their ideas. For Gee (2005 apud Dicheva et al., 2015) games should include the following learning principles: nothing happens if the player is not connected; previous problems encourage the player to create hypotheses that can be applied to later problems; player's goals can be changed by exploration and lateral thinking; and regularly, the player is challenged by a new class of problems to restart his domain cycle. Therefore, there are pedagogical elements to be considered during a serious game development.
Although there are not restricted rules about serious game characteristics and elements, there are different frameworks available in the literature to guide and organize the development process of games, as well as to evaluate its final product. Among the frameworks available, this study chose to analyze gamification influence on students’ perception of usability, ease of use and the fit between task and technology through the validation model of gamification characteristics proposed by Brito et al. (2018). The model shown in Figure 3 aims to help developers and users to identify, analyze, evaluate, and choose games elements. To do this, the model divided gamification characteristics into six dimensions: unpredictability, social influence, avoidance, purpose, development, and ownership.
Figure 3 - The validation model of gamification characteristics
Source: Brito et al. (2018)
The model proposed by Brito et al. (2018) “was developed based on the Octalysis Framework created by Chou (2014), in which the gamification characteristics are subdivided into eight different previously presented constructs” (Brito et al., 2018, p. 6), which are: meaning, empowerment, social influence, unpredictability, avoidance, scarcity, ownership, and
accomplishment. The Figure 4 below presents the description of each dimension proposed by Brito et al. (2018), as well as their respective relation to Chou's (2014) proposed dimensions.
Figure 4 - Detailing of the gamification characteristics validation model's constructs
Source: Brito et al. (2018)
Through a structured and developed gamification process, it is possible to create learning environments and practices able to increase student’s: (i) motivation and sense of usefulness; (ii) development and sense of achievement; (iii) self-esteem and sense of empowerment; (iv) collectivity and sense of social influence; (v) curiosity and sense of discovery; and (vi) resilience and sense of loss. How students feel these benefits influences not only their perceptions about the serious game and its characteristics but also their intention to use this technology to accomplish their tasks and the hybrid learning environment in which it was applied.
To enhance learning effectiveness, the serious games analyzed in this study combine gamification and virtual reality (VR), which is a simulated environment created with 3D technology that makes users feel like in a real life situation (Martirosov & Kopecek, 2017). Huang et al. (2010, p. 1172) cited Pan et al. (2006) to define VR as “the use of 3D graphic systems in combination with various interface devices to provide the effect of immersion in an interactive virtual environment”.
By adopting VR technologies, the serious games increase immersive experiences and allows the simulation of specific learning or training environments (Cao et al., 2019) such as those that are dangerous or expensive to be accessed in the physical world. The results presented by Wrzesien and Raya (2010) showed that the serious virtual world, “which can be defined as 3D environments combined with learning or training objectives” (de Freitas, 2008 apud Wrzesien &
Raya, 2010, p. 178), is an effective tool for increasing student’s satisfaction and engagement. As highlighted by Martirosov and Kopecek (2017), VR can enhance collaboration by developing 3D simulated learning environments in which users need to interact in order to learn certain tasks.
According to Wrzesien and Raya (2010), several studies have demonstrated that serious games and virtual reality make the learning process more effective, engaging, and inspiring.
However, the authors also posited that gamification and virtual reality “used in education must be carefully chosen and applied in order to help students not only enjoy the aesthetic aspect but also to learn while playing” (Wrzesien & Raya, 2010, p. 185). The authors clarified that sometimes the technological solution can be too innovative to allow students to concentrate on the learning content for which the application was designed. Therefore, the following section will deepen the analysis of virtual reality; its application in learning environments; its relation to gamification; and finally, its influence on student’s intention to use hybrid learning environments.