autora
autora
ELAINE CHRISTINA MOTA
ELAINE CHRISTINA MOTA
FUNDAMENTOS DA
FUNDAMENTOS DA
TRADUÇÃO EM LÍNGUA
TRADUÇÃO EM LÍNGUA
INGLESA
INGLESA
Conselho editorial
Conselho editorial luis claudio dallier saldanha; roberto paes; gladis linhares;luis claudio dallier saldanha; roberto paes; gladis linhares;
karen bortoloti; marilda franco de moura karen bortoloti; marilda franco de moura
Autora do original
Autora do original elaine christina motaelaine christina mota
Projeto editorial
Projeto editorial roberto paesroberto paes
Coordenação de produção
Coordenação de produção gladis linharesgladis linhares
Coordenação de produção EaD
Coordenação de produção EaD karen fernanda bortolotikaren fernanda bortoloti
Projeto gráfico
Projeto gráfico paulo vitor bastospaulo vitor bastos
Diagramação
Diagramação bfs mediabfs media
Revisão linguística
Revisão linguística bfs mediabfs media
Imagem de capa
Imagem de capa marcio silva | dreamstime.commarcio silva | dreamstime.com
Todos os direitos reservados. Nenhuma parte desta obra pode ser reproduzida ou transmitida Todos os direitos reservados. Nenhuma parte desta obra pode ser reproduzida ou transmitida por quaisquer meios (eletrônico ou mecânico, incluindo fotocópia e gravação) ou arquivada em por quaisquer meios (eletrônico ou mecânico, incluindo fotocópia e gravação) ou arquivada em qualquer sistema ou banco de dados sem permissão escrita da Editora. Copyright
qualquer sistema ou banco de dados sem permissão escrita da Editora. Copyrightseses, 2016.seses, 2016.
Dados Internacionais de Catalogação na Publicação Dados Internacionais de Catalogação na Publicação(cip)(cip)
M917f
M917f MotMota, a, Elaine ChristinaElaine Christina
Fundamentos
Fundamentos da da tradução tradução em em língua língua inglesa inglesa / / Elaine Elaine Christina Christina MotaMota Rio
Rio de de Janeiro Janeiro : : SESESESES, S, 2016.2016.
152 p. : il. 152 p. : il.
isbn: 978-85-5548-189-5 isbn: 978-85-5548-189-5
1.1. Tradução. 2. Teoria. 3. Problemas. 4. Soluções. I. SESES. II. Estácio. Tradução. 2. Teoria. 3. Problemas. 4. Soluções. I. SESES. II. Estácio.
cdd 420 cdd 420
Diretoria de Ensino — Fábrica de Conhecimento Diretoria de Ensino — Fábrica de Conhecimento Rua do Bispo,
Sumário
Sumário
Prefácio
5
Prefácio
5
1. Introduction to the World Of Translation,
1. Introduction to the World Of Translation,
Job
Job
Market
Market
and
and
T
T
ypes
ypes
of
of
T
T
ransl
ransl
ation
ation
7
7
1.1
1.1 The
The History
History of
of T
Translation
ranslation
11
11
1.2
1.2 Myths
Myths about
about translation
translation
14
14
1.3
1.3 Job
Job market
market
17
17
1.4
1.4 T
Types
ypes and
and methods
methods of
of translation
translation
21
21
2.
2.
T
T
ranslation
ranslation
and
and
the
the
Branches
Branches
of
of
Linguistics
Linguistics
31
31
2.1
2.1 Linguistics
Linguistics and
and T
Translation
ranslation
34
34
2.2
2.2 Psycholinguistics
Psycholinguistics and
and T
Translation
ranslation
40
40
2.3
2.3 Sociolinguistics
Sociolinguistics and
and T
Translation
ranslation
43
43
2.4
2.4 The
The 3Cs
3Cs of
of T
Translation
ranslation and
and units
units of
of translation
translation
47
47
2.5
2.5 Methods
Methods of
of T
Translation
ranslation
55
55
3.
3.
Practical
Practical
Issues
Issues
of
of
T
T
ranslation
ranslation
61
61
3.1
3.1 Articles
Articles
65
65
3.2
3.2 Gerund
Gerund vs.
vs. Infinitive
Infinitive
68
68
3.3
3.3 Indirect
Indirect speech
speech
74
74
3.4
3.4 Causative
Causative forms
forms
77
77
3.5
4.
4.
More
More
Practical
Practical
Issues
Issues
of
of
T
T
ranslation
ranslation
91
91
4.1
4.1 The
The present
present perfect
perfect
94
94
4.2
4.2 The
The present
present perfect
perfect continuous
continuous
101
101
4.3
4.3 Confusing
Confusing verbs
verbs
103
103
4.4
4.4 Phrasal
Phrasal verbs
verbs
105
105
4.5
4.5 False
False cognates
cognates
109
109
5.
5.
Cultural Challenges and Registe
Cultural Challenges and Registe
r:
r:
Meaning
Meaning
and
and
Importance
Importance
119
119
5.1
5.1 Colloquial
Colloquial expressions
expressions vs.
vs. idiomatic
idiomatic expressions
expressions
124
124
5.2
5.2 Slang
Slang terms
terms
128
128
5.3
5.3 Proverbs
Proverbs
132
132
5.4
Prefácio
Prefácio
Dear student, Dear student, Welcome to
Welcome to the wonderful the wonderful world of world of translation translation and its and its maze full maze full of surprisesof surprises at each corner!
at each corner!
The foundation of the book lies in the principle that quite a few things and The foundation of the book lies in the principle that quite a few things and facts are worthy of your attention before any attempt of an actual translation. facts are worthy of your attention before any attempt of an actual translation. Obviously enough, you will practice little by little until the reaching point of a Obviously enough, you will practice little by little until the reaching point of a longer text. This care happens due to some myths and overuse of technology longer text. This care happens due to some myths and overuse of technology in an area that has always depended and will keep on depending on human in an area that has always depended and will keep on depending on human minds for no computer is able to do what people do best: cultural and minds for no computer is able to do what people do best: cultural and linguis-tic associations on a very regular basis according to the needs of a client or the tic associations on a very regular basis according to the needs of a client or the translator themselves.
translator themselves.
In the first chapter, you will come across a little bit of the history of In the first chapter, you will come across a little bit of the history of trans-lation, how the market works for those who are willing to venture further into lation, how the market works for those who are willing to venture further into this world and the types and methods of translation. Chapter 2 will show you this world and the types and methods of translation. Chapter 2 will show you how Linguistics and its branches – Sociolinguistics and Psycholinguistics – are how Linguistics and its branches – Sociolinguistics and Psycholinguistics – are essential while translating. The third chapter will help you deal with some essential while translating. The third chapter will help you deal with some dif-ficult structural and lexical elements of the languages involved. Chapter 4 will ficult structural and lexical elements of the languages involved. Chapter 4 will scare away the ghost of traumatic grammar topics, such as the present perfect scare away the ghost of traumatic grammar topics, such as the present perfect and some phrasal verbs. In chapter 5, you will be kindly greeted by
and some phrasal verbs. In chapter 5, you will be kindly greeted by lexical struc-lexical struc-tures and the correct register for
tures and the correct register for each situation.each situation. Shall we start our adventure?
Introduction
Introduction
to the World Of
to the World Of
T
T
ransl
ransl
ation,
ation,
Job
Job
Market and Types
Market and Types
Of Translation
Of Translation
1
Before we start, it is imperative that we define translation. First of all, the word Before we start, it is imperative that we define translation. First of all, the word “translation” literally means “carry across”, “bring across”, “lead across”. If “translation” literally means “carry across”, “bring across”, “lead across”. If you
you think think of of it, it, translating translating something something does does not not concern concern only only languages; languages; it’sit’s about understanding something and putting it into words only after it has been about understanding something and putting it into words only after it has been turned into ideas. As obvious as it may seem, not everybody agrees on how to turned into ideas. As obvious as it may seem, not everybody agrees on how to define “translation”.
define “translation”.
What is translation for you? What does it really mean? Before you keep reading, take What is translation for you? What does it really mean? Before you keep reading, take some time to think about it.
some time to think about it.
In his
In his The translator’s Invisibility The translator’s Invisibility , Lawrence Venutti says that, Lawrence Venutti says that
Translation is, of course, a rewriting of an original text. All rewritings, whatever their Translation is, of course, a rewriting of an original text. All rewritings, whatever their intention, reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and as such manipulate literature intention, reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and as such manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way. Rewriting is manipulation, undertaken in to function in a given society in a given way. Rewriting is manipulation, undertaken in the service of power, and in its positive aspect can help in the evolution of a literature the service of power, and in its positive aspect can help in the evolution of a literature and a society. Rewritings can introduce new concepts, new genres, new devices, and and a society. Rewritings can introduce new concepts, new genres, new devices, and the history of translation is the history also of literary innovation, of the shaping power the history of translation is the history also of literary innovation, of the shaping power of one culture upon another. But rewriting can also repress innovation, distort and of one culture upon another. But rewriting can also repress innovation, distort and contain, and in an age of ever increasing manipulation of all kinds, the study of the contain, and in an age of ever increasing manipulation of all kinds, the study of the manipulative processes of literature as exemplified by translation can help us toward a manipulative processes of literature as exemplified by translation can help us toward a greater awareness of the world in which we live. (1995, vii).
greater awareness of the world in which we live. (1995, vii).
While
While Venutti Venutti thinks thinks of of it it as as a a rewriting, rewriting, Nida Nida (2003) (2003) thinks thinks of of it it as as aa reproduction of the source-language message in the receptor language the reproduction of the source-language message in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent, taking respectively into account both meaning closest natural equivalent, taking respectively into account both meaning and style. Mildred Larson (1997), on the other hand, is concerned about the and style. Mildred Larson (1997), on the other hand, is concerned about the transferring of meaning from a passage in a language to another language transferring of meaning from a passage in a language to another language and on it goes: the idea and the definition of translation vary from a theorist to and on it goes: the idea and the definition of translation vary from a theorist to another along with the view they have about how to
another along with the view they have about how to do a translation.do a translation. As one can
As one can clearly see, there are several definitionclearly see, there are several definitions of translation s of translation and even aand even a higher number of disagreements on how it should be done. We will go over the higher number of disagreements on how it should be done. We will go over the details on why in the
we re
we realize there alize there is no is no such a such a thing as thing as the “only the “only and perfect” and perfect” definition of definition of whatwhat translating actually means and there is no perfect method.
translating actually means and there is no perfect method.
You just have to keep an open mind towards the whole process and the You just have to keep an open mind towards the whole process and the focus on the result, ignoring all the myths that surround it. The whole point of focus on the result, ignoring all the myths that surround it. The whole point of translating something is sending a message across an audience in a way it is translating something is sending a message across an audience in a way it is not misunderstood. Furthermore, you should remember that any translation not misunderstood. Furthermore, you should remember that any translation comes from a source language, which transmits an idea, which comes from a comes from a source language, which transmits an idea, which comes from a certain culture, which was created by elements found in the universe. When the certain culture, which was created by elements found in the universe. When the translation is finally done, it becomes another language – the target language, translation is finally done, it becomes another language – the target language, which has to transmit t
which has to transmit the same idea even though it is within in ahe same idea even though it is within in another culturenother culture that may or may not use different ele
that may or may not use different elements from the very same universe, as youments from the very same universe, as you can see in the diagram below:
can see in the diagram below:
Universe Universe
CCuullttuurre e CCuullttuurree
IIddeea a IIddeeaa
LLaanngguuaagge e 1 1 LLaanngguuaagge e 22
That is where the beauty of translation lies: in the magical moment when That is where the beauty of translation lies: in the magical moment when different cultures have gotten closer due to the correct usage of a language to different cultures have gotten closer due to the correct usage of a language to transmit an idea that comes from and goes back to our vast universe, making transmit an idea that comes from and goes back to our vast universe, making the process endlessly amazing.
the process endlessly amazing.
GOALS TO BE REACHED
GOALS TO BE REACHED
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to: By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
•
• define what a translation is and identify the myths that surround it;define what a translation is and identify the myths that surround it; •
•
• have an idea what the job market is like nowadays,have an idea what the job market is like nowadays, •
1.1
1.1
The
The History
History of
of T
T
ranslation
ranslation
The development of world culture owes a lot to translation. Its need has always The development of world culture owes a lot to translation. Its need has always existed and it is hard to imagine it will eventually end. Cultures need to find a existed and it is hard to imagine it will eventually end. Cultures need to find a way to
way to communicate with each communicate with each other, and other, and the bridge the bridge for this for this meeting is meeting is firstlyfirstly built by a trans
built by a translator. lator. In order to be aIn order to be assimilated, ideas ssimilated, ideas of one specific of one specific cultureculture have constantly moved and gotten assimilated into other cultures through have constantly moved and gotten assimilated into other cultures through their work. Even though this work may have all sorts of disagreements between their work. Even though this work may have all sorts of disagreements between theorists, they have never taken its importance for granted.
theorists, they have never taken its importance for granted.
CONNECTION
CONNECTION
The History of Translation in a nutshell at http://www.languagerealm.com/articles/ The History of Translation in a nutshell at http://www.languagerealm.com/articles/ history-of-translation.php
history-of-translation.php Check it out!
Check it out!
The history of translation relates to the history of the so often invisible and The history of translation relates to the history of the so often invisible and rarely felt – but always present – cross-cultural interactions of the world. Since rarely felt – but always present – cross-cultural interactions of the world. Since as early as sixth century B.C. – when India and the Mediterranean countries as early as sixth century B.C. – when India and the Mediterranean countries established their trade ties – ideas and concepts from the East, notably India, established their trade ties – ideas and concepts from the East, notably India, China and Iraq have influenced the Western culture. Plato’s and Galen’s China and Iraq have influenced the Western culture. Plato’s and Galen’s medical theories ended up strongly influencing those of India. Many of the medical theories ended up strongly influencing those of India. Many of the philosophical and scientific works of ancient Greece were rendered
philosophical and scientific works of ancient Greece were rendered into Arabicinto Arabic as early as ninth century
as early as ninth century A.D. Spain, which was predominantly a Muslim countryA.D. Spain, which was predominantly a Muslim country then, was positively invaded by this knowledge,
then, was positively invaded by this knowledge, which also started spreading towhich also started spreading to Europe via the schoo
Europe via the school of translators of Tl of translators of Toledo. oledo. The responsible for such The responsible for such deedsdeeds was Alfonso VI of
was Alfonso VI of Castile and Leon. Castile and Leon. In 1085 AD, he In 1085 AD, he was in chawas in charge of translationsrge of translations from Arabic to Latin, and then to Spanish. These scientific and technological from Arabic to Latin, and then to Spanish. These scientific and technological works led to the European Renaissance.
works led to the European Renaissance. Ancient
Ancient translators translators have have often often remained remained unknown unknown or or in in the the background.background. Their credit has never been acknowledged in spite of their key contributions Their credit has never been acknowledged in spite of their key contributions to the world we know today. Nowadays, we can admit and realize their almost to the world we know today. Nowadays, we can admit and realize their almost inhumanly painstaking effort to do them well in
inhumanly painstaking effort to do them well in a world of conflicts and battles.a world of conflicts and battles. However, it has not always happened.
Translators have enabled Holy Scriptures (the
Translators have enabled Holy Scriptures (the Bible being the most importantBible being the most important example) written in obscure languages, such as Latin, to be understood by example) written in obscure languages, such as Latin, to be understood by ordinary people by
ordinary people by translating them into more common languages. By doing it,translating them into more common languages. By doing it, those people would not entirely depend
those people would not entirely depend on a few elite priests or the on a few elite priests or the members ofmembers of clergy to explain what they
clergy to explain what they contained. The action of making the scriptures morecontained. The action of making the scriptures more accessible, hence making people less dependent on the clergy, was some sort of accessible, hence making people less dependent on the clergy, was some sort of rebellion, and it got to the point of being punished with death. In 1536, William rebellion, and it got to the point of being punished with death. In 1536, William Tyndale was arrested and executed in
Tyndale was arrested and executed in Holland for translating the Bible from itsHolland for translating the Bible from its original languages into the common vernacular of
original languages into the common vernacular of English.English.
© © A A W W C C N N Z Z 6 6 2 2 | | D D R R E E A A M M S S T T I I M M E E . . C C O O M M William T
William Tyndale's 1538 edition of yndale's 1538 edition of the English New Testament, which showed the English textthe English New Testament, which showed the English text and Erasmus' Latin text. From the Reed
and Erasmus' Latin text. From the Reed Rare Books Collection in Rare Books Collection in Dunedin, New Zealand.Dunedin, New Zealand.
MULTIMEDIA
MULTIMEDIA
Do you want to know more about the history of translation? You can check out a video at Do you want to know more about the history of translation? You can check out a video at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GEAebRESLew
On the other hand, most translators are held with recognition and honor On the other hand, most translators are held with recognition and honor for their hard work and effort.
for their hard work and effort. Xuanzang, a Chinese monk who is said Xuanzang, a Chinese monk who is said to have to have translated into Chinese more than 70 volumes of the Buddhist scriptures translated into Chinese more than 70 volumes of the Buddhist scriptures originating from India in 645 AD. After returning from his travels in the originating from India in 645 AD. After returning from his travels in the search for more documents to translate and make accessible, he was greeted search for more documents to translate and make accessible, he was greeted with
with honors honors for for his his brilliant brilliant work. work. He He refused refused his his honors, honors, and and kept kept doing doing hishis translations until his death, in 664 AD.
translations until his death, in 664 AD.
© © F F S S G G H H H H C C | | D D R R E E A A M M S S T T I I M M E E . . C C O O M M
A statue of Xuanzang, famous Chinese Buddhist. A statue of Xuanzang, famous Chinese Buddhist.
The translating community was proud of the brilliant translations done by the The translating community was proud of the brilliant translations done by the British Constance Garnett. The Russian classics, including those of Turgenev, British Constance Garnett. The Russian classics, including those of Turgenev, Gogol, Tolstoy, Chekhov and Dostoyevski, came to life in English through her Gogol, Tolstoy, Chekhov and Dostoyevski, came to life in English through her hands in late 19th century. Francis Wrangham published translations from hands in late 19th century. Francis Wrangham published translations from ancient Greek, Latin, French, and Italian
ancient Greek, Latin, French, and Italian that includethat include A Few A Few Sonnets AttemptedSonnets Attempted from Petrarch in Early Life
from Petrarch in Early Life (1817); (1817); The Lyrics of Horace The Lyrics of Horace (1821) among others. (1821) among others. Another more recent
Another more recent acclaimed tranacclaimed translator is Gladys slator is Gladys Yang, who Yang, who translated mantranslated manyy Chinese classics into English over the last 50 years, and our Machado de Assis, Chinese classics into English over the last 50 years, and our Machado de Assis, who has the best and most b
who has the best and most beautiful translation of Poe’seautiful translation of Poe’s The Raven The Raven , according, according to most literary critics.
CONNECTION
CONNECTION
For your appreciation of Machado’s translation, you can use this link: For your appreciation of Machado’s translation, you can use this link:
http://www.jornaldepoesia.jor.br/poemachado.html http://www.jornaldepoesia.jor.br/poemachado.html
However, if you want to compare more translations – including Fernando Pessoa’s - and However, if you want to compare more translations – including Fernando Pessoa’s - and check for yourself those equally beautiful works, use the link below:
check for yourself those equally beautiful works, use the link below:
http://seer.ufrgs.br/index.php/translatio/article/view/36692/23759 http://seer.ufrgs.br/index.php/translatio/article/view/36692/23759
Therefore, one can only realize translators have made important Therefore, one can only realize translators have made important contributions over the centuries in dissemination of ideas and information to contributions over the centuries in dissemination of ideas and information to a larger audience. They have helped shaping and developing cultures, in a way a larger audience. They have helped shaping and developing cultures, in a way that has definitely helped unite the world
that has definitely helped unite the world as we know.as we know.
1.2
1.2
Myths
Myths about
about translation
translation
As
As much much as as one one can can clearly clearly understand understand the the role role of of translation along translation along the the timetime or the importance of how it is done, there are a few myths that are hard to die. or the importance of how it is done, there are a few myths that are hard to die. Maybe for being a science with some disagreement – like any other kind of Maybe for being a science with some disagreement – like any other kind of science – and for involving linguistic tasks, translation has always risen some science – and for involving linguistic tasks, translation has always risen some doubts and inferences, wrongly aroused, must we add.
doubts and inferences, wrongly aroused, must we add. Before we dig in it
Before we dig in it any further, please take some time to check the any further, please take some time to check the box below.box below. Do as your heart says, and don’t think too much about each item. Just go ahead Do as your heart says, and don’t think too much about each item. Just go ahead and check what first comes to your mind.
and check what first comes to your mind.
CONNECTION
CONNECTION
For more translation myths, read these articles. The first one focuses on tr
For more translation myths, read these articles. The first one focuses on translation within theanslation within the sale world, but you can easily transfer its information to any other context. The second one sale world, but you can easily transfer its information to any other context. The second one shows 5 more myths about translation:
shows 5 more myths about translation:
http://www.huffingtonpost.com/nataly-kelly/ten-common-myths-about-tr_b_3599644.html http://www.huffingtonpost.com/nataly-kelly/ten-common-myths-about-tr_b_3599644.html http://www.kwintessential.co.uk/translation/articles/translation-myths.html
AGREE AGREE NEITHER NEITHER AGREE NOR AGREE NOR DISAGREE DISAGREE DISAGREE DISAGREE 1 1
Translation is a science which can be practiced by Translation is a science which can be practiced by anybody as long as they have a great deal of lexical anybody as long as they have a great deal of lexical knowledge.
knowledge. 2
2 Translation can only be done by those who have traveledTranslation can only be done by those who have traveled to countries where the source
to countries where the source language is spoken.language is spoken. 3
3 Translation is a gift, and trying to learn techniques onTranslation is a gift, and trying to learn techniques on how do it could be a waste of time.
how do it could be a waste of time. 4
4 The translator must be bilingual or live The translator must be bilingual or live in a countryin a country where the source language is spoken.
where the source language is spoken. 5
5 Translation is all about language and almost nothingTranslation is all about language and almost nothing about culture.
about culture.
How many "agree boxes" have you checked? If you have ticked any of them, How many "agree boxes" have you checked? If you have ticked any of them, you believe that myth. Th
you believe that myth. That’s rightat’s right: a myth. Even thoug: a myth. Even though there is an explanath there is an explanationion for each myth, they are nothing but that. Let’s go over each one of them, shall we? for each myth, they are nothing but that. Let’s go over each one of them, shall we?
1. TRANSLATION IS A SCIENCE WHICH CAN BE PRACTICED BY
1. TRANSLATION IS A SCIENCE WHICH CAN BE PRACTICED BY
ANYBODY AS LONG AS THEY HAVE A GREAT DEAL OF LEXICAL
ANYBODY AS LONG AS THEY HAVE A GREAT DEAL OF LEXICAL
KNOWLEDGE. WRONG!
KNOWLEDGE. WRONG!
Lexical knowledge is crucial for any translator. Nevertheless, it is not and should not be Lexical knowledge is crucial for any translator. Nevertheless, it is not and should not be the only thing a translator has to worry about. Lexical knowledge increases with time the only thing a translator has to worry about. Lexical knowledge increases with time and practice. Good dictionaries can be found in the physical and virtual market. Context, and practice. Good dictionaries can be found in the physical and virtual market. Context, culture and chunk of words (units of translation, which will later be seen) are the basis culture and chunk of words (units of translation, which will later be seen) are the basis for any good translation. We will get to them in the second chapter of this book.
for any good translation. We will get to them in the second chapter of this book.
2. TRANSLATION CAN ONLY BE DONE BY THOSE WHO HAVE TRAVELED
2. TRANSLATION CAN ONLY BE DONE BY THOSE WHO HAVE TRAVELED
TO COUNTRIES WHERE THE SOURCE LANGUAGE IS SPOKEN. WRONG!
TO COUNTRIES WHERE THE SOURCE LANGUAGE IS SPOKEN. WRONG!
Even though it is highly advisable to have spent at least some time immersed in Even though it is highly advisable to have spent at least some time immersed in the cultural world you are translating a language from, many good translators have the cultural world you are translating a language from, many good translators have never done it. In order to translate well and accurately, they have used methods and never done it. In order to translate well and accurately, they have used methods and techniques besides following the concepts of Sociolinguistics.
3. TRANSLATION IS A GIFT, AND TRYING TO LEARN TECHNIQUES ON
3. TRANSLATION IS A GIFT, AND TRYING TO LEARN TECHNIQUES ON
HOW DO IT COULD BE A WASTE OF TIME. WRONG!
HOW DO IT COULD BE A WASTE OF TIME. WRONG!
Translation techniques are essential to any given translator, no matter how talented Translation techniques are essential to any given translator, no matter how talented and gifted they may be. Improving techniques and learning new ones are the first and gifted they may be. Improving techniques and learning new ones are the first steps for a better work.
steps for a better work.
4. THE TRANSLATOR MUST BE BILINGUAL OR LIVE IN A COUNTRY
4. THE TRANSLATOR MUST BE BILINGUAL OR LIVE IN A COUNTRY
WHERE THE SOURCE LANGUAGE IS SPOKEN. WRONG!
WHERE THE SOURCE LANGUAGE IS SPOKEN. WRONG!
Exactly like in item number 2, it is highly advisable that a translator have lived within Exactly like in item number 2, it is highly advisable that a translator have lived within the culture they are translating from or into. However, living abroad does not make the culture they are translating from or into. However, living abroad does not make anyone a natural translator and that should be clear.
anyone a natural translator and that should be clear.
5. TRANSLATION IS ALL ABOUT LANGUAGE AND ALMOST NOTHING
5. TRANSLATION IS ALL ABOUT LANGUAGE AND ALMOST NOTHING
ABOUT CULTURE. WRONG!
ABOUT CULTURE. WRONG!
If there are several discourses and speeches within a country itself, and they should If there are several discourses and speeches within a country itself, and they should all be taken into account when establishing communication, why should a translator all be taken into account when establishing communication, why should a translator ignore cultural aspects while
ignore cultural aspects while doing their job? doing their job? TTranslating “cultures” is a great part ranslating “cultures” is a great part of aof a translation.
translation.
These are just some of the myths that translators have to handle. At times, These are just some of the myths that translators have to handle. At times, their job is not appreciated as it should be due to these myths. Nowadays, they their job is not appreciated as it should be due to these myths. Nowadays, they also face a very common issue: overuse and overconfidence of technology.
also face a very common issue: overuse and overconfidence of technology. As the
As the number of number of translating sites has translating sites has increased and increased and people’s dependencepeople’s dependence on the internet has likewise grown, they may mistakenly have a text translated on the internet has likewise grown, they may mistakenly have a text translated well in
well in their pointheir point vt view becausiew because of e of the the simple fasimple fact ct that that they tthey trust inrust internet enougternet enoughh to believe it. Moreover, what helps them think it is a fine translation is the first to believe it. Moreover, what helps them think it is a fine translation is the first
item of our list of myths: vocabulary is all it takes to translate. It is not and it item of our list of myths: vocabulary is all it takes to translate. It is not and it never will be! A layperson may not know that, though. It is the translator’s duty never will be! A layperson may not know that, though. It is the translator’s duty never to diminish their work and importance since it would help feed these never to diminish their work and importance since it would help feed these myths.
myths. There is nThere is no way to o way to deny, though, deny, though, that technology that technology also aids also aids translators iftranslators if well used. One of the best examples are
well used. One of the best examples are the programs that make use of corporathe programs that make use of corpora (a collection of samples of corpus), which is a
(a collection of samples of corpus), which is a valid asset. One of the differevalid asset. One of the differencesnces between a good translator and anybody who tries
between a good translator and anybody who tries to do a translation is how theyto do a translation is how they use the resources they have at
use the resources they have at hand.hand.
1.3 Job market
1.3 Job market
Before we go any further into the job market of translation, it is extremely Before we go any further into the job market of translation, it is extremely necessary to analyze what it takes to be a translator. In the first part of this necessary to analyze what it takes to be a translator. In the first part of this chapter, you came across some definitions of
chapter, you came across some definitions of translation and the disagreementstranslation and the disagreements some authors have upon it. Defining what a translator needs would not or could some authors have upon it. Defining what a translator needs would not or could not be any differe
not be any different, then. Who else, rather than translators themselves, wouldnt, then. Who else, rather than translators themselves, would be better at giving a say about
be better at giving a say about what it takes to do this job?what it takes to do this job?
MULTIMEDIA
MULTIMEDIA
Listen to a translator give an interview on job market to Rede Globo: Listen to a translator give an interview on job market to Rede Globo:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CEywpzGbFs4 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CEywpzGbFs4
So as to clear some questions, Ivone C. Benedetti and Adail Sobrail have So as to clear some questions, Ivone C. Benedetti and Adail Sobrail have made a compilation of interviews of several renowned Brazilian translators: made a compilation of interviews of several renowned Brazilian translators: Conversas com Tradutores
Conversas com Tradutores –– Balanços e Perspectivas da Tradução Balanços e Perspectivas da Tradução . In the. In the preface, Ivone Benedetti claims that, even though it is not said out loud by all preface, Ivone Benedetti claims that, even though it is not said out loud by all the translators, the translation market is covertly divided into two very distinct the translators, the translation market is covertly divided into two very distinct areas: technical and literary.
areas: technical and literary.
Still according to her, literary translation is “the kingdom of adjectives, Still according to her, literary translation is “the kingdom of adjectives, verbs, metaphors and transgressiv
verbs, metaphors and transgressive syntactic constructionse syntactic constructions” while “a technical” while “a technical translation is everything but that” (p.22). She says this is the foundation for translation is everything but that” (p.22). She says this is the foundation for the other subdivision of the market: as-a-means and the other subdivision of the market: as-a-means and translation-as-an-end. In other words, the translation-as-a-means deals with texts that are as-an-end. In other words, the translation-as-a-means deals with texts that are
not seen as the final product, such as a manual or the instructions to assemble not seen as the final product, such as a manual or the instructions to assemble a device. They are mere accessories to the final product, which may vary from a device. They are mere accessories to the final product, which may vary from a medicine to a truck, for example. On the other hand, translation-as-an-end a medicine to a truck, for example. On the other hand, translation-as-an-end is the final product itself, which depends, if not solely at least mainly, on the is the final product itself, which depends, if not solely at least mainly, on the translation to be sold. Classic examples are books or the subtitling of a TV show. translation to be sold. Classic examples are books or the subtitling of a TV show. Take translation out of the equation, and the product will equally
Take translation out of the equation, and the product will equally disappear.disappear. The author shyly affirms this division might be the key
The author shyly affirms this division might be the key factor for a translator’sfactor for a translator’s remuneration. Since the translation-as-a-means may have very little influence remuneration. Since the translation-as-a-means may have very little influence on the final price of
on the final price of the final product, charging for it might not be the final product, charging for it might not be as financiallyas financially rewarding as charging for a
rewarding as charging for a translation-as-an-end. Hence, the opposite happenstranslation-as-an-end. Hence, the opposite happens to the translation-as-an-end: it weighs on the final price of the
to the translation-as-an-end: it weighs on the final price of the final product forfinal product for it is the main, perhaps sole, reason the final product can be
it is the main, perhaps sole, reason the final product can be sold.sold.
Benedetti concludes that both translators – technical and literary – Benedetti concludes that both translators – technical and literary – are allowed to work in either sector as long as they have the skills to do it. are allowed to work in either sector as long as they have the skills to do it. Nevertheless, she admits they may excel at one, but not at the other. It would be Nevertheless, she admits they may excel at one, but not at the other. It would be up to them to decide whether they
up to them to decide whether they can and should do it. Furthermore, she makescan and should do it. Furthermore, she makes a very strong and valid point saying that what influences the remuneration is a very strong and valid point saying that what influences the remuneration is not the area they are
not the area they are translating to; it is the division of translating to; it is the division of the translation world intothe translation world into technical and literary.
technical and literary.
CONNECTION
CONNECTION
If you are interested in knowing details of the interviews, it is a good idea to take a look at the If you are interested in knowing details of the interviews, it is a good idea to take a look at the publishing site of the book. In it, you find links to all the translators who were asked to give publishing site of the book. In it, you find links to all the translators who were asked to give their opinion and see for yourself which areas they belong to, deciding which ones draw your their opinion and see for yourself which areas they belong to, deciding which ones draw your attention the most. Here the link goes:
attention the most. Here the link goes:
http://parabolaeditorial.com.br/releaseconversast.htm http://parabolaeditorial.com.br/releaseconversast.htm
That being said, let’s move on to
That being said, let’s move on to what fellow translators from different areaswhat fellow translators from different areas admit being the basic and key-characteristics for someone to become a good admit being the basic and key-characteristics for someone to become a good translator. Above all, they need to:
translator. Above all, they need to:
1.
1. have ethics above all;have ethics above all; 2.
2. face translation as a real job, not a moonlight job;face translation as a real job, not a moonlight job; 3.
3. largely understand the world and be open-minded to try and do it all the time;largely understand the world and be open-minded to try and do it all the time; 4.
5.
5. always research and know how to do it;always research and know how to do it; 6.
6. be meticulous and perfectionist;be meticulous and perfectionist; 7.
7. know how to make decisions;know how to make decisions; 8.
8. allow themselves to think outside the box, meaning that they cannotallow themselves to think outside the box, meaning that they cannot
have a strict and rigid mind under any circumstance; have a strict and rigid mind under any circumstance;
9.
9. adequate their work to the client’s or radequate their work to the client’s or reader’s needs and profile,eader’s needs and profile, 10.
10. follow their intuition most of the times.follow their intuition most of the times.
Apart from
Apart from these basic these basic characteristics, most of characteristics, most of them point them point out a out a translatortranslator should take a course on Translation. If they were rare and difficult to find in the should take a course on Translation. If they were rare and difficult to find in the past, nowadays, it has become quite simpler
past, nowadays, it has become quite simpler to find a good to find a good course on Translation.course on Translation. Anyone who
Anyone who chooses to chooses to take this path take this path should be should be aware that aware that specializing in thespecializing in the area is fundamental to build a career. Translating is a serious job, and as such, area is fundamental to build a career. Translating is a serious job, and as such, so it should be taken.
so it should be taken.
In an e-talk, Francisco Gilberto Labace claims it is essential that the In an e-talk, Francisco Gilberto Labace claims it is essential that the translator make their work worthy of recognition in two meanings: by doing translator make their work worthy of recognition in two meanings: by doing it well and, especially, by not allowing anybody to depreciate it or its doing. it well and, especially, by not allowing anybody to depreciate it or its doing. According
According to to him, him, most most people people do do not not know, know, do do not not realize realize or or do do not not want want toto understand that translating is a job like any other, and it requires study and understand that translating is a job like any other, and it requires study and time, and it should not be taken any less
time, and it should not be taken any less seriously or respectfully.seriously or respectfully.
CONNECTION
CONNECTION
Read Labace’s full e-talk using this link: Read Labace’s full e-talk using this link:
http://www.sbs.com.br/e-talks/traducao-e-mercado-de-trabalho/ http://www.sbs.com.br/e-talks/traducao-e-mercado-de-trabalho/
As
As to to the rthe remuneration, all emuneration, all of of them say them say it it is quite is quite hard to hard to know how know how muchmuch exactly a translator earns. It depends on several factors, and the debate exactly a translator earns. It depends on several factors, and the debate “technical vs. literary” translation comes back to life. Some of them say a “technical vs. literary” translation comes back to life. Some of them say a translator who takes the job seriously can earn enough to live. Some others say translator who takes the job seriously can earn enough to live. Some others say it is impossible to know whether a translator can live solely
it is impossible to know whether a translator can live solely on their earnings inon their earnings in this job. What most agree on, though, is that a translator earns less than they this job. What most agree on, though, is that a translator earns less than they should, given the
should, given the nature of their job: nature of their job: they must they must have a large khave a large knowledge of annowledge of an area (or areas, for that matter) and it is not always acknowledged by those who area (or areas, for that matter) and it is not always acknowledged by those who hire their services.
In addition to these kinds of translators, there is another one: the sworn In addition to these kinds of translators, there is another one: the sworn translator. Sworn translators are those who translate for legal equivalence and translator. Sworn translators are those who translate for legal equivalence and must take a public contest released by the Board of Trade of a state to acquire must take a public contest released by the Board of Trade of a state to acquire this title. They, unlike the other kinds of translators, must follow the price set this title. They, unlike the other kinds of translators, must follow the price set by the Board of Trade
by the Board of Trade from their state. They charge per translated lauda (aroundfrom their state. They charge per translated lauda (around 25 lines, which can also vary from state to state) and are usually
25 lines, which can also vary from state to state) and are usually hired to performhired to perform translations of:
translations of:
•
• birth, marriage, divorce and death birth, marriage, divorce and death certificates;certificates; •
• judicial judicial sentences sentences and and other other documents documents of of legal legal proceedings, proceedings, such such asas
initial petitions, rogatory letters among others; initial petitions, rogatory letters among others;
•
• proxies;proxies; •
• agreements;agreements; •
• company registry documents;company registry documents; •
• international transport documents;international transport documents; •
• school records and diplomas (or any other education certificate);school records and diplomas (or any other education certificate); •
• health reports;health reports; •
• some specific technical reports,some specific technical reports, •
• any other documents that need to be legally presented and recognized inany other documents that need to be legally presented and recognized in
Brazil. Brazil.
CONNECTION
CONNECTION
Here is
Here is link for link for the table the table of prices of prices from SINTRA from SINTRA (Sindicato N(Sindicato Nacional dos acional dos TTradutores): radutores): http://http:// www.sintra.org.br/site/?p=c&pag=precos
www.sintra.org.br/site/?p=c&pag=precos
Last, but not least, it is important to say that translators will always be Last, but not least, it is important to say that translators will always be necessary in a world where dif
necessary in a world where different cultures need to ferent cultures need to find a way to communicate.find a way to communicate. As
As one one could could see, see, necessity necessity and and prices prices vary vary from from state state to to state, state, from from need need toto need, from purpose to purpose, and good translators are always busy doing need, from purpose to purpose, and good translators are always busy doing services. The point is: what kind of translator would you like
1.4
1.4
T
T
ypes and
ypes and methods of
methods of translation
translation
When
When it it comes comes down down to to translating, translating, there there is is more more than than one one type type of of it. it. In In thethe beginning of the chapter, when you answered the question about what you beginning of the chapter, when you answered the question about what you think when you hear about “translation”, did you think there would be more think when you hear about “translation”, did you think there would be more than one type? Did you
than one type? Did you think only about written translation? How about an oralthink only about written translation? How about an oral one?
one?
In fact, there are only 2
In fact, there are only 2 types of translation:types of translation:
Translation
Translation
General or specialized
General or specialized
Machine-aided
Machine-aided
Human
Human
These 2 types can be divided into
These 2 types can be divided into subtypes as shown below:subtypes as shown below:
HHuum
maan
n
W
Wrriitttteenn
Non-literary (technical)
Non-literary (technical)
Sight translation
Sight translation
Simultaneous
Simultaneous
Consecutive
Consecutive
Oral
Oral
Literary
Literary
M
Maacchhiinnee--aaiiddeed d CCAATT//MMAATT MT
MT
HAMT HAMT
Some of the types are self-explanatory or have been previously discussed, Some of the types are self-explanatory or have been previously discussed, like written, literary, non-literary (technical). However, the others are a bit like written, literary, non-literary (technical). However, the others are a bit foggy. Here a brief ex
foggy. Here a brief explanation goes:planation goes:
Human
Human
Written:
Written: non-literary non-literary (technical) (technical) translations translations encompass encompass legal, legal, religious,religious, medical, regulatory, financial, economic documents among other fields and medical, regulatory, financial, economic documents among other fields and areas, which are not literary by nature.
areas, which are not literary by nature.
Oral: as the names says, this type of translation is done orally. The Oral: as the names says, this type of translation is done orally. The simultaneous one is like the one you can watch when the Academy Awards simultaneous one is like the one you can watch when the Academy Awards (Oscar) ceremony is on TV: the interpreter waits for a chunk of the speech that (Oscar) ceremony is on TV: the interpreter waits for a chunk of the speech that makes complete sense and translates it while
makes complete sense and translates it while the speaker keeps on the speaker keeps on talking. Thetalking. The same process is repeated as many times as necessary. It typically happens in a same process is repeated as many times as necessary. It typically happens in a booth for total and sheer attention is needed.
booth for total and sheer attention is needed.
© © V V S S E E G G D D A A 2 2 2 2 2 2 | | D D R R E E A A M M S S T T I I M M E E . . C C O O M M T
The difference between simultaneous translation and consecutive The difference between simultaneous translation and consecutive translation is that the latter does not require as much attention: the speaker translation is that the latter does not require as much attention: the speaker pauses after a few minutes or sentences in order
pauses after a few minutes or sentences in order for the interpreter to be for the interpreter to be able toable to translate what they said. A typical example is in interviews like
translate what they said. A typical example is in interviews like the one below:the one below:
© © P P A A P P A A R R A A Z Z Z Z O O F F A A M M I I L L Y Y | | D D R R E E A A M M S S T T I I M M E E . . C C O O M M
On April 8, the press center of Donbass Arena hosted the meeting between the fans and the On April 8, the press center of Donbass Arena hosted the meeting between the fans and the players of Shakhtar Darijo Srna, Douglas Costa and the top scorer in the history of Donetsk players of Shakhtar Darijo Srna, Douglas Costa and the top scorer in the history of Donetsk -based club Andrei Vorobei.
-based club Andrei Vorobei. A
A sight sight translation translation takes takes place place when when the the interpreter/translator interpreter/translator readsreads aloud a document written in source language straightinto target language. aloud a document written in source language straightinto target language. The interpreter must be able to excel at both reading and speaking skills in The interpreter must be able to excel at both reading and speaking skills in source and target language. It usually happens at more formal situations, like source and target language. It usually happens at more formal situations, like conferences or collective interviews when the original speaker is
conferences or collective interviews when the original speaker is not present.not present.
Machine-aided
Machine-aided
This type of translation is not supposed to be confused with a translation This type of translation is not supposed to be confused with a translation done entirely by a machine. As the name says, the “machine” helps the human done entirely by a machine. As the name says, the “machine” helps the human translator do their job for a human translation process may be described as translator do their job for a human translation process may be described as the decoding of the meaning of a source text plus its re-encoding in the target the decoding of the meaning of a source text plus its re-encoding in the target
language. It is a very complex operation, which cannot be performed only by a language. It is a very complex operation, which cannot be performed only by a machine because it depends on the interpretation and analysis of the text, and machine because it depends on the interpretation and analysis of the text, and it can only be successfully done by a human being. After all, it requires deep it can only be successfully done by a human being. After all, it requires deep knowledge of the semantics, syntax, idioms, figures of speech, function of the knowledge of the semantics, syntax, idioms, figures of speech, function of the language and an infinity of other factors from which culture is one of the most language and an infinity of other factors from which culture is one of the most important ones.
important ones.
The challenge of programming a computer that will perform all these tasks The challenge of programming a computer that will perform all these tasks and understand a text as a human does has not yet been fulfilled. Actually, it and understand a text as a human does has not yet been fulfilled. Actually, it might never be. Nonetheless, programs that provide a general approximation might never be. Nonetheless, programs that provide a general approximation of the original text – however imperfect they may be – is at times reasonable of the original text – however imperfect they may be – is at times reasonable enough for situations in which accuracy is not a demand. This process, enough for situations in which accuracy is not a demand. This process, called “gisting”, is reserved only for cases like this, and it performs a simple called “gisting”, is reserved only for cases like this, and it performs a simple substitution of words in a language for words in another, not producing a good substitution of words in a language for words in another, not producing a good translation. That is what is known as MT:
translation. That is what is known as MT: machine translation.machine translation.
The graphic below shows how the program works. Interlingua is the language The graphic below shows how the program works. Interlingua is the language generated by MT. The process can happen either by
generated by MT. The process can happen either by a direct translation, usuallya direct translation, usually word-for-word, or transference, usually chunk-for-chunk.
word-for-word, or transference, usually chunk-for-chunk.
Interlingua Interlingua G G e e n n e e r r a a t t i i o o n n A A n n a a l l y y
s
s i i s s TransferTransfer
Direct translation Direct translation Source Source text text Target Target text text
Bernard Vauquois' pyramid showing comparative depths of intermediary representation, Bernard Vauquois' pyramid showing comparative depths of intermediary representation, in-terlingual machine translation at the peak, followed by transfer-based, then direct translation. terlingual machine translation at the peak, followed by transfer-based, then direct translation. Fonte: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_translation#/media/File:Direct_translation_ Fonte: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_translation#/media/File:Direct_translation_ and_transfer_translation_pyramind.svg
As
As to to CAT, CAT, it it stands stands for for Computer-Assisted Computer-Assisted Translation Translation while while MAT MAT standsstands for Machine-Assisted Translation. They are the same thing. You may find for Machine-Assisted Translation. They are the same thing. You may find references to one at times and to the other at other times. Unlike MT, they are references to one at times and to the other at other times. Unlike MT, they are a series of programs that help the translator make a better use of their time by a series of programs that help the translator make a better use of their time by supporting and facilitating the translating process. They vary from spell and supporting and facilitating the translating process. They vary from spell and grammar checkers to translation memory, which is a database of translations grammar checkers to translation memory, which is a database of translations in several languages. in several languages. © © W W I I K K I I P P E E D D I I A A
Logo for Wordfast, a translation memory database Logo for Wordfast, a translation memory database
Last, but not least, comes the HAMT. It is the opposite of MT: a human Last, but not least, comes the HAMT. It is the opposite of MT: a human translator modifies the source language text either before, during, or after it translator modifies the source language text either before, during, or after it is translated by the computer. Human intervention can also mean pre-editing is translated by the computer. Human intervention can also mean pre-editing the source language text by someone skilled at using the machine translation the source language text by someone skilled at using the machine translation system in order to make the source language easier for the computer to system in order to make the source language easier for the computer to understand. Besides, it can mean interactive intervention as wel
understand. Besides, it can mean interactive intervention as well: the translatorl: the translator may be asked questions about the meaning of the source language text by the may be asked questions about the meaning of the source language text by the computer in order to avoid future mistakes and feed its database. In addition to computer in order to avoid future mistakes and feed its database. In addition to it, human intervention may also mean post-editing to
it, human intervention may also mean post-editing to check the translation andcheck the translation and fix mistakes made by the computer. In this case, it is advisable that the “fixer” fix mistakes made by the computer. In this case, it is advisable that the “fixer” be a trained linguist so as to fix mostly syntax mistakes and parse them in the be a trained linguist so as to fix mostly syntax mistakes and parse them in the system.
system.
Regardless if the translation is written or oral, human or machine-aided, Regardless if the translation is written or oral, human or machine-aided, general or specialized, one must always bear in mind that a translator’s job general or specialized, one must always bear in mind that a translator’s job is endless. It does not end when they hand their service to the client. It does is endless. It does not end when they hand their service to the client. It does not end when it reaches its final client: the reader. It does not end when the not end when it reaches its final client: the reader. It does not end when the translator receives feedback. It does not end at the
translator receives feedback. It does not end at the moment they type their finalmoment they type their final punctuation mark. It does not end even when the translator dies. Once it is punctuation mark. It does not end even when the translator dies. Once it is done and passed on, it will live forever in whosever mind, lips or eyes it goes done and passed on, it will live forever in whosever mind, lips or eyes it goes
through. It will live forever, and that is one of the reasons a translator should through. It will live forever, and that is one of the reasons a translator should be very careful and thoughtful about their piece of art; their piece of be very careful and thoughtful about their piece of art; their piece of bridge-crossing; their piece of cultural-access aid.
crossing; their piece of cultural-access aid.
MULTIMEDIA
MULTIMEDIA
Listen to Professor Jeremy Munday give his opinion on a translator’s job. It encompasses Listen to Professor Jeremy Munday give his opinion on a translator’s job. It encompasses everything we have seen and thought about so far:
everything we have seen and thought about so far: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iffkVwa9lno https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iffkVwa9lno
ACTIVITIES
ACTIVITIES
What do you think about refreshing your memory and checking if you really got the idea of What do you think about refreshing your memory and checking if you really got the idea of the chapter?
the chapter? YYou will find 5 exercises to help you decide which topics you should review, ifou will find 5 exercises to help you decide which topics you should review, if any. Do them with attention, trying not to go back to the chapter.
any. Do them with attention, trying not to go back to the chapter. 01.
01. Read the statements below aRead the statements below and decide whether they are true nd decide whether they are true (T) or fa(T) or false (F):lse (F): a)
a) TTranslation ranslation is is a a process process which which has has to to be be done done both by both by a a human human and and a a machine. machine. ( ( )) b)
b) TTranslation is ranslation is a process a process which consists which consists of taking of taking into account into account not only not only language itself,language itself, but
but also also the the culture culture which which it it comes comes from. from. ( ( )) c)
c) TTranslation should ranslation should be considered a be considered a science for science for it may it may not be only not be only a natural a natural gift, but agift, but a complex series
complex series of theories of theories that must that must be studied be studied and put and put into practice. into practice. ( ( )) d)
d) Excelling Excelling at at a a language language is is the the only only necessary necessary characteristic characteristic a a translator translator should should have. have. ( ( )) e)
e) For a For a translation to translation to be considered good, be considered good, a sworn a sworn translator or translator or a literary a literary one shouldone should do
do it. it. ( ( )) f)
f) The translation The translation market is market is clearly and clearly and legally divided legally divided into two into two kinds: literary kinds: literary andand technical.
technical. ( ( )) g)
g) TTranslators ranslators don’t eadon’t earn a rn a lot of lot of money bmoney because ecause sites sites can can do a do a translation translation as as well thwell they caey can. ( n. ( )) h)
h) There There are are two two types types of of translation translation (human (human and and machine-aided) machine-aided) and and their their subdivision. subdivision. ( ( )) i)
i) One caOne can say n say translation has translation has been helping been helping the world the world to be to be the world the world we kwe knownow and
and live live in. in. ( ( )) j)
j) TTranslation is fundamental to the spreading and understanding ranslation is fundamental to the spreading and understanding of cultures. ( of cultures. ( )) 02.
