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Cu ltu ral S tu d ie sКультурология
UDC 13
Th e Id e o lo gica l, Stru c tu ra l An alys is o f th e Ru s s ia n Im a ge Re p re s e n tatio n in th e Co ld W ar Tim e s ’ Film ‘W h ite N igh ts ’
Alexander Fedorov
Anton Chekhov Taganrog State Pedagogical Institute, Russia Dr. (Pedagogy), Professor
E-m ail: m ediashkola@ram bler.ru
Abs tra c t. This article included the ideological, structural analysis of the Russian im age representation in the “cold war” tim es’ film ‘White nights’ (USA, 1985). Following the m ethodology developed by U. Eco the author selected three sy stem s which are significant in a product: the author’s ideology, m arket conditions which determ ined the plot, the creating process and success of m edia text (or, at least, promoted the first, the second and the third); narrative techniques, ideological and social trends, stereotypes.
Ke yw o rd s : cold war; Western films; screen; im age of Russia; USA; ideological confrontation; m edia studies; film studies; enem y.
In tro d u ctio n . The modern society is characterized by a variability of norm s, dam age of traditions, social m obility, fragility of all standards and principles, — in other words, people in such a society are constantly under inform ation pressure, som etim es even powerful inform ation attacks which require continuous reorganization of perception, continuous adaptation of m ind and continuous re-training of intellect (Eco, 20 0 5, pp. 199-20 0 ). Perhaps, for this very reason the audience m ore strongly strives for m edia texts of the past what explains the increasing dem and of such TV channels as "Nostalgia", "RetroTV" and the like. It is paradoxical, but the audience of these channels does not consist only of elderly people who willingly review the films of their youth but partially of young people too for whom such film s becom e, per se, a prem iere. Moreover, retro TV channels, as a rule, show again and again m ainly entertaining, "genre", "consum er" m edia texts which were often disapproved of by ideologically engaged critics in the tim e of their creation…
But, I ageree with U.Eco: isn’t it natural that even a quite educated person while relaxing and resting (both useful and indispensable) wants to take pleasure in the luxury of infantile laziness and refers to ‘consum er goods’ in order to find rest in a redundancy orgy? Should we approach the problem from this point of view, — and we are already inclined to treat the ‘distracting entertainm ents’ more indulgently… and to blam e ourselves for applying acrid m oralism (seasoned with philosophy) to what is actually innocent and, m aybe, even beneficial. But the problem appears in a different light - if the pleasure derived from redundancy turns from a m eans of rest, from a pause in the intense pace of the intellectual life caused by inform ation perception into ‘the norm ’ of the whole im agination activity (Eco, 20 0 5, p. 20 0 ).
I also agree with U. Eco that any study of work structures becom es ipso facto a developm ent of certain historical and sociological hypotheses — even if the researcher does not realize that or does not want to. And it is better to be aware of the fact in order to correct as far as possible the perspective distortions created by the chosen approach, and to derive the m axim um advantage from the distortions that cannot be corrected. … If a person realizes these basic principles of the scientific m ethod the description of product structures turns out to be one of the m ost advantageous m ethods of finding the links between a product and its socio-historical context (Eco, 20 0 5, p. 20 8 ).
T. H a ck fo r d ’s film “W h i t e N ig h t s ” a s a ca s e -s t u d y
Let m e take T. Hackford’s film W hite N ights (the USA, 198 5) as a case-study of the ideological and socio-cultural analysis: though it was released at the height of a new round of the
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enable us to trace not only the socio-historical context of the tim e when the m edia text was created but also to define its structure, plot, representativeness, ethics; also the peculiarities of genre m odification, iconography, characters.
Following the m ethodology developed by U. Eco we shall select three sy stem s which are significant in a product: the author’s ideology, market conditions which determ ined the plot, the writing process and success of a book (or, at least, promoted the first, the second and the third); narrative techniques (Eco, 20 0 5, p. 20 9). This approach, in m y opinion, fully comports with the m ethod of m edia text analysis suggested by C. Bazalgette (Bazalgette, 1995) which is based on such key concepts of m edia education as m edia agencies, m edia/ m edia text categories, m edia technologies, m edia languages, m edia representations, m edia audiences; since all these concepts are closely related to ideological, m arket and structural-content aspects of m edia production analysis.
Th e a u t h o r s ’ i d e o lo g y i n t h e s o ci o -cu lt u r a l c o n te xt (dom inant concepts: m edia agencies, m edia representations, m edia audiences).
Here we should m ention that under ‘authors’ we m ean the m ain film creators – script writers J . Goldm an, E. Hughes, film director Taylor Hackford and cam eram an D. Watkin. They conceived and created the film in the epoch of active political confrontation between the USA and the USSR (see Table of key political events in the Appendix) which got aggravated with the beginning of the Afghani war, actions of the Polish ‘Solidarity’ movem ent crushed by the im position of m artial law, with the new arms race escalation (the so-called Star W ars) and President R. Reagan’s accession to power. To crown it all, on September 1, 198 3 a Soviet fighter shot down a passenger aircraft of the South Korean airline which had crossed the USSR border. Thereby, the film W hite N ights
released in 198 5 becam e a telling illustration in the ideological m eaning of the legendary thesis of R.Reagan about the USSR as ‘the Ev il Em pire’.
Actually, the USSR is shown in the film as a grim , gloom y country where even m ajestic St. Petersburg looks like a hostile trap city. The m iserable m ain characters are tortured by furious KGB agents - tireless fighters against Freedom and Dem ocracy…
Th e m a r k e t co n d i t i o n s w h i ch fa ci li t a t e d t h e p lo t , cr e a t i o n a n d s u cce s s o f t h e m e d i a t e xt ( d o m in a n t co n ce p t s : m e d i a a g e n ci e s , m e d i a / m e d i a t e xt
ca t e g o r i e s , m e d i a t e ch n o lo g i e s , m e d i a a u d i e n ce s )
The western m edia market of the 198 0 s quite often turned to the Russian topic – approxim ately 8 0 film s about Russia/ USSR and with Russian/ Soviet characters were shot (half of them were m ade in the USA) from 198 0 to 1985. Not all of them were a success with spectators; therefore it m ight be supposed that the studios were guided not only by comm ercial interest but also by political motives. Anyway, W hite N ights becam e a box-office hit due to the ideological tension, a skillful genre synthesis of a m elodrama, a m usical and a thriller, and also thanks to the involvem ent of well-known em igrant dancer Mikhail Baryshnikov starring in the film .
At first Colam bia allowed the film to be shown in a lim ited num ber of cinem as of the USA and Canada where W hite N ights collected alm ost half a m illion dollars during the first weekend. During its Big W eekend on Decem ber 6-8, 198 5 the film was shown sim ultaneously in 8 91 cinem as and its box-office receipts were 4,5 m illion dollars (it was the 3rd place on the weekend box-office receipts top list of Northern Am erica). In total, W hite N ights collected 42 m illion dollars during the firstyear of its exhibition in the USA and Canada (it was the 17th place in Am erican charts of 1985) leaving behind such famous action film s as Com m ando ($ 35 m illion), Silv erado ($ 32 m illion), and
Young Sherlock H olm es ($ 20 m illion) which were also showing in cinem as at that period (http:/ / www2.boxofficem ojo.com).
Thus, the authors of the film achieved their m ain goal – tangible success with viewers caused not only by a felicitous synthesis of genres, excellent m usic and choreography, all-star cast (M. Baryshnikov, H. Mirren, I. Rosselini, G. Hines), but also by skillful usage of the ideological anti-Soviet conjuncture.
Th e s t r u ct u r e a n d n a r r a t i v e t e ch n i q u e s i n t h e m e d i a t e xt ( d o m in a n t co n ce p t s : m e d i a / m e d i a t e xt ca t e g o r i e s , m e d i a t e ch n o lo g i e s , m e d i a la n g u a g e s , m e d i a
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s )
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dancer Rodchenko) and villains (KGB agents); 3) yearning for freedom and inderpendence (Rodchenko) and conform ism (ballerina Ivanova); 4) plot and effect.
In outline, the structure, plot, representativeness, ethics, the peculiarities of genre m odification, iconography, and characters can be represented in the following way:
H i s t o r i ca l p e r i o d , s ce n e : the USSR of the m id-198 0 s.
S e t t i n g , h o u s e h o ld o b j e ct s : an air liner com partm ent, urban streets, liv ing room s, theatre, rehearsal halls. Ascetic liv ing conditions in the USSR.
R e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f r e a li t y : pointedly fav orable in relation to positiv e characters, especially tow ards fam ous ballet dancer R odchenko; unam biguous grotesque in relation to the characters connected w ith KGB.
Ch a r a ct e r s , t h e ir v a lu e s , clo t h i n g , co n s t i t u t i o n , le xi co n , m i m e , a n d g e s t u r e s : form er soloist of the Sov iet ballet, and now aday s Am erican citizen R odchenko and his form er sw eetheart – Iv anov a, the first Sov iet ballet dancer. They are of a different ideological, social and m aterial status. The characters are dressed in training or ballet costum es. Both the characters are w ell-built. Their speech is plain. The m im e and gestures are em otional and artistic. The KGB colonel – a brutal, harsh, cruel character ‘standing guard ov er the USSR national security ’ acts as a foil to them .
S i g n i fi ca n t ch a n g e i n t h e ch a r a ct e r s ’ li fe : 1985. Em igrant R odchenko quite unexpectedly appears on the Sov iet territory and gets caught in KGB m eshes as a result of the forced landing of a plane. The Sov iet special serv ices send Iv anova to Rodchenko: her task is to coax him into rem aining in the USSR .
In ci p i e n t p r o b le m : the difference in their ideological v iew s prev ents the form er lov ers from finding a com m on language.
S e a r ch fo r s o lu t i o n s t o t h e p r o b le m : unruly m em ories and feelings m ake Iv anov a take a decision to help R odchenko to run to the W est through the Sov iet-Finnish border.
P r o b le m s o lu t i o n : R odchenko m anages to return to the W est from the USSR.
A. S ilve rblatt, a n in flu e n tia l Am e rica n s c h o la r a n d m e d ia te a ch e r ( Silve rbla tt, 2 0 0 1, p p . 8 0 -8 1) d e ve lo p e d a s e t o f q u e s tio n s fo r m e d ia te xt critic a l a n alys is in a h is to ric al, c u ltu ral a n d s tru ctu ral c o n te xt. Le t u s ap p ly th e m to th e a n a lys is o f W h i t e N i g h t s :
A . H i s t o r i ca l co n t e xt .
1. W hat does a m edia text tell about the tim e of its creation? a) W hen did the prem ier of this m edia text take place?
The prem ier of the film occurred in November-Decem ber of 198 5 in the USA.
b) H ow did the ev ents of that tim e affect the m edia text?
The aggravation of the confrontation between the USA and the USSR of 1979-198 4 connected with the war in Afghanistan, political events in Poland, had an obvious im pact on the m edia text. The world resonance of condem nation of the USSR after a Soviet fighter had brought down the South Korean passenger plane on Septem ber 1st , 198 3 apparently provided the im pulse for the plot developm ent.
c) H ow does the m edia text com m ent on the ev ents of the day ?
The authors’ treatm ent of events is in m any respects under the influence of the Cold W ar
stereotypes – it concerns the relations and personalities of the characters, im ages, etc. Russia/ SSSR appears on the screen as a gloomy totalitarian country reigned by m alicious KGB agents who torcher ordinary people…
2. Does the know ledge of the historic ev ents contribute to the m edia text understanding? a) m edia texts created during a certain historic ev ent:
- W hat ev ents occurred w hen the m edia text w as being created?
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But by that tim e the shooting of the film W hite N ights was already over, and the beginning of the
w arm ing in the Cold W ar could not affect the general conception of the film .
- H ow does the understanding of these ev ents contribute to our understanding of the m edia text?
Naturally, the understanding of the historico-political context helps to better understand both the peculiarities of the film ’s plot and its ideology. It m ay be very difficult for a person who is unaware of the historico-political context of the early 198 0 s to understand why the im age of Russia/ USSR is created in this particular way.
- W hat are genuine historical allusions?
Am ong real historical allusions one can m ention the following: the dram atic events of September 1, 1983; KGB functions as a ram ified apparatus for suppression of dissent in the USSR; real facts of the so-called dissidents’ flight from the USSR (including M. Baryshnikov starring in
W hite N ights); V. Vysotsky's status as a symbol of creative non-conform ism … - Are there any historical references in the m edia text?
The film is not based on real facts, the historical references are circum stantial, and the treatm ent of events contains a certain degree of grotesque, though all the above-m entioned political trends are revealed in the film .
- H ow does the understanding of these historical references affect our understanding of the m edia text?
Undoubtedly, the understanding of historical references ensures better perception of W hite N ights as a certain sym bol of the ideological confrontation between the USA and the USSR.
B. Cultural Context
1. M edia and popular culture: how does the m edia text reflect, strengthen, suggest or create cultural: a) relations, b) v alues, c) conduct, d) concern; e) m y ths.
Logically reflecting a negative stereotyped attitude of the West to Russia T. Hackford's film creates an im age of a hostile, aggressive, m ilitarized and econom ically backward totalitarian Russia – with a frigid clim ate, poor population deprived of civil rights and ruled by m alicious, cruel, perfidious comm unists/ special services. There is no place for dem ocracy and hum an rights, freedom of expression and creativity here…
2. Outlook: w hat w orld is show n in the m edia text? a) W hat is the culture of this w orld?
Generally speaking, the im age of Russia/ USSR in W hite N ights represents the ‘Evil Em pire’. This empire does not negate Culture but aim s to bring it under control of the totalitarian Ideology.
- People?
People in this world are divided into three basic groups: ‘evil forces’ (adm inistration, KGB agents, m ilitary m en and so forth), ‘suffering conform ists’ (the m ajority of ordinary people including those who belong to the world of culture, arts) and ‘non-conform ists’ (outstanding ballet dancer Rodchenko played by M. Baryshnikov) – they are in m inority, they are few and far between…
- Ideology ?
The com munist totalitarian ideology dom inates in this world, and everyone is forced to obey it even if one does not approve of it…
b) W hat do w e know about the people w ho belong to this w orld? - are the characters show n in a stereoty ped m anner?
In general, the characters of W hite N ights are represented in a stereotyped m anner without special undertones (especially it concerns villains), however the talents of outstanding dancers M. Baryshnikov and G. Hines enable them to ‘tell’ of the em otional-psychological experiences of the characters through choreographic etudes. Moreover, at the beginning of the film M. Baryshnikov gives a brilliant performance of a solo ballet part in which the authors’ conception of the film is reflected in an allegorical form.
- W hat does this representation tell us about the cultural stereoty pe of this group?
The representation is based on the following cultural stereotype: the USSR is a totalitarian country flooded with KGB agents (whose leisure-tim e activity is drinking vodka) with gloom y, dark cities, official-looking interiors and people’s clothes, com munist ideology dom ination and with suffering ordinary people…
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The authors of W hite N ights create a pessim istic im age of the USSR; their optim ism reveals itself only in giving the main character a chance of escaping from KGB clutches alive and intact…
- Are the characters of the m edia text happy ?
A las, there are no happy characters in W hite N ights, each of them suffers anyhow (even the furious brutal KGB colonel played by J . Skolim owski is unhappy in his way as he failed to prevent Rodchenko from running to the West).
- do the characters of the m edia text hav e a chance of being happy ?
The authors of W hite N ights m ake it clear that one can be happy only OUTSIDE the Ev il Em pire…
d) Are the characters able to direct their ow n fates?
Here the Am erican pragm atism shows up – the absolute confidence that a person can control his fate if he does want to. Conformists (Ivanova) rem ain prisoners of the Ev il Em pire. Non-conform ists (outstanding ballet dancer Rodchenko) are capable of changing their fate even under the m ost unfavorable circum stances for the better…
e) W hat is the hierarchy of v alues in this outlook? - w hat v alues can be found in the m edia text?
According to the authors’ conception the principal values in the world are freedom and dem ocracy.
- w hat v alues do the characters em body ?
Prominent ballet dancer Rodchenko is a sym bol of Russian non-conform ist yearning for freedom and democracy. The most vivid episode indicating it is M. Baryshnikov's choreographic etude to V. Vysotsky's song ‘Fastidious Horses’. But the KGB colonel (J . Skolim owski) is not a less bright character of the totalitarian regim e suppressing the hum an personality.
- w hat v alues prev ail in the end?
The end of the film when M. Baryshnikov m anages to run away from KGB agents through the Soviet-Finnish border can be considered as a trium ph (local, of course) of the dem ocratic values of the Western world, their attractiveness for positive representatives of the Russian nation.
- w hat does it m ean to be a success in this w orld? H ow does a person succeed in this w orld? W hat behav ior is rew arded in the w orld?
A ccording to the authors’ conception only an ‘ideologically staunch’ personality who is an obedient and conscientious worker of the totalitarian regim e can succeed in the USSR.
It should be noted that A. Silverblatt’s m ethodology corresponds to basic approaches of the herm eneutic analysis of the audiovisual, space-and-tim e structure of m edia texts. It needs to be rem inded that the herm eneutic analy sis of cultural context is a process research of m edia text interpretation, cultural, historical factors which influence the viewpoint of the agency/ author of a m edia text. The herm eneutic analysis consists in comprehending a m edia text through correlation with the cultural tradition and reality; penetration into the logic of a m edia text; a m edia text analysis through com parison of artistic im ages in the historical and cultural contexts. Thus, the object of analysis is the m edia system and its operation in the society, relationship with m an, m edia languages and their usage.
Let us rem em ber the dynam ics of the space-and-tim e audiovisual image of one of the culm inating episodes of W hite N ights.
…The protagonist – em igrant dancer Nikolay Rodchenko as fate has willed m eets his former partner and lover ballerina Ivanova. They are standing on the stage. The house is empty, the hall is scarcely alight. Nikolay is speaking about conform ism , about intellectuals who have sufficient courage only for listening to Vysotsky’s seditious songs. And as for him , he is suffocating in the dead air. He needs Freedom – freedom of spirit, creation, life… Then Nikolay begins to dance to a tape recording of Vladimir Vysotsky's song ‘Fastidious Horses’. The cam era zoom s in on Ivanova’s face, tears suddenly flushing her eyes.
Rodchenko’s dance is built on twists, jerks, attem pts to overcom e difficulties, dangers, counteractions. Thus following the disquieting, im pulsive Vysotsky's m usic and verses he is dancing as if on the brink of a precipice. The character puts all his anguish into the dance which he felt after his separation from the motherland, because of slander, lies, hum an envy and m alice…
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em igrant (though he had m any opportunities for it). However, the authorities failed to m ake him a tim e-server, an obedient seeker of official awards and honours … Vysotsky's fate and Rodchenko’s destiny serve as a reproach to outstanding ballet dancer Ivanova. After all, she preferred a silent and obedient life, thus having betrayed true freedom …
But that is not the only reason why the heroine cries. The point is that she used to be in love with Rodchenko. And it was difficult for her to put up with the fact that he had chosen freedom in Am erica and actually sacrificed his love for her. That is why the conflict between one’s yearning for freedom , independence and an abyss of falsehood and conform ism is tinged here with the dram a of irretrievable losses, loss of love… Though Ivanova is not dancing in the episode, her m ovem ents as well as Rodchenko’s ones have their own m usical plastic rhythm . Rodchenko’s m otions are a desperate, hysterical vortex of incoercible energy whereas Ivanova’s m ovem ents are a sad m elody of a love rom ance…
Certainly, it is im portant not to pick out the so-called expressiv e m eans from the context of a whole product while analyzing an audiovisual m edia text but to attempt to reconstruct more or less a com plete picture of your own feelings and im pressions, show the interrelationship of psychological states of characters, conflicts, dialogues, etc. with the artistic, m usical solutions, with composition tasks and the whole im age structure of a m edia text.
In particular, it is necessary to pay attention to the fact that the authors of W hite N ights
create a tense, controversial atmosphere of the action by using purely visual, light-and-shade m eans: in the twilight of the em pty hall a lum inous flux highlights the dancer’s figure and his whole dance is built on color contrasts (black, yellow, white) and light-darkness opposition…
There is so m uch energy, force, obstinacy in the frantic dance of Rodchenko that it gives one a feeling that he is able to escape from any pitfall of fate. It would seem that all the signs point to hopelessness and absence of any prospect: Rodchenko is in tenacious clutches of special services, his fair one preferred to surrender… From the window one can see om inous silhouettes of guards… The hero’s hands are in close-up, clenching into fists… His whole figure is strained for a violent leap… And here the camera gives a feeling of his flight… Rodchenko seems to be hovering over the stage in a gorgeous leap…
Approxim ately in this m anner one can practice an analytical reconstruction of the m edia representation of the seen and heard flow of sound and visual im ages including the light and color solution, m ise-en-scène, actors’ plastic movem ents and m im e, usage of certain details. Thus, one should describe not only the psychological and em otional but also the audiovisual, space-and-time content of an artistic image in the given episode, its culmination, when the authors endeavor to express their feelings and thoughts concerning the purpose of hum an life, the price of independence, origins of creation, freedom which com e to m an through his overcom ing of both outward Evil and his own pusillanim ity.
It is also interesting to see the developm ent of the audiovisual, space-and-tim e im age dynam ics (including a metaphorical nature of the choreographic com position to Vysotsky's m usic). Besides, a specific plot of W hite N ights (the m ain characters are actors, dancers, and the action for the greater part takes place in the theatre) m akes you consider the interrelation between a m edia text and m usic, choreography, theatre. For instance, lack of m ontage and system of fram es, cam era m ovem ents in a perform ance (though there are som e com mon features such as dialogues, a character’s costum e, m usic, and choreography) would most likely lead to intensified actors’ m ime, to verbal com plem ent of dialogues, to bright and contrasting effects of lighting which would enable the producer to impart his creative concept to the audience…
Conclusions. Thus there appear associative relations between the screen and the viewers' experience (life and aesthetic). The emotional em pathy with characters and the authors of a m edia text initially develops on the basis of intuitive, subconscious perception of the audiovisual, space-and-tim e artistic im age dynam ics of an episode. It is followed by the process of analysis and synthesis – reflection on the m eaning of fram es, angles, shots, etc.; their generalization and combination, contemplation of different interpretations, and expression of one’s personal attitude…
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In other words, from more or less a linear interpretation of the initial n arrative schem e we proceed to an associative, polyphonic one. The events, characters’ personalities, the artistic and m usical solutions are perceived all-in-one.
However, one should not forget that one and the sam e m edia text can provoke a variety of interpretations from different audiences. This fact confirm s the correctness of U. Eco’s statem ent: the text aim ed at quite definite reactions from som e definite circle of readers (children, fans of soap operas, doctors, law-abiding citizens, representatives of youth subcultures, Presbyterians, farm ers, m iddle-upper class women, scuba divers, effete snobs, or representatives of any other im aginable socio-psychological category) who are actually open to various ‘incorrect’ decoding variants (Eco, 20 0 5, p. 19). So, it would be im proper to insist on one’s own interpretation as the only correct treatm ent of any m edia text.
Re fe re n ce s :
1. Bazalgette C. (1995). Key Aspects of M edia Education. Moscow: Edition of Association for Film Education, 51 p.
2. Eco U. (20 0 5). The R ole of the R eader. Studies on the Sem iotics of the Text. St.Petersburg: Sym posium , 50 2 p.
3. Silverblatt, A. (20 0 1). M edia Literacy . Westport, Connecticut – London: Praeger, 449 p.
Film o grap h y
White Nights. USA, 1985. Director Taylor Hackford. Screenwriters:
УДК 13
Идеологический, структурный анализ образа России в фильме эпохи «холодной войны» «Белые ночи»
Александр Федоров
Таганрогский государственный педагогический институт им. А.П. Чехова, Россия Доктор педагогических наук, профессор
E-m ail: m ediashkola@ram bler.ru
Аннотация. В данной статье дается идеологический, структурный анализ трактовки
образа России в фильме эпохи "холодной войны" «Белые ночи» (США, 1985). Всоответствии
с методологией, разработанной У. Эко, автор в своем анализе основывается на трех факторах, имеющих значение для анализа: идеология, рыночные условия, которые повлияли на процесс написания и успех медиатекста (или, по крайней мере, способствовали первому, второму и третьему); техника повествования, социальные тенденции, стереотипы.
