Vol-7, Special Issue-Number4-June, 2016, pp543-549 http://www.bipublication.com
Research Article
The impact of instructional and motivational self-talk on cognitive anxiety,
somatic anxiety, and learning of soccershoot skill in beginner players
Gholamreza Lotfi1*, Farshid Tahmasebi1 and Aziz Rabavi2 1Department of Motor Behavior.
Faculty of Physical Education and Sport Sciences. ShahidRajaee Teacher Training University, Tehran, Iran
2M.Sc.in Motor Behavior. ShahidRajaee Teacher Training University, Tehran, Iran *Corresponding Author Email: gholamrezalotfi@srttu.edu ABSTRACT
This study aimed to investigate the impact of instructional and motivational self-talk on cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety, and soccershootskill learning in beginner players. For this purpose, 60 non-athlete male students (mean age= 14.9 ± 0.78 years old) were voluntarily selected. According to pre-test, they were divided into four groups of fifteen participants: instructional self-talk, positive motivational self-talk, negative motivational self-talk, and control. The anxiety level of participants was measured through Marten's State - Competitive Anxiety Inventory, and shoot performance of participants was measured by Moore-Christian shooting skill test at different stages. The exercise was performed 6 sessions every other day and 24 attempts were conducted in each session. The post-test of anxiety and soccer shoot accuracy was conducted after completing exercises. Immediately after the post-test and two meters higher than the original test, the transmission test was conducted. Then, the retention test was performed after 72 hours of not training. The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, one way analysis of variance, and repeated measures analysis of variance at significance level of P≤ 0.05. The findings showed that the mean of cognitive anxiety post-test and somatic anxiety post-test in positive motivational self-talk group was significantly better than negative self-talk group; however, there was no significant difference in other groups. The shoot accuracy performance in positive motivational self-talk group and instructional group in post-test was better than negative self-talk group. According to findings, it is recommended that positive motivational self-talk be used to reduce anxiety in beginner players. Also, the negative self-talk should be avoided to improve the performance of these players.
Keywords: Instructional Self-talk, Motivational Self-talk, Cognitive Anxiety, Somatic Anxiety, Soccer Shoot, Beginner Players.
INTRODUCTION
Looking at sports competitions, it can be find that the role of psychological factors in athletic capabilities is very important and significant. Therefore, if countries pay attention to psychological factors along with physical factors, they will be successful. The anxiety is an important factor in creation of psychological stress. Anxiety is a negative emotional state which is associated with anger, sadness, uneasiness, and physical arousal [1]. The anxiety in athletes
fragmentation, and etc.[3]. The state anxiety includes to cognitive and somatic components which affect the performance [4]. The cognitive component is an emotional element which is characterized by negative expectations about success or self-evaluation, negative self-talk, concerns about performance, imagining the failure, lack of concentration, and disturbance of attention [5]. However, the somatic component is a physiological element which is associated with anatomical arousal and negative symptoms such as feelings of nervousness, high blood pressure, waist stiffness, muscle tension, and stomach discomfort [6].
The self-talk is one of the mental skills that most athletes use it during training and competition for various purposes such as motivating themselves, instructing themselves, controlling mental functions such as anxiety, and justifying their good and bad practice [7]. In a detailed explanation of self-talk, Hectore (1993) states that in an inner dialog, individuals interpret their feelings and understanding power, identify and change their assessments and beliefs, and give themselvesinstructions and bonuses. In this case, the tongue plays a key role in development of thinking process; the behavior may be corrected through specific forms of inner and outer speeches [8].
The coaches and sports psychologists emphasize on self-talk as a tool for skill learning and performance improvement. The positive motivational self-talk focuses particularly on increase of energy, effort, and positive state as: "I can lift it". The negative self-talk is counter-performance and leads to anxiety. Saying things like "How can you play so bad" may lead to anxiety and foster lack of confidence. The researchers have found two major functions of self-talk: cognitive function which is dependent on skill learning and skill performance; and motivational function which is dependent on self-confidence, arousal regulation, mental preparation, coping with difficult situations, and motivating [9]. Most studies on self-talk show that
positive self-talk leads to better performance and also reduces the annoying and negative thoughts. However, little research has examined various aspects of self-talk (instructional and motivational) and the impact of these aspects on learning and performance. There is also little research on impact of self-talk on anxiety. Shi and colleagues (2015) concluded that self-criticism and negative talk increase anxiety and self-reinforcement and positive self-talk reduce anxiety [10]. In a study on impact of positive self-talk on anxiety of nursing students during taking exam, Salmani (2013) found that positive self-talk may reduce anxiety during taking exam [11]. Hatzigeorgiadisand colleagues (2009) examined the impact of motivational talk on self-esteem, anxiety, and performance of athletes. The sample consisted of 72 young tennis players (36 men and 36 women), with a mean age of 13 years, and with an average experience of 2 years attendance in regional and national tournaments. After the primary test, the participants were distributed in two experiment and control groups. The exercises were similar for both groups; the only difference was that the experiment group exercised the self-talk along with training skills and control group only practiced forehand drive skill. The findings showed improved performance in experiment group; the performance of control group remained changeless. The increased self-confidence and reduced anxiety was seen in experiment group; no change occurred in control group. The researchers concluded that changes in self-confidence were associated with changes in performance. They suggested that increased self-confidence may explain the facilitating aspects of self-talk [12].
negative self-talk than destructive group. They concluded that athletes should reduce their negative self-talk during competition [13]. Rezaee and colleagues (2012) investigated the impact of motivational self-talk on implementation of simple and complex motor skills of basketball. They concluded that motivational self-talk improves the performance in exercises and its effect on simple skills was higher [14].Akbari et al (2011) found that reassuring, attention to positive aspects, cognitive and treatment behavior, and emotional release techniques reduce anxiety during taking exam [15].
Chang et al (2014) concluded that both motivational and instructional self-talk had positive effect on performance and self-efficacy; the impact of motivational self-talk was more than educational self-talk. However, the self-efficacy was associated with more increased accuracy in performance than motivational and instructional self-talk [16]. Meyers and colleagues (1979) found no difference in gymnastics skills acquisition among the groups with positive self-talk (using encouragement and admiration phrases such as: I can) and negative self-talk (using weakening phrases such as: I cannot). They also found that there is no difference in self-talk functions of athletes with best and worst performances [17].
Palmer (1992) conducted a study on 12 beginner female participants (mean age=13.4 years old). They were asked to choose a series of words which may enhance their concentration. The findings showed that this strategy does not affect the progress of figure skating skills performance [18]. Also, Tsiggilis et al (2003) investigated the impact of instructional self-talk on handball throwing skill performance among 46 physical education students. They showed that there was no significant difference in throwing skill performance of instructional self-talk group and control group [19].
On the other hand, Hardy et al (2005) examined the impact of educational and motivational self-talk on sit-ups among 44 student-athletes. They
stated that both of these self-talks improve the athletic performance [20].
Several theories have tried to explain and interpret the impact of self-talk on performance and learning of sports skills. Nideffer’sattentional model (1976) shows that self-talk not only transfers the appropriate attention to special incentives, but also maintains and controls focus on special sports assignments and improves the performance of athletes. According to Vigotesky’s cognitive development theory (1986), on the other hand, the self-talk leads to better understanding of one's own behavioral characteristics and thereby better adjusts one's behaviors. This means that if individuals experience anxiety, the self-talk deal with it and lead to improved performance. Bandura's self-efficacy theory (1997) states that the self-efficacy which impacts on individuals’ thinking and emotional experiences through repetition of phrases such as (I can) may improve performance [8].
of using effective self-talk, mental imagery, or both [21].
Considering the significant development of technical and tactical methods of athletes and multiple failures of athletes in sports competitions, which in some cases is caused by anxiety, it seems necessary to conduct a research on impact of self-talk type on shoot performance of players, with an emphasis on mediating role of anxiety. This study will pave the way for short-term and long-term planning for athletes’ mental relaxation which may be dramatically effective in reducing anxiety. According to above, this question arises: whether the types of self-talkimpact on anxiety and soccer shoot performance of players? The impact of educational and motivational self-talk on shooting performance of beginner soccer players was examined to answer this question.
METHODOLOGY
This was a quasi-experimental applied field study. The sample consisted of 60 non-athlete male students (mean age= 14.9 ± 0.78 years old) who were voluntarily selected. According to pre-test, they were divided into four groups of fifteen participants: instructional self-talk, positive motivational talk, negative motivational self-talk, and control. The anxiety level of participants was measured through Marten's State - Competitive Anxiety Inventory, and shoot performance of participants was measured by Moore-Christian shooting skill test at different stages. The exercise was performed 6 sessions every other day and 24 attempts were conducted in each session. In each session, after 10 minute
warm-up, the participants exercised shooting from a distance of 16 yards in three stages each with 8 attempts. The post-test of anxiety and soccer shoot accuracy was conducted after completing exercises. Immediately after the post-test and two meters higher than the original test, the transmission test was conducted. Then, the retention test was performed after 72 hours of not training.
In positive motivational self-talk group, the participants expressed one of these phrases "I can", "I'm talented", "I will get the highest point" such that to hear their voices and then performed shoot skill. In negative motivational self-talk group, they expressed one of these phrases "I cannot", "I'm not talented", and "I will get the lowest point". In instructional self-talk group, the participants expressed one of these phrases "Look at the goal", "Eye-ball-goal", "Height of foot from ground will be 5 centimeters when hits the ball" before performing the skills. The control group exercised the skill for 6 sessions without specific self-talk instruction; the tester only asked them to show their best performance. Using SPSS software, the data were analyzed by descriptive statistics, one way ANOVA, and mixed ANOVA with repeated measures at significance level of P≤ 0.05.
Findings
Table 1 shows the mean and standard deviation of obtained scores by participants in four study groups at various stages of soccer shoot accuracy test and two measurement stages of cognitive and somatic anxiety.
Table 1.Mean and standard deviation of obtained scores by groups at various stages
Cognitive Anxiety Somatic Anxiety Soccer Shoot Accuracy
Pre-test Post-test Pre-test Post-test Pre-test Post-test Transfer Retention
Positive 18.8±3.09 15±4.19 18.7±2.49 14.8±3.66 1.5±.62 2.1±.67 1.4±.67 2.1±.5
Negative 18.9±3.73 20.2±3.74 18.6±2.41 18.8±3.38 1.2±.52 1.4±.68 1.3±.51 1.4±.48
Instructional 18.3±3.49 18.8±2.73 18.1±2.64 17.8±2.08 1.6±.8 2±.6 1.8±.55 2.1±.49
Control 17.4±3.06 17.9±2.91 18±2.68 18±1.81 1.3±.67 1.6±.47 1.4±.73 1.6±.87
Shapiro –Wilk’s test was conducted to evaluate the normality of data distribution prior to test hypotheses. The result showed that data distribution is normal. Also, Leven’s test was used
pre-test scores of groups. The result show no significant difference in soccer shooting accuracy pre-test (F3,56=1.44, P=0.239) of participants in
four groups.
The mixed ANOVA4 (group) × 2 (measurement stages) with repeated measurement on second factor was used to analyze soccer shooting accuracy during the acquisition stage. According to Table 2, the main effect of group and main effect of measurement stages was significant; however, the main effect of measurement stages and group interaction was not significant. The comparison of measurement stages showed that the scores of post-test was better than the scores of pre-test. Also, the comparison of groups showed that positive motivational self-talk group and instructional self-talk group had higher mean scores than negative motivational self-talk group. Table 2.Results of mixed ANOVA with repeated measurement on soccer shooting accuracy of four groups during the acquisition stage
SS df MS F P
Measurement 3.58 1 3.58 11.91* .001
Group 6.68 3 2.23 4.29* .009
Measurement ×
Group Interaction .62 3 .21 .64 .56
* The effect is significant at level P≤.05
The comparison of soccer shooting accuracy in four groups was conducted in retention phase using one-way analysis of variance; there was a significant difference (F3,56=4.37 and P=0.008).
The pairwise comparisons showed that positive motivational talk group and instructional self-talk grouphad significant difference compared to negative self-talk group. The comparison of soccer shooting accuracy in four groups was also conducted in transmission phase using one-way analysis of variance; there was no significant difference (F3,56=1.827 and P=0.153).
The mixed ANOVA4 (group) × 2 (measurement stages) with repeated measurement on second factor was used to analyze the changes in cognitive anxiety level of participants in four groups in pre-test and post-test. As showed in table 3, the result revealed that the main effect of group and interaction of group with measurement stages was significant. The pairwise comparisons
showed that there was significant difference between positive motivational self-talk group and negative motivational self-talk group; the positive motivational self-talk group had less cognitive anxiety than other groups.
Table 3.Results of mixed ANOVA with repeated measurement on soccer cognitive anxiety of four groups
SS df MS F P
Measurement 4.8 1 4.8 .50 .48
Group 118.23 3 39.41 3.27* .02
Measurement ×
Group Interaction 118.8 3 39.6 4.15* .01
* The effect is significant at level P≤.05
Also, mixed ANOVA 4 (group) × 2 (measurement stages) with repeated measurement on second factor was used to analyze the changes in somatic anxiety level of participants in four groups in pre-test and post-pre-test. According to table 4, the main effect of group and interaction of group with measurement stages was significant.
The post- hoc tests showed that somatic anxiety of groups decreased in post-test compared to pretest. The comparison of means in groups showed that the positive motivational self-talk group had less somatic anxiety than other groups; however, its difference with negative motivational self-talk group was significant and its difference with other groups was not significant.
Table 4.Results of mixed ANOVA with repeated measurement on soccer cognitive anxiety of four groups
SS df MS F P
Measurement 32 1 32 5.52* .02
Group 60.3 3 20.1 2.96* .04
Measurement ×
Group Interaction 84.9 3 28.3 4.8* .004
* The effect is significant at level P≤.05
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
is inconsistent with research results of Meyers et al. (1979) [17], Palmer (1992) [18], and Tsiggilis et al (2003) [19]. The participants’ expertise may be a probable reason for this inconsistency, because the above-mentioned research studied professional athletes and this study examined the beginners. Another reason may be individual differences; according to Hardy (2006) and Crohni (2007), it is likely that each person be excited with a specific self-talk phrase. The above mentioned research did not consider this and only used a self-talk phrase; this study provided several self-self-talk phrases to participants.
This finding may be explained by Nideffer’ attentional model (1976). It shows that self-talk not only concentrate the athletes’ attention, but also it maintains and controls concentration for special sports assignments. Therefore, the concentration of attention is a support mechanism and an influence of self-talk which improves the performance level of athlete. The thoughts and feelings which are unrelated to performance prevent the individuals from pay attention to relevantcues. These factors may be internal (thoughts and feelings) or external (auditory and visual stimuli). The self-talk may be considered as a way to solve concentration problem; it is one of techniques which may help to restore concentration [14].
Another finding of this study was a significant decrease in anxiety of positive motivational self-talkgroup in post-test compared to pre-test and negative self-talk group. This finding is consistent with research results of Shi and colleagues (2015) [10], Salmani (2013) [11], Hatzigeorgiadis and colleagues (2009) [12], and Hatzigeorgiadis& Biddle (2006) [13]; they showed that anxiety is reduced by positive self-talk and it increases by negative self-talk. The better performance of instructional self-talk group and positive motivational self-talk group was associated with a significant decrease in anxiety level of positive motivational self-talk group. These results are consistent with catastrophe theory. The catastrophe theory is related to relationship
between anxiety and performance. It stated that if high somatic anxiety will be accompanied with high cognitive anxiety, the performance levels will decrease sharply; in contrast, if both anxieties will be low, the performance will be at peak. In addition, according to Vygotsky’s cognitive development theory (1986), people identify their behavioral characteristics through dialogue with themselves and with better understanding of themselves regulate their behaviors. This process leads to creation of a methodology and cognitive-therapy technique; if individuals suffer from stress and confusion, they may deal with this condition through dialogue with themselves and using cuewords [22]. In general, the motivational self-talk strategy, in fact, repeats one's beliefs. If individuals say they are weak and will fail, it is likely that this belief become a reality; but if individuals focus on their abilities, they will believe these words: (I can).
According to literature and findings of this study, the use of self-talk is recommended to coaches and athletes as a useful tool. The type of self-talk is determined based on exercise target and specific circumstances of competition (performance improvement or better control psychological states and anxiety of athlete).
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