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An a lys is o f th e S o vie t Military-U to p ia n Film s o f th e Se c o n d H alf o f th e 19 3 0 -e s a t th e Me d ia Stu d ie s in S tu d e n ts ’ Au d ie n c e
Alexander V. Fedorov
Anton Chekhov Taganrog State Pedagogical Institute, Russia Iniciativnaya street 48 , Taganrog city, Rostovskaya oblast, 347936 Dr. (Education), Professor
E-m ail: 1954alex@m ail.ru
Abs tra c t. The m ain m edia educational outcom e of herm eneutical analysis of Soviet m ilitary-utopian film s of the second half of the 1930 -es at the m edia studies in students’ audience is not only the students’ understanding of historical, political, social and cultural context and the m echanism s of form ation of stereotypical representations of Soviet propaganda, the "m ilitary-offensive" film s of this era, but also the developm ent of the audience's perception of m edia, skills of analysis and interpretation of m edia texts, the developm ent of critical thinking.
Ke yw o rd s : H erm eneutical analysis; Soviet m ilitary film s; m edia education; m edia literacy; m edia com petence; analysis; universities; students; 1930 s years; war.
In tro d u ctio n . The leading theorists of m odern m edia education (Buckingham , 20 0 2; 20 0 3; Masterm an, 1997; Potter, 20 0 1; Silverblatt, 20 0 1; Worsnop, 1994; Usov, 1989 and others) have repeatedly drawn attention to the priority im portance of critical analysis of m edia texts in different age groups. Within the fram ework of integrated m edia education such analysis can be successfully com bined with herm eneutical analysis, for exam ple it can be integrated into lectures, lessons, practical classes of history.
H erm eneutical Analy sis of Cultural Context – the research of the process of interpretation of m edia texts, cultural and historical factors influencing the point of view of the agencies/ authors of m edia texts as well as the audience. H erm eneutical analysis presupposes com prehension of m edia texts through their com parison with historical and cultural traditions and reality; insight into their logic; the analysis of m edia texts via com parison of m edia im ages in historical and cultural context.
The technology of such lessons presupposes a com bination of historical, herm eneutical analysis with structural, plot, ethical, ideological, iconographic/ visual analysis and the analysis of m edia stereotypes and characters of a m edia text.
As an exam ple we will use an integrated m edia education lesson on the historical m aterial, based on m edia texts of the Soviet m ilitary-utopian film s of the second half of the 1930 -es. The works of historians (Golubev, 20 0 8 ; Grigorieva, 20 0 8 ; Kuznetsova, 20 0 5; Margolit, 20 0 2; Nevezhin, 1999: Tokarev, 20 0 6 etc.), as well as the series of DVDs “Cinem a Collection “The m ost im portant of the arts…” the 1930 -es” released in 20 10 by “Olim p-tel”, LTD. and “Disk pro plus” m ay help with this task (viewing these film s m ight be a prelim inary hom ework for students).
Te ch n o lo gy o f h e rm e n e u tic al a n a lys is o f m e d ia te xts by A. S ilve rbla tt
The Am erican researcher and m edia educator A. Silverblatt (Silverblatt, 20 0 1, p.8 0 -81) proposed the following series of questions for the herm eneutical analysis of m edia texts in historical, cultural and structural context.
In accordance with these questions we developed a technology of construction of m edia education classes in students’ audience.
A. H istorical context (Silverblatt, 20 0 1, p.8 0 -8 1).
1. What does the m edia text tell us about the period of its creation ? a) when was the prem iere of this m edia text?
b) how did the events of that tim e influenced the m edia text? c) how does the m edia text com m ent on the events?
2. Does knowledge of historical events help to understand the m edia text? a) m edia texts created within a certain historical period:
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- how does awareness of these events and references enrich our understanding of the m edia text?
- what are the real historical references?
At the beginning of the integrated m edia education class the audience gets acquainted with the film ography of soviet m ilitary-utopian film s of the second half of the 1930 -es. The lecture course provides a brief historical overview of the context of their creation. In particular it is said that the appearance of a series of soviet “defensive-offensive” film s was connected not only with the establishm ent of the aggressive Nazi regim e in Germ any (since 1933), but also with internal changes in the Soviet Union. Within a few years after the Constitution of USSR was adopted in 1936 Stalin held an undisputed victory over his real and im aginary internal political opponents (“individual peasants”, the opposition, the m ilitary elite, “the rotten intelligentsia”). The Soviet system has officially lost the features of the transitional period on the way to the world revolution and becam e a kind of a “socialist canon”. Thus the “hostile capitalist encirclem ent” becam e antithesis of this Stalinist canon, and the state frontier turned into the sym bol of “the barrier between the two worlds, not just antagonistic, but nam ely antithetical worlds. … The hostile antithetical world is built on the Soviet screen like and inverted double of the ideal world. While the Soviet reality is the world of eternal sunshine and perpetual holidays, the hostile world is the world of eternal night and dark dungeons, in full accordance with the traditional m ythological constructions. On the one hand there’s the world in the golden age of hum an personality, conscious feats, the great Soviet dem ocracy, on the other – the world of m ilitarism and barracks” (Margolit, 20 0 2). Let’s not forget that the Soviet Union and Germ any (on different sides) were involved in the Spanish Civil War (J uly 1936 – April 1939).
Virtually throughout the years of the creation of m ilitary-utopian film s of the second half of the 1930 -es m assive repressions were carried out in the USSR, also in relation to statesm en and m ilitary leaders of high ranks. This explains the obvious caution of the film m akers: except the portraits and the nam es of Stalin and Voroshilov there’s no m ention of the real political/ com m anding Soviet figures of those years. But on the other hand in all the “defense” film s the doctrine of the future war is clearly seen: at lightning speed, with sm all losses, and on enem y territory. “The m ilitary-utopian film s were shot to prepare the contem poraries m orally for the future ordeals; to cultivate all the needed qualities necessary for the future war” (Tokarev, 20 0 6, p.112).
Certainly the real political events significantly affected the concrete interpretation of “enem y im age”. The war in Spain (1936-1939), Germ an annexation of Austria and a part of Czechoslovakia (1938) gave a real occasion to provide the on -screen enem ies of the USSR with open or a little veiled Germ an coloration. But after the nonaggression treaty between the USSR and Germ any had been concluded (August, 23, 1939, that is four m onths after the end of the war in Spain and a few weeks before the allotm ent of Poland between Germ any and the USSR), the hypothetical European on-screen opponent acquired (until J une, 22, 1941) abstract western features.
B. Cultural context (Silverblatt, 20 0 1, p.8 0 -8 1).
1. H ow does the m edia text reflect, strengthen, suggest or form cultural: a) attitudes; b) values; c) behavior; d) concerns; e) m yths.
Com m unist values and attitudes in their Stalinist interpretation, patriotically and ideologically ideal behavior of the Soviet characters of m ilitary-utopian film s of the 2nd half of the
1930 -es were visually supported by the depiction of the Soviet Union in bright colors and the established m ythology of the two confronting titans of the total “good” and the total “evil”. The historical and political context presented above was com plem ented by the m eaningful topography: the grim enem y outpost (“Tankers”) or an “underground fortress where the enem y forces are concentrated (“Squadron Num ber 5”) as well as the battle with the enem y on the sea bottom , where the Soviet subm arine fakes its own wreck to strike the final blow and then to surface victorious (“Sailors”, “The Fourth Periscope”) excite the direct associations with the realm of death. All these m otives one way or another vary the m ain im age of Germ any as the kingdom of the night. “Night in Germ any”, “the darkness of the Middle Ages”, etc., the constant linguistic clichés of the Soviet press of those years, find their literal em bodim ent in the cinem atic im age of Germ any of the 2n d half of
the 1930 -es” (Margolit, 20 0 2).
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1939) in general by the end of the 1930 -es “the developers of the m yth about the victorious war abandoned the thesis about the dependence of the Soviet defense on the foreign proletariat’s support”. The Red Arm y was considered self-sufficient. (Tokarev, 20 0 6, p.10 1). Of course the forceful Soviet m ythology (“Destroy the enem y on his territory”) didn’t foresee neither retreats, nor evacuation of citizens, nor the destruction of cities and villages, nor casualties am ong the civilians… At the sam e tim e it is interesting to m ention that som e of the contem poraries didn’t accept these m ilitary-utopian film s enthusiastically. For exam ple in 1939 the reviewer of the newspaper “Pravda” indignantly wrote that in the film “Tankers” “the battle goes on without any losses of the Red Arm y, petrol in our tanks won’t explode even when they are ignited, and the tankers don’t get fire burns. Such lacquering of reality, underestim ation of the enem y’s strength, knowledge and sharpness reduces the m erits of the film ” (Morov, 1939).
The “little brothers” of the film s about m assive enem y invasions in 1939-es were the film s about spies and saboteurs, inevitably liquidated by the brave Soviet frontier guards (“On the Border”, 1936; “Border under Lock”, 1937, etc.). The plot schem e and typology of the characters were roughly the sam e, but of course there were less enem ies, troops and skirm ishes.
2. World outlook: what kind of world is depicted in the m edia text? (Silverblatt, 2001, p.80 -81). When responding to this question the students m ay be asked to fill the following table (Table 1):
Ke y q u e s tio n to m e d ia te xts o f th e S o vie t m ilitary-u to p ia n film s o f th e 2n d h a lf o f th e 19 3 0 s
Th e im a ge o f th e w o rld o f th e S o vie t U n io n
Th e im a ge o f th e e n e m y w o rld .
W h a t’s th e id e o lo gy o f th is w o rld ?
The Com m unist
“peaceful” ideology in its Stalinist interpretation.
Im perialist/ Nazi aggressive ideology.
W h a t o u tlo o k d o e s th is w o rld re p re s e n t – p e s s im is tic o r o p tim is tic ?
Solely optim istic during the whole action.
Optim istic at the beginning of the action, pessim istic after the defeat in the ending.
W h a t is th e h ie ra rch y o f va lu e s a cc o rd in g to th is w o rld o u tlo o k?
Patriotism – the Com m unist party – Stalin – people – hatred for the enem y – fam ily
Aggression – im perialism / Nazism – the leader – contem pt for the enem ies.
W h a t va lu e s c a n be fo u n d in th is m e d ia te xt? W h at va lu e s p re vail in th e e n d in g?
Patriotic and com m unist values (throughout the whole m edia text)
Im perialist, Nazi values. In the ending (after the defeat) – fear for their lives.
W h a t d o e s it m e a n to be s u c c e s s fu l in th is w o rld ? H o w d o e s a p e rs o n s u c c e e d in th is w o rld ? To w h at d e gre e is it
s te re o typ ica l?
It m eans to be a com m unist, a faithful Leninist-Stalinist, a patriot, a brave and skilful warrior, ruthless to the enem ies, a good fam ily m an. All the characters with no exception are happy and stereotyped, their individual features a poorly represented.
It m eans to be an im perialist/ Nazi, a professional soldier, ruthless to the enem ies. All the characters with no exception are stereotyped; their
individual features a poorly represented. They m ight be called relatively happy only before the beginning of the aggression.
Table 1: Ideology and outlook of the world depicted in m edia texts of the Soviet m ilitary-utopian film s of the 2nd half of the 1930 s
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Co n ve n tio n al c o d e s o f a typ ica l s ce n e o f a c tio n in m e d ia te x
Th e vis u al c h a ra c te ris tic s o f th e m a n ife s tatio n o f th e s e c o d e s in m e d ia te xts
The enem y’s dwelling Deliberately not revealed to the Soviet audience so that they could not com pare it with their own.
The dwelling of soviet characters
Modest, but well-m ade. There’s a phone and a piano in the officers’ apartm ents.
The arm y headquarter Functional furnishing – table, chairs/ arm chairs. In the Soviet variant everything is well-m ade, but sim ple, without excesses (though the portraits the leaders are always present). In the enem y’s cam p the furniture is m ore expensive, but som ber. Often it’s situated som ewhere underground, in a bunker. Contrary to the Nazi traditions, there’s no portrait of the leader on the wall (to avoid the involuntary placem ent propaganda; it’s no accident th from 1934 till Novem ber 1940 the photos of Adolf H itler never appeared in the Soviet press (Grigoryeva, 20 0 8 , p.19)..
Aircraft, ship, subm arine
Strictly functional furnishing – the cabin, levers and control instrum ents, weapons, com partm ents, etc. Trenches are never shown and that fully m eet the overall Soviet m ilitary doctrine – do not defend, do not dig in, but quick attack and destroy the enem y.
Table 2: Typical iconographic codes of the scene of action in m edia texts of the Soviet m ilitary-utopian film s of the 2nd half of the 1930 s
Filling the Table 2 will help students to analyze the typology of the characters of m edia texts of the Soviets m ilitary-utopian film s of the 2nd half of the 1930 -es and to substantiate their answers.
In recent decades the following generalized schem e of the key concepts of m edia education based on the works of C.Bazalgette (Bazalgette, 1995, p.48 ), J .Bowker (Bowker, 1991) and A.H art (H art, 1997, p.20 2) has been gaining im portance for the consolidation of actions of m edia educators all over the world.
As a result taking into consideration these key concepts (M edia Agencies, M edia Categories, M edia Technologies, M edia Languages, M edia R epresentations, M edia Audiences) the students m ay single out the generalized structure of stereotypes of the Soviet m ilitary-utopian film s of the 2nd half of the 1930 -es on the basis of the m aterial watched and studied.
G e n d e r c h a r a c te r is ti c s
Th e d e s c r i p t io n o f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f c a t e g o r y i n m e d i a t e xt s :
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M a le ch a r a ct e r s
20 -50 years old
Generally white (except the few film s about the J apanese )
The characters tend to have str ong constitution, dressed in m ilitary uniform , or plain civilian clothes.
H igher education (com m ander s), prim ary and secondary (soldiers, civilians).
Com m anders are m arried, their subordinates are single.
Generally – the m ilitary, m ore rarely – the workers of various peaceful profession s.
Strength, quick wit, activity, loyalty, optim ism , courage, com m itm ent (Soviet characters), hostility, cun ning, cruelty, com m itm ent (enem y characters).
Patriotic and com m unist values (Soviet figures), im perialist, Nazi values (en em y characters), religious values are not present.
The actions of the characters are dictated by the developm ent of the plot of the m edia text. Im m ediately after the enem y’s aggression the Soviet characters show their best professional/ m ilitar y qualities, brilliantly design and im plem ent the plan of defeating the enem y. The enem y characters initially develop a logical plan of a surprise attack, but fail later due to power and m ight of the Soviet arm y.
Fe m a le ch a r a ct e r s
20 -60 years old (in all the film s on ly Soviet fem ale characters are present).
Generally white.
The characters tend to have average statistical constitution, dressed in plain, sim ple civilian clothes, m ore rarely in uniform .
Prim ary and secondary.
Wom en 18 years or older are usually m arried.
Generally – the workers of various peaceful professions, m ore rarely – m ilitary pilots.
Quick wit, activity, loyalty, optim ism , courage, com m itm ent.
Patriotic, com m unist values.
The actions of the characters are dictated by the developm ent of the plot of the m edia text. Im m ediately after the enem y’s aggression the Soviet wom en show their best professional/ m ilitar y qualities.
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Me th o d s o f re p re s e n tatio n o f re a lity: the life of Soviet people (m ainly the m ilitary) is shown as a rule relatively realistically and always favorably, hostile countries are shows solely under m artial law, their im age is also relatively realistically, though often som ewhat grotesque.
Details: In the film s “Hom eland Calling”, “Squadron Num ber 5” the Nazi swastika on the wings of enem y planes and the distinctive m ilitary uniform allow to m ake a definite conclusion about their national origin. In the film s “Deep Raid”, “Tankers”, “If the War is Tom orrow” the enem y uniform is m ore relative but indirectly (gothic font, behavior) everything indicates that they are Germ ans. In “Sailors” (1940 ), shot after the signing of the treaty of friendship between the USSR and Germ any (august 1939), the enem ies are the J apanese. For the sam e reason in “The Fifth Ocean” (1940 ) the Western opponents of the Soviet Union are deprived of national features (though we can assum e that they are Finns). In all the film s practically no losses of Soviet troops (and especially civilians) are shown. One of the few exceptions is the death of the son of a Soviet pilot in “Hom eland Calling”. The portraits of Stalin and Voroshilov hang on the walls of the Soviet headquarters and institutions. As a rule in the soundtrack of the film s vigorous m arches and songs are present (“If the war is tom orrow, if the cam paign is tom orrow, we are ready to m arch today…”).
Th e ch a ra c te rs , th e ir va lu e s , id e a s , clo th in g, c o n s titu tio n , vo ca bu la ry, m im ic s , ge s tu re s : good characters (Soviet m ilitary m en, peaceful citizens) are bearers of com m unistic ideas; the aggressors (m ilitary m en, saboteurs, terrorists) are bearers of inhum an ideas. Divided by ideology and world outlook (Nazi/ im perialist and com m unist) the characters as a rule have strong constitution, they are dressed in m ilitary uniform and look as im posed by the source of the m edia text: enem y characters (soldiers, officers, spies) are shown wicked, rude and violent fanatics with prim itive vocabulary, active gesticulation and unpleasant voices (though som etim es they seem like clever opponents); Soviet characters (soldiers, officers, their relatives) on the contrary are depicted purely positively – they are purposeful, honest fighters for their hom eland and com m unist ideas, with business or pom pous vocabulary, restrained gestures and m im ics. Of course in all cases their characters are drawn sketchily, without going deep into their psychology. Enem y characters speak Russian (for the audience to understand) or som etim es with a Germ an accent. Rarely som e phrases are in Germ an.
S ign ifica n t c h a n ge s in th e p lo t o f th e m e d ia te xt a n d in th e live s o f th e c h ara cte rs : The good soviet characters live a peaceful life (from 7 to 30 m inutes of the screen tim e). The bad/ foreign characters (as a rule in sum m er at night) com m it aggression/ crim e (treacherous m ilitary attack, sabotage, m urder). Thanks to intelligence the Soviet com m and usually learns about the im m inent attack.
Origin a te d p ro ble m : violation of law – the lives of the good characters or (m ost often) the whole Soviet country is under threat.
Details: In “Tankers” (1939) before the attack on the Soviet Union an enem y general says the following, a kind of a prophetic m onologue: “The offensive doctrine of the Red will do them an ill turn. They preach the offensive, a strong blow, and im petuous attacks. Napoleon’s tactics! But the battle will be where we want it to be…”.
S e arch e s fo r th e s o lu tio n o f th e p ro ble m : the arm ed struggle of the good characters with enem y aggression. The m ost typical plotline: the Soviet people unite to fight the invaders; the Soviet H igh Com m and orders an air/ tank/ naval attack.
Details:
In the film “H om eland Calling” (1936) a m ilitary com m ander says the m obilization speech interrupting a theatrical perform ance: “The wolf threw off sheep’s clothing. The enem y has just crossed the border without declaring war, without warning! But he m iscalculated, he failed to break through. The enem y encroached upon the revolution and com m unism ! H e will be defeated, crushed, destroyed!”. People in the hall begin the unanim ous singing of “Internatsional”.
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Only one plotline fall out of the list, it is A. Room ’s “Squadron Num ber 5” (1939), where Germ an anti-fascist underground workers becom e allies of the Soviet pilots behind enem y lin es.
Th e s o lu tio n o f th e p ro ble m : elim ination/ capture of the aggressors, the Soviet arm y’s crushing victory.
Details: The final world of a Soviet com m ander: “If needed Soviet tanks fly!” (“Tankers”, 1939). Soviet airplanes which have just defeated the enem y form the letters of the leader’s surnam e in the sky: “Stalin” (“Squadron Num ber 5”, 1939).
The influence of this kind of m edia stereotypes on the audience was so strong that for a while those stereotypes continued to have effect (at least in the rear) after the real attack in 1941. These are m em ories of a contem porary about the dem onstration of a propagandistic film “If the War Is Tom orrow” in one of the Soviet schools in the rear in Novem ber, 1941: “there was a solem n silence, not only the evacuated children but also the adult teachers stared at the screen, their faces enlightened. It was the real war prom ised by Stalin, victorious and proud, not the inexplicable nightm are that rang in horrible reports “from the Soviet Inform ation Bureau” with a long list of abandoned cities” (Germ an, 198 9, pp.481-48 2).
Co n c lu s io n s . As a result of the integrated historical and m edia education class by the exam ples of the Soviet m ilitary-utopian film s of the 2nd half of the 1930 -es students can realize the
correctness of the opinion of the historian O. Grigorieva: “during the period of 1933-1939 Soviet propaganda shaped the im age of Nazi Germ any as an enem y whose actions are directed on the one hand against the Germ ans and Germ an culture, and on the other hand (by m eans of the aggressive anti-soviet ideological and foreign policy doctrine) - against the USSR. At the sam e tim e within the fram ework of the ideology of internationalism the people of Germ any were shown victim s of the Nazi authorities (such m otive can be distinctly seen in A.Room ’s “Squadron Num ber 5” – A.F.) and separated from the fascist leaders of the country” (Grigorieva, 20 0 8 , p.15). A short-term deviation from this kind of ideological concept observed during the period of “friendship” between the USSR and Germ any (August, 1939 – J une, 21, 1941) didn’t change the existing attitude of Soviet audience to its new frontier neighbor. Although all the “defense” film s m entioned in our article which som ehow hinted at Germ any as the enem y had been withdrawn from distribution (autum n 1939 - J une 1941), the external propagandistic “m obilization readiness” was preserved to a great extent.
The m ain m edia educational result of the class is not only the audience’s understanding of historical, political, social and cultural context and m echanism s of the form ation of stereotyped propagandistic ideas of the Soviet m ilitary-utopian film s of the 2nd half of the 1930 -es about future
events, but also the developm ent of the audience’s perception of m edia, the skills for analysis and interpretation, the developm ent of critical thinking.
Qu e s tio n s fo r h e rm e n e u tica l a n alys is o f s te re o typ e s o f th e S o vie t m ilita ry-u to p ia n film s o f th e 2n d h a lf o f th e 19 3 0 -e s a t th e m e d ia s tu d ie s in s tu d e n ts ’ a u d ie n ce (Berger, 20 0 5; Fedorov, 20 0 4, pp.43-51; Fedorov, 20 0 5; Fedorov, 20 0 6, с.175-228 ; Buckingham , 20 0 3, p.54-60 , Silverblatt, 20 0 1, p.10 7-10 8 etc.):
M edia agencies:
Who created m edia texts? Who is responsible for the creation of m edia texts? What is the purpose of the creation of m edia texts? Does the creation of m edia texts have a hidden function?
What path does a m edia text follow from the author’s intention to the audience?
What is the m ain purpose of this m edia text? To what extent is this purpose achieved? What reaction do the creators expect from the audience? Does this m edia text answers the questions raised or the questions rem ain unanswered?
Who controls the production and distribution of m edia texts?
Can you nam e the stereotypical functions of m edia agencies (in this case - film studios) of the Stalinist era (the 2nd half of the 1930 -es)?
M edia/ m edia text categories:
Are there any other ways of classifying m edia texts except genre classification? If yes what are they? (for exam ple them atic, stylistic).
What is the difference between fictional and docum entary film s?
H ow do conventions and codes work in m edia texts of the Soviet m ilitary-utopian film s of the 2nd half of the 1930 -es?
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What is the function of genre form ula of the m edia text?
H ow do genres of m edia texts affect cultural attitudes and values, cultural m ythology, world outlook of m en?
Is it possible to trace the evolution of a specific m edia genre, them e?
What do those genre/ them atic changes tell about the transform ations in culture of society? What stereotypical plots and plot conventions are characteristic of specific genres/ them es? What does the beginning tell us about the m edia text? Does the beginning predict the following events and them es of the m edia text? What is the im pact of this beginning on the m edia text?
Can you form ulate the stereotypes of the beginnings for stereotypical genres/ them es of the Soviet m ilitary-utopian film s of the 2nd half of the 1930 -es?
M edia technologies:
H ow do technologies influence the creation of m edia texts?
H ow can stereotypical character of technological solutions m anifest itself in these m edia texts?
M edia languages:
Why did the authors of the given m edia text constructed this or that episode exactly this way? Why are certain things (including the characters’ clothes, etc.) represented exactly this way? What do these things tell us about the characters, their lifestyles, their relations? H ow im portant for the developm ent of the action are the dialogues, the language of the characters?
From whose point of view (who is the narrator) is a particular episode shown? Are there m om ents in the m edia text when the proposed point of view helps to create a sense of danger or unexpectedness?
What is the role of light, color, sound, m usic in the m edia text?
Is it possible to find visual stereotypes in a m edia text? If so, in what are they m anifested in the Soviet m ilitary-utopian film s of the 2nd half of the 1930 -es?
Is it possible to find visual stereotypes in a m edia text? If so, in what are they m anifested in the Soviet m ilitary-utopian film s of the 2nd half of the 1930 -es?
Can you nam e the stereotypes of visual codes in the Soviet m ilitary-utopian film s of the 2nd
half of the 1930 -es?
M edia representations:
Is there a specific world view in m edia texts? Is there any m oral or political values?
H ow can the m edia aggravate social and political problem s or vice versa, contribute to their solution?
H ow do m edia represent certain social groups? Are these representations accurate? What political, cultural and social stereotypes are reflected in the Soviet m ilitary-utopian film s of the 2n d
half of the 1930 -es?
Was this m edia text m eant to be realistic? Why do som e m edia texts seem m ore realistic than others? How do m edia prove that they inform of the truth about the world? How do m edia texts try to seem real?
What did the authors include/ exclude from the context of this m edia text? Why? In what way fam ily, class, sex, race, life in other countries etc. are represented? What are the key episodes of this m edia text? Why do you think so?
What do you think was selected to produce exactly this fram e? What is the correlation between different objects seen in the fram e?
Do you think it is possible to add som e episodes in the m edia text? If so which ones? In what part of the m edia text they could be added?
H ow do changes in representation of the character and situation help the developm ent of action in the m edia text?
In what scenes and how exactly are the conflicts revealed in the m edia text?
Who does the author of the m edia text sym pathize with? How does he let the audience understand it? Why did you m ake this conclusion?
Are there any scenes of violence in this m edia text? If so, what is the difference between the representations of violence in other m edia texts you know?
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Could this plot have ended sooner? What would have changed in our perception of the text? What’s the im portance of the real ending of the m edia text?
M edia audiences:
For whom was this m edia text created, for one or m ore types of audiences?
H ow does the choice of the audience influence strategy, style and content of m edia texts? H ow does the strategy, the style, the content of m edia texts influence the audience’s understanding?
What is the target audience in the sphere of m edia? H ow do m edia try to influence it? What assum ptions about the audience do the creators of m edia texts have? With what characters does this or that agency want to identify you? What ideology do these characters express?
Why does the audience take som e stereotypical m edia representations as true and other as false?
What do you think was the reaction of the Soviet m ass audience of the 2nd half of the 1930 -es
to the above m entioned m ilitary-utopian film s?
Is it possible to give different interpretations of stereotypical m edia texts and their characters? Or their stereotyped character initially assum es identical interpretations of m edia texts?
Do stereotyped m edia representations influence your point of view about the particular social groups or problem s?
Which social groups are m ost strongly affected by m edia stereotypes? Why?
Is it possible to get rid of the influence of m edia stereotypes on society? J ustify your point of view.
What kind of pleasure does the audience get from m edia texts? What values, experiences or perspectives does the audience get? Do these values, experiences or perspectives influence the audience’s understanding/ interpretation of m edia texts?
What is the role of gender, social class, age and ethnic origin in the m edia perception of the audience?
H ow do we understand m edia texts? How can m edia inform ation influence our decisions? H ow does your life experience affect the interpretation of m edia texts? H ow (for what reasons), in your opinion, does the audience usually choose/ but m edia texts? What helps you in choosing a m edia text you want to read/ watch/ listen?
What are the reasons for the success of the m ost fam ous recent m edia texts with the audience (genre, them e, жанр, тема, the system of em otional extrem es, the reliance on m ythology, happy ending, etc.)?
H ow is the audience’s interest m aintained in the m edia text? Is it possible to trace how our attention grows from episode to episode?
On what factors (political, social, m oral, philosophical, artistic, etc.) should the m edia texts be evaluated?
What is the typology of the m edia audience? By what typical indicators of m edia preferences the audience can be differentiated?
What abilities and skills does a m an need to analyze m edia texts com petently?
Re fe re n ce s :
1. Berger A.A. To see is to believ e. Introduction to v isual com m unication. Moscow: Viljam s, 20 0 5. 28 8 p.
2. Bowker, J . (Ed.) (1991). Secondary M edia Education: A Curriculum Statem ent. London: BFI.
3. Buckingham , D. (20 0 2). Media Education: A Global Strategy for Developm ent. Policy Paper for UNESCO. In: Buckingham , D., Frau-Meigs, D., Tornero, J .M. & Artigas, L. (Eds.).Youth M edia Education. Paris: UNESCO Com m unication Developm ent Division. CD-ROM.
4. Buckingham , D. (20 0 3). M edia Education: Literacy , Learning and Contem porary Culture. Cam bridge, UK: Polity Press, 219 p.
5. Fedorov A.V. Media education: creative assignm ents for students and schoolchildren / / Innov ations in education. 20 0 6. N 4. pp.175-228.
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7. Fedorov, A. (20 0 3). Media Education and Media Literacy: Experts’ Opinions. In: M EN TOR . A M edia Education Curriculum for Teachers in the M editerranean. Paris: UNESCO.
8 . Germ an M. Political salon of the 30 -es. Roots and shoots / / Harsh dram a of the people. Moscow, 198 9. pp. 48 1-48 2.
9. Golubev A.V. “Russia can rely only on itself”: the idea of the future war in the Soviet society of the 1930 -es / / . 20 0 8 . № 5. pp.10 8 -127.
10 . Grigorieva O.I. Form ation of the im age of Germ any by the Sov iet propaganda in 1933-1941. Abstract, dis. … candidate of hist. sciences. Moscow, 20 0 8 . 28 p.
11. H art, A. (1997). Textual Pleasures and Moral Dillem m as: Teaching Media Literacy in England. In: Kubey, R. (Ed.) M edia Literacy in the Inform ation Age. New Brunswick (U.S.A.) and London (UK): Transaction Publishers, pp.199-211.
12. Kuznetsova M. If the war is tom orrow… Defensive film s of the 1930 -es / / H istorian and artist.2005. № 2. pp.17-26.
13. Margolit E.Y. Like in a m irror. Germ any is the Soviet cinem a between 1920 -30 -es. / / Cinem atological notes.2002. № 59. http:/ / www.kinozapiski.ru/ article/ 253/
14. Masterm an, L. (1997). A Rational for Media Education. In: Kubey, R. (Ed.) M edia Literacy in the Inform ation Age. New Brunswick (U.S.A.) and London (UK): Transaction Publishers, pp.15-68 .
15. Morov A. “Tankers / / Prav da. 1939. Feb, 14.
16. Nevezhin V.A. Sov iet propaganda and ideological preparation for the w ar (second half of the 1930 -es – the beginning of 1940 -es.). Dis. … doctor of hist. sciences. Moscow, 1999.
17. Potter, W.J . (20 0 1). M edia Literacy . Thousand Oaks – London: Sage Publication, 423 p. 18 . Silverblatt, A. (20 0 1). M edia Literacy . Westport, Connecticut – London: Praeger, 449 p. 19. Tokarev V.A. Soviet m ilitary utopia of the eve of the World War II / / Europe.2006. № 1. pp.97-161.
20 . Usov Y.N. Film education as m eans of aesthetical upbringing and artistic dev elopm ent of schoolchildrem : Dis. ... doctor of ped. sciences. - Moscow, 198 9. 362 p.
21. Worsnop, C. (1994). Screening Im ages: Ideas for M edia Education. Mississauga: Wright Com m unication, 179 p.
Film o grap h y:
Mo th e rla n d is ca llin g. U S S R, 19 3 6 . Mosfilm . Prem iered: April 29, 1936.
Directed by Alexander Macheret (second director – K.Krum in). Script writers: Valentin Kataev, Alexander Macheret. Cam eram an: Nikolai Renko. Com posers: Valerian Bogdanov-Berezovsky, Gavriil Popov. Artists: Pyotr Beitner, Vasily Rakhals. Cast: Mikhail Kedrov, Elena Melnikova, Alexandra Popova, Alesha Goryunov, O. Shakhet, Pyotr Berezov and others.
B o rd e r u n d e r lo ck. U S S R, 19 3 7. Soyuzdetfilm . Prem iered: February 23, 1938 .
Directed by Vasili Zhuravlev (second director – K.Kogtev). Script writers: Mikhail Dolgopolov, Ilya Bachelis. Cam eram an: Nikolai Prozorovsky. Com poser: Nikita Bogoslovsky. Artits: Yakov Feldm an. Cast: Konstantin Nassonov, Sem yon Svashenko, Galina Mogilevskaya, Konstantin Gradopolov, Viktor Arkasov, Fedor Seleznyov, Mikhail Viktorov, Viktor Shepel, Lev Prozorovsky, Pavel Massalsky and others.
D e e p ra id . U SS R, 19 3 8 . Mostekhfilm . Prem iered: February, 23, 1938
Directed by Pyotr Malakhov. Script writer: Nikolai Shpanov. Cam eram an: Alexander Pulin. Com posers: Nikolai Budashkin, Vladim ir Yurovsky. Artist: Alexei Utkin. Cast: Georgy Lyubim ov, Elena Stroeva, Nikolai Golovin, Konstantin Bartashevich, Alexander Cheban, Nikolai Gladkov, Georgy Muzalevsky, Sergei Kom arov, N. Belyaev, Sergei Tsenin, Nikolai Kutuzov, Andrei Fait and others.
If th e w a r is to m o rro w . U S S R, 19 3 8 . Mosfilm . Prem iered: February, 23, 1938 .
Directed by Yefim Dzigan (second directors: Lazar Antsi-Polovsky, Georgy Berezko, N.Karam zinsky). Script writers: Georgy Berezko, Yefim Dzigan, Mikhail Svetlov. Cam eram an: Y.Yefim ov. Com posers: Daniil and Dm itry Pokrass. Artist: Mikhail Tiunov. Cast: Vsevolod Sanaev and others.
On th e bo rd e r. U S S R, 19 3 8 . Lenfilm . Prem iered: Decem ber 2, 1938 .
European Researcher, 20 12, Vol.(32), № 10-2
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Kryuchkov, Stepan Krylov, Nikolai Vinogradov, Erast Garin, Yuri Lavrov, Nikolai Michurin and others.
N a va l p o s t. U S S R, 19 3 8 . Odesskaya film studio. Prem iere: February19, 1939.
Directed by Vladim ir Gonchukov. Script writer Lev Linkov. Cam eram an: G. Shabanov. Com poser: Nikolai Kryukov. Artist: Nikolai Valerianov. Cast: Ivan Novoseltsev, S. Yum asheva, Nikolai Ivakin, I. Rozhnyatovsky, Alexander Lutsenko, Vasily Lyudvinsky, Vladim ir Uralsky, Maria Yarotskaya, Ivan Yudin and others.
Ta n ke rs . U SS R, 19 3 9 . Lenfilm . Prem iered: February 21, 1939.
Directed by: Zinovi Drapkin, Robert Maym an. Script writers: Zinovi Drapkin, Robert Maym an, Georgy Seliverstov. Cam eram en : Alexander Sigaev, Moisey Magid. Daniil and Dm itry Pokrass. Artists: Dm itry Rudoi, Pyotr Yakim ov. Cast: G.Gorbunov, Mikhail Volsky, Alexander Kulakov, Vladim ir Chobur, Ivan Kuznetsov, Vasily Merkuriev, Dm itry Dudnikov and others.
S q u ad ro n n u m be r 5 . U SS R, 19 3 9 . Kievskaya film studio. Prem iered: J une 7, 1939.
Directed by: Abram Room . Script writer: J osef Prut. Cam eram an: Nikolai Topchii. Com poser: Konstantin Dankevich. Artists: Alexei Bobrovnikov, Mikhail Solokha. Cast: Yuri Shum sky, N.Garin, Boris Bezgin, Sofia Altovskaya, Andrei Apsolon, Viktor Grom ov, Sergei Tsenin, Nikolai Bratersky, Yakov Zaslavsky, L.Novikov and others.
Th e fo u rth p e ris c o p e . U S S R, 19 3 9 . Lenfilm . Prem iered: Decem ber 25, 1939.
Directed by Viktor Eisym ont. Script writers: Georgy Venetsianov, G.Blaustein. Cam eram en: Vladim ir Rapoport. Com posers: Boris Goltz, Venedikt Pushkov. Artists: Abram Veksler, Ivan Znoynov. Cast: Boris Blinov, Vladim ir Chesnokov, Maria Dom asheva, Konstantin Nassonov, Valentin Arkhipenko, Vladim ir Lukin, Sergei Morshchikhin, Pavel Volkov, Lev Shostak, Georgy Kranert, Alexander Nezhdanov, Vladim ir Chobur, Ivan Dm itriev, Nikolai Kryukov and others.
S a ilo rs . U S S R, 19 3 9 . Odesskaya film studio. Prem iered: February 21, 1940 .
Directed by Vladim ir Braun. Script writer J ohan Zeltser. Cam eram en : Mikhail Kaplan, Grigory Aizenberg. Com poser: Yuri Milyutin. Artist Mikhail Yuferov. Cast: Vladim ir Osvetsim sky, Antonina Maksim ova, Sergei Stolyarov, S. Tim okhim , Alena Yegorova, Mikola Makarenko, Arkadi Arkadiev and other.
Th e fifth o c e a n . U SSR, 19 4 0 . Kievskaya film studio. Prem iere: Novem ber 15, 1940 . Directed by Isidor Annensky. Script writers: Aleksei Speshnev, Alexander Filim onov. Cam eram an Vladim ir Okulitch. Com poser: Sergei Pototsky. Artists: Solom on Zaritsky, Valentina Khm eleva. Cast: Andrei Abrikosov, Evgenia Gorkusha, Petr Aleinikov, Anton Dunaisky, Vasily Zaichikov, Anastasia Zueva, Aleksei Maksim ov, Ivan Novoseltsev, Alexandra Popova and others.
Akn o w le d gm e n t
This article was written with the support of the special Federal program “Scientific and pedagogical m anpower of innovation Russia” (20 0 9-20 13) within the bounds of activity “The conduction of scientific research by the team s of Scientific-Education Centers in the fields of psychology and education”, project “The analysis of the effectiveness of the Russian Media Education Centers in com parison with the leading foreign centers”. H ead of the project is Prof. Dr. Alexander Fedorov.
УДК 372
Анализ советских военно-утопических фильмов второй половины 19 3 0 -х годов на занятиях в студенческой аудитории
Александр Федоров
Таганрогский государственный педагогический институт им. А.П.Чехова, Россия
Ул. Инициативная, 48, Таганрог, Ростовская область, 347936 Доктор педагогических наук, профессор
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Аннотация. Главный медиаобразовательный итог герменевтического анализа
советских военно-утопических фильмов второй половины 1930-х годов на занятиях в
студенческой аудитории – не только понимание аудиторией историко-политического,
социокультурного контекста и механизмов формирования стереотипных пропагандистских
представлений советских «оборонно-наступательных» фильмов этой эпохи, но развитие у
аудитории медийного восприятия, умений анализа и интерпретации медиатекста, формирование критического мышления.
