Emotional context, maternal behavior and emotion regulation

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ContentslistsavailableatScienceDirect

Infant

Behavior

and

Development

Emotional

context,

maternal

behavior

and

emotion

regulation

Lisa

Roque,

Manuela

Veríssimo

∗

UIPCDE,UnidadedeInvestigac¸ãoemPsicologiaCognitiva,doDesenvolvimentoedaEducac¸ão,ISPA–InstitutoUniversitário,RuaJardimdoTabaco,34,1149 –041Lisboa,Portugal

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Articlehistory:

Received15January2011

Receivedinrevisedform3May2011 Accepted21June2011

Keywords: Emotionregulation

Positiveandnegativeaffect-contexts Maternalinvolvement

Expressiveness Intensity

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Thisstudyinvestigatedtheimportanceofemotion-elicitingcontext(positiveand nega-tive)andmother’sbehaviors(constrainedandinvolved)ontoddlers’emotionregulation behavioralstrategies,emotionalexpressivenessandintensity,duringthreeepisodes elicit-ingfear,frustration/angerandpositiveaffect.Fifty-ﬁvechildrenbetween18and26months ofageandtheirmothersparticipatedinthestudy.Toddlers’regulatorystrategiesvaried asfunctionofemotion-elicitingcontext(childrenexhibitedbehavioralstrategiesmore fre-quentlyduringpositiveaffectandfrustration/angerepisodesandlessfrequentlyduringfear episodes)andmaternalinvolvement.Toddlers’expressionofemotionvariedasfunction ofemotion-elicitingcontext(childrenexhibitedmoreemotionalexpressions,both nega-tiveandpositiveduringfearandfrustration/angerepisodescomparedtopositiveaffect episodes).Toddlers’expressionofemotionwasnotstronglyrelatedtomaternal involve-ment,however,theintensityofemotionalexpressionwasrelatedtotheinteractionof contextandmaternalinvolvement.

RothbartandSheese(2007)arguethatemotionregulationshouldbeconstruedasabiopsychosocialbehavioralsystem responsibleforthemodulationofemotionalreactions,includingitsinhibition,activationorgradedmodulation.This sys-teminvolveschangesinlatency,risetimes,magnitudesanddurationsofresponsesinbehavior,experienceandphysiology, dependingonanindividual’sgoals(Gross&Thompson,2007;Thompson&Meyer,2007).Accordingtothefunctionalist perspective(Campos,Mumme,Kermoian,&Campos,1994)emotionregulationisconcernedwithrelationsbetween emo-tion(s)andtheperson’simmediateorlong-termobjectives.Whenemotionsareexperiencedinaflexibleandcontrolled manner(i.e.,regulated),theyareusefulinmobilizingtheindividual’sbehavioralresourcesintheserviceofgoalattainment, includingestablishinginter-personalrelationships,engaginginpro-socialinitiatives,self-assertiveness,etc.,accordingto thesocialandculturaldemandsofthecontextandtheindividual’sobjectives.Inprinciple,advancesinemotionregulation skillspromoteadaptivebehaviorsandappropriateandflexibleresponsestotheinitiationsofothers(Denham,1998;Fox, 1994).Failuretoattainage-appropriateemotionregulatoryskills(i.e.,dysregulation)isreflectedbytheuseof developmen-tallyprimitiveregulatorystrategiesandtheinabilitytomakedecisionsregardingappropriateconductacrossdiversesocial contexts(Denham,1998;Fox,1994).Furthermore,emotionaldysregulationhasbeenassociatedwithpsychopathological symptomsand/ordeviantdevelopmentaltrajectoriesinchildhoodandadolescence(Cole,Michael,&Teti,1994;Maughan &Cicchetti,2002).

1. Regulationofpositiveandnegativeemotions(fearandfrustration/anger)

Duringfearcontexts,strategiessuchaswithdrawal(Buss&Goldsmith,1998)avoidanceandfussingtomother(Diener& Mangelsdorf,1999a),wereassociatedwithadecreaseintheintensityofchildren’sfearexpressions.Ontheotherhand,when

∗ Correspondingauthor.

E-mailaddress:[email protected](M.Veríssimo).

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childrenusedapproachandinteractionstrategieswiththestimulus(Buss&Goldsmith,1998)orplayedwithit(Diener& Mangelsdorf,1999a),therewasnochangeintheintensityoffearexpressions.

Inthestudyofangerregulation,decreasesinangerwereassociatedwiththreestrategiesinchildren:shiftingattention awayfromsourcesoffrustration,passivewaitingandseekinginformation;whilefocusingonthefrustratingeventwas associatedwithincreasesinangerintensity(Gilliom,Shaw,Beck,Schonberg,&Lukon,2002).

Whencomparingstrategiesusedintheregulationoffearandfrustration/angerepisodes,researchsuggeststhatchildren tendtousemoreregulatorystrategiesduringfrustration/angercontexts,thanduringfearepisodes,probablyduetothefact thatthefrustrationobjectisunattainableandchildrentrymorestrategiesinarepeatedwayinordertogetitback,whereas thisisunnecessaryduringfearepisodes(Diener&Mangelsdorf,1999a).

Areviewofliteraturepointstoalackofattentiontopositiveaffectinthestudyofemotionregulation.Toourknowledge, fewstudies(Beauregard,Levesque,&John,2001;Giuliani,McRae,&Gross,2008;Kim&Hamann,2007)haveanalysedthe regulationofpositiveaffect,andnoneoftheseincludedchildren.Researchontheregulationofpositiveaffectisessential, particularly,thestudyofstrategiesthatmaintainandincreasetheexperiencesofpositiveemotions,sincecultivatingthem maybeparticularlyimportantforbuildingresiliencetostressfulevents(Tugade&Fredrickson,2007).Theregulationof positiveaffectalsoincludesthemodulationofhighintensitypositiveaffectincontextswhereitisnotappropriate.Intense positiveexperiencescanhaveundesirableconsequences,suchasgreaterarousalorphysiologicalreactivity,whichmay impairthebeneﬁtofpositiveemotions.Therefore,althoughintensepositiveexperiencesaredesirableatthetimetheyare experienced,theymaynotberelatedtolong-termwellbeing(Diener,Sandvik,&Pavot,1991).Theregulationofpositive andnegativeaffectisequallyimportant,particularly,ifitcontributestotheattainmentofone’simmediateorlongterm goals(Camposetal.,1994).However,nostudieshavebeendonetoshowifthereareanydifferencesinthenumberof regulatorystrategiesexhibitedduringpositiveaffectepisodes,comparedtonegativeaffectones.Accordingtolearningand operantconditioningtheories,behaviorsarestrengthenedbytheconsequenceofexperiencingapositivecondition,butalso bytheconsequenceofstoppingoravoidinganegativeone(Malott&Trojan,2008).Thisalsosuggeststhattheremightbe nodifferencesinthefrequencyofregulatorystrategiesexhibitedduringpositiveandnegativeemotion-elicitingcontexts.

2. Theroleofmother’sinvolvement

Maternalinvolvementisextremelyimportantinregulatingthechild’sphysiologicalandemotionalarousalstates,either by:(1)providingthemeansforthechild’sphysicalsurvivalandwellbeing(food,shelter,clothing,andphysicalsoothing);or (2)throughmorecomplexinteractions(caregivingstylesorexplicittraining,likediscipline,modeling,andreinforcement), whichteachthechildhowtomanagestress,frustrationandhowtocontrolimpulses(Calkins,1994).Thisprocessofexternal regulationisprogressivelyinternalizedbythechildandbecomesasourceofself-regulation,particularly,whensensorimotor behaviorandlocomotionaredeveloped,andsocialreferencingskillsareacquired.Thesenewdevelopmentalprocessesallow thechildtoregulatephysicalandemotionalproximitytothecaregiverandpeopleingeneral,andtofacilitateaccesstonew sourcesofinformation(Kopp,1989).

Childrenbetween18and24months,usedifferentbehavioralstrategiesasafunctionofmaternalinvolvement,in situ-ationsoffearandanger(Diener&Mangelsdorf,1999a).Forexample,theyaremorelikelytobehaveinwaysthatdistract themfromagoal-objectduringdelaysituationswhenanadultisavailableandinvolved(Grolnick,Bridges,&Connell,1996). Theyalsoengage,socialreferencetheirmothers,playwiththestimulus,andexpressmorepositivethannegativeaffect duringmotherinvolvedperiods,ascomparedwithperiodsduringwhichmaternalbehaviorisconstrainedbyexperimenter instruction(Diener&Mangelsdorf,1999a).

Researchalsosuggeststhatmaternalinvolvementandthequalityoftheattachmentrelationshipinﬂuencechildren’s emotionalexpressiveness.Insecurechildren,tendtoeitherminimizeorexaggerateemotionexpressiveness(Cassidy,1994; Bretherton,1990).Ontheotherhand,securechildrenarecharacterizedbyanopen,direct,andactiveexpressionofaffect tothemotherincaseofdistressandthepairoftenexchangeexpressionsofjoyduringpositiveaffectepisodesthatserveto maintaininterestintheirrelationship(Bowlby,1969/1982;Bretherton,1990).

3. Aimsofthestudy

Themaingoalofthisstudywastoexploretheinﬂuencesoftheemotion-elicitingcontext(positiveandnegativeaffect) andmaternalbehaviors(constrainedorinvolved)ontoddlers’emotionalexpressiveness,intensity,andtheexhibitionof behaviorsthatmightregulateeitherexpressivenessorintensity.Observationswereconductedatchildren’shomesandnotat thelaboratory,whichmayprovideimportantinsighttotheunderstandingofchildren’semotionregulationduringdaily-life events,outsidemorecontrolledsettings.Ourapproachtoemotionregulationfocusesonthestudyoffrequencyofstrategies andemotionalexpressionsasfunctionofmaternalinvolvement,andnotonthestudyofchangesintheintensityofemotional expressions(Diener&Mangelsdorf,1999a).ThisapproachissupportedbytheworkofDieneretal.(1991)whicharguesthat happinessresearchersshouldassessprimarilytherelativefrequencyofpositiveversusnegativeemotionalexperience.Two reasonsarepresentedbytheauthors:(1)therelativefrequencyofpositiveemotionscanbemoreaccuratelyandvalidly measured;(2)frequentpositiveaffectisbothnecessaryandsufﬁcienttoproducethestatewecallhappiness,whereas intensepositiveexperienceisnot,sinceitcanhaveundesirablefeatures.

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First,weexploredrelationsbetween(potentially)regulatorybehaviors,maternalinvolvementandemotion-eliciting contexts,eitherpositiveornegative(fear,frustration/anger).Wehypothesizedthat:(a)toddlers’useofregulatorybehaviors willvaryasfunctionoftheemotion-elicitingcontextandthatchildrenwillshowthesebehaviorsmorefrequentlyduring frustration/angerepisodes,thanduringfearcontexts(Diener&Mangelsdorf,1999a).Nodifferencesareexpectedbetween positiveaffectepisodesandnegativeaffectones,eitherfearoranger.Thiscanbeexplainedbythefactthatemotionregulation mayberelatedeitherwiththeinhibitionofnegativeaffect,orthemaintenanceofpositiveemotions,accordingtoone’sgoals (Camposetal.,1994;Thompson,1994)andthatbothpositiveandnegativeexperiencesstrengthenandreinforcebehavior (Malott&Trojan,2008);(b)Toddlers’regulatorybehaviorswillvaryasfunctionofmaternalinvolvement,speciﬁcallythat childrenwillbemorelikelytodisplayregulatorybehaviorsduringmotherinvolvedperiods,comparedtomotherconstrained onesduringfearepisodes(asawaytogetcomfort)andmorelikelytodisplayregulatorybehaviorsduringmotherconstrained periods,thanduringmotherinvolvedones,inthefrustrationangerepisodes(asawaytogetthetoybackandplay).During positiveaffectepisodes,weexpectedthatchildrenwillshownodifferencesinthefrequencyofregulatorybehaviorsusedin motherconstrainedandinvolvedperiods,giventhatinbothmomentsthedesiredobjectisalwayspresentandrepresents asourceofpleasure,evenifthemotherisemotionallyunavailable.

Thesecondaimwastoexaminethelinksbetweentoddlers’emotionalexpressiveness,maternalbehavior,andcontext. Weexpectedthat:(a)emotionalexpressionwouldshownodifferencesinitsfrequencyasfunctionofemotion-eliciting context.Expressivenessmaybeusedbychildrenasawaytosignaltheirmothers’abouttheirneedsandgoals,thatis,toplay inpositiveaffectcontextsortobesoothedinnegativeaffectcontexts(Camposetal.,1994);(b)emotionalexpressiveness willvaryasresultofmaternalinvolvement,andchildrenwillexhibitemotionalexpressionsmorefrequently,particularly positiveaffectones,duringmotherinvolvedperiods,thanduringmotherconstrainedones.Thisisasaresultofthesocial interactiveaspectsofemotionregulation,developedattheendoftheﬁrstyear(Kopp,1989;Cassidy,1994;Bretherton, 1990).

Thethirdgoalwastoexploretoddlers’emotionalintensity,duringpositiveandnegativeaffectcontextsandmother constrainedandinvolvedperiods.Wehypothesizedthat:(a)emotionalintensitywillnotvaryasafunctionofnegativeor positiveaffectcontexts,becauseemotionregulationmayinvolvetheinhibitionorthemaintenanceandenhancementof emotion,eitherpositiveornegative,accordingtothedemandsofthesituation(Gross&Thompson,2007;Thompson,1994); (b)emotionalintensitywillvarywithmaternalinvolvement.Childrenwillexhibithigheremotionalintensityduringmother constrainedperiods,thanduringmotherinvolvedones,asawaytocallmothers’attentiontotheirneeds,eithertodiminish distressortoplay(Camposetal.,1994;Kopp,1989).

4. Method

4.1. Participants

Fifty-fivemother/childdyads(27boysand28girls),allCaucasian,frombi-parentalfamiliesparticipatedinthestudy. Childrenwerebetween18and26monthsofage(M=21.35;S.D.=1.91).Twenty-sevenwerefirstbornandtwenty-eight hadsiblings.Theystartedattendingday-carecentersbetweentheageof6and24months(M=7.53;S.D.=4.81)andspent 7–11h(M=6.96;S.D.=2.64)inday-careeachweekday.Mothers’agerangedfrom25to43years(M=33.64;S.D.=4.10)and fathers’agefrom26to55yearsold(M=35.71;S.D.=5.73).Mothers’levelofeducationrangedfrom5to19years(M=14.87; S.D.=3.38)andfathers’from4to19years(M=13.71;S.D.=3.60).Participantsrepresentedarangeofsocioeconomicstatus backgrounds,asreflectedbyparentaleducationandwererecruitedfrompublicandprivatedaycarecenters.

4.2. Measures

4.2.1. Emotionregulationparadigm:fear,positiveaffect,frustration/anger

Theemotionregulationparadigm(Diener&Mangelsdorf,1999a),measuresbehavioralstrategies,emotional expres-sivenessandintensityexhibitedbychildrenduringthreeepisodes:positiveaffect,fearandfrustration/anger,elicitedby presentingthechildrenthreedifferenttoys.Eachepisodelastedfor6minandhadtwodistinctmomentsof3mineach:(1) motherconstrainedperiod(motherswereinstructedtorefrainfrominitiatinginteractionwiththeirchildren,iftheirchildren madebidsforattention,motherswereinstructedtorespondtothemwithbriefstatementsaboutthestimulipresentedin eachepisode:“It’sthedinosaur/piano/bear”);(2)motherinvolvedperiod(motherswereinstructedtobeateasewiththe childandthetoy.Freebehaviorwasallowed,whatevertheyfeltitwasappropriate,accordingtotheirsensitivity).During motherconstrainedperiod,ifthechildrenshowed30sofsustainedhigh-intensitydistress,motherswereinstructedto becomeinvolved.Ifthissituationhappenedduringthemotherinvolvedperiods,theepisodewasterminated.Allepisodes werevideotaped.

4.2.1.1. Emotionalstimuli.Allstimuliusedinthepresentstudywerepreviouslytestedinapilotstudy,whichshoweda varyingemotionalintensityinmostchildren.Duringthefrustration/angerepisode,wepresentedchildrenwithamovable boxwithwheels,shapedintheformofayellowbear,whichcontainedcoloredlegopiecesinside.Aftertheexperimenterfelt thatthechildwasinvolvedwiththetoy(2minonaverage),hetookthetoyawayﬁrmlyandplaceditoutofreachbutwithin thechild’ssight.Duringtheconstrainedperiod,mothers’wereinstructednottogivebackthetoytotheirchildren.During

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themotherinvolvedperiod,whenfreebehaviorwasallowed,allthemothersdecidedtogivebackthetoytotheirchildren, immediatelyafterthebeginningofthisperiod.Duringfearepisodes,adinosaurwithelementsofnovelty,unpredictability andintrusivenesswasusedtoelicitfear.Duringthepositiveaffectepisode,childrenweregivenatoypianothatplayed musicandcreatedmusicalrhythms.Similarproceduresforfearandfrustration/angerepisodes(butwithdifferentstimuli) wereusedinotherstudies(Buss&Goldsmith,1998;Diener&Mangelsdorf,1999a;Grolnicketal.,1996).

4.2.1.2. Children behavioral strategies. Toddlers’ behavioral strategies were divided into four domains (see Diener & Mangelsdorf,1999a,1999b):(1)mother-relatedstrategies (proximity/contactseekingtomother;directing mother;fuss tomother;helpseeking;informationseeking;socialreferencing/lookstomother;engagementofmother);(2) disengage-mentofattentionstrategies(passivedisengagement;distractiontowardsotherobjectorperson/activedisengagement;leave taking;avoidance);(3)dealingwiththestimulusstrategies(playing/exploring;resistance/control;labeling;problemsolving; proximitytostimulus);(4)redirectionofactionstrategies(tensionrelease;self-soothing).Duringthecourseofourstudy, anothersetofbehaviorswasobserved,besidestheonesproposedbyDienerandMangelsdorf(1999b).Thisonewascoded underthenameof“stranger”,becauseitwascharacterizedbybehaviorsdirectedatthestrangers(experimenters)inthe roomduringthesessionsanditwasplacedinthe“redirectionofactionstrategies”domain.

Children’sbehavioralstrategieswerecodeddichotomouslyonanoccurrence/nonoccurrenceway,each15sintervals(1 –occurrence;0–nonoccurrence).Each3-minperiodhad1215sintervals.Theresultsforeachstrategyweresummedfor atotalscore.Thepossiblerangeforeachbehaviorwas0–12,foreach3-minperiod.Ifanepisodewasterminatedbecause ofchilddistress,scoreswereproratedonthebasisofthenumberofintervalscompleted,bydividingthesumsofthescores bythenumberofintervalscompletedandmultiplying12(thetotalnumberofintervalspossible)(Diener&Mangelsdorf, 1999a).

4.2.1.3. Emotionalexpression. Thepredominantemotionthechildexpressedineach15-sintervalwasalsocoded(Diener &Mangelsdorf,1999a).Fearwasscoredwhenthechildexpressedatleastoneofthesefacialfeatures:eyebrowsraisedor drawntogether;eyeswide;mouthopen,cornersstraightback.Positiveaffectwasscoredwhenthechildsmiledorproduced apositivevocalization(laugh).Angerwascodedwhenthechildshowedatleastoneofthefollowing:browspulledback downortogether;raisedcheeks;straightorangularmouthortightlips.A“neutral”scorewasgivenwhenthechilddidnot expressanyofthetargetemotionsandthesescoreswerenotretainedforanalysis.Ifthechildexpressedmorethanone emotionduringthe15-sinterval,themostintensiveonewascodedasthepredominantone.

4.2.1.4. Emotionalintensity. Theintensityoftheemotionsexpressedbythechildwasscoredinascaleof1–3points(1–low intensity;2–mediumintensity;3–highintensity)foreach15-sinterval.Highintensityemotionscouldbeexpressedby facialaffect,bodypostures,gesturesandmovementsorfullintensityvocalizations(e.g.,laughterforpositiveaffect;crying orscreamingfornegativeaffect).Lowintensityaffectseemedmildandwouldbemoreambiguousthanhighintensityone (Diener&Mangelsdorf,1999b).

Independentcoders,blindtotheaimsofthestudycodedthethreeepisodes.Inter-raterreliabilitywascalculatedusing Cohen’sKappas(fear=.73;positiveaffect=.84;frustration/anger=.70).Thiscodingsystemissimilartothoseusedinother studiesofchildren copingstrategies(Buss&Goldsmith,1998;Calkins&Johnson,1998;Diener&Mangelsdorf,1999b; Nachmias,Gunnar,Mangelsdorf,Parritz,&Buss,1996;Parritz,1996).

4.3. Procedures

Theemotionregulationepisodeswerevideotapedatthechildren’shomeindifferentdays,inordertoavoidanyemotional contaminationfromoneepisode totheother.Theyallstartedatthesametime(18:30). Thetimechosentostartthe experimentswaslateafternoon,because94%ofthemothersworkedoutsidethehomeandﬁnishtheirshiftaround17:00. Thethreeepisodeswerecounter-balancedacrosssubjectsinordertocontrolanyordereffectovertheresults.

5. Results

5.1. Preliminaryanalyses

First,wetestediftheemotionalmanipulationswereeffectiveandifthetargetemotionwasexpressedmorefrequently inthecorrespondentepisode,thantheotheremotionsinasignificantway.ArepeatedmeasuresMANOVAwasconducted. Whentheresultsweresignificant,relevantdifferencesweretestedwithplannedcontrastestimatesanalyses.Two within-effectslevelswereused:emotionalexpression(fear,positiveaffectandfrustration/angerfacialexpressions)andepisode (fear,positiveaffect,andfrustration/anger).Childgenderwasusedasbetween-effectorindependentvariable.Theanalysis revealedsignificantmaineffectsforepisode(F(2,106)=37.94,p<.001)andemotionalexpression(F(2,106)=7.35,p<.001). Asignificantinteractionbetweenepisodeandemotionalexpressionwasalsofound(F(4,212)=80.36,p<.001).Nogender effectswerefound.

Duringfearepisodes(seeTable1)childrenshowedfearfulexpressionssigniﬁcantlymoreoften,thanpositiveaffect(t (53)=2.38,p<.05)andmorefearthanfrustration/angerexpressions(t(53)=10.23,p<.001).Duringpositiveaffectepisodes,

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Table1

Meansandstandarderrorsforchildren’semotionalexpressions,duringepisodesoffear,positiveaffectandfrustration/anger.

Episode Emotionalexpression M S.E.

Fear Positiveaffectexpression 3.91 0.58

Frustration/angerexpression 0.30 0.09

Fearexpression 6.50 0.57

Positiveaffect Positiveaffectexpression 4.93 0.52

Frustration/anger Positiveaffectexpression 2.31 0.26

Table2

Meansandstandarderrorsforchildren’sfourtypesofemotionalregulationstrategiesasfunctionofepisodeandmaternalinvolvement.

Strategytype Fear Positiveaffect Frustration/anger

Constrained Involved Constrained Involved Constrained Involved

M S.E. M S.E. M S.E. M S.E. M S.E. M S.E.

Mother-related Proximitytomother 8.74 0.58 9.62 0.47 8.08 0.51 9.60 0.46 8.55 0.55 9.59 0.38 Directingmom 0.74 0.25 0.92 0.21 0.68 0.18 0.64 0.19 3.86 0.55 3.43 0.43 Fussingtomother 2.02 0.34 2.18 0.36 0.24 0.09 0.33 0.17 2.53 0.53 0.68 0.26 Helpseeking 0.11 0.07 0.03 0.02 0.05 0.03 0.07 0.03 2.86 0.51 1.84 0.34 Informationseeking 0.08 0.05 0.07 0.04 0.04 0.02 0.13 0.08 0.42 0.24 0.28 0.16 Socialreferencing 4.13 0.41 5.13 0.39 5.54 0.45 6.26 0.46 6.75 0.47 6.48 0.45 Engagingmother 1.59 0.36 1.01 0.25 3.36 0.44 5.09 0.44 5.08 0.53 5.40 0.44 Disengagementofattention

Passivedisengagementofattention 0.80 0.21 0.67 0.23 4.33 0.41 3.21 0.38 3.79 0.43 1.28 0.28

Distraction 0.24 0.11 0.71 0.23 1.57 0.35 1.70 0.40 2.88 0.48 1.44 0.36

Leavetaking 0.07 0.04 0.09 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.22 0.14 0.45 0.18 0.24 0.12

Avoidance 2.13 0.28 3.92 0.45 0.91 0.23 1.57 0.37 2.36 0.50 1.91 0.35

Dealingwiththestimulus

Playingwithstimulus 0.47 0.21 2.15 0.44 8.16 0.58 8.12 0.53 – – – –

Resistance/control 0.04 0.03 0.16 0.07 0.00 0.00 0.09 0.07 – – – – Labeling 1.41 0.31 2.19 0.35 0.27 0.16 0.11 0.06 0.25 0.15 0.20 0.16 Problemsolving 0.43 0.22 1.02 0.27 0.58 0.20 1.22 0.34 0.21 0.10 0.77 0.32 Proximitytostimulus 3.00 0.60 7.27 0.58 9.39 0.50 10.13 0.38 1.92 0.46 8.80 0.46 Re-directedaction Tensionrelease 1.60 0.34 1.23 0.30 0.17 0.08 0.40 0.14 1.54 0.41 0.47 0.23 Self-soothing 6.19 0.71 5.29 0.70 4.29 0.70 2.85 0.60 4.48 0.69 3.51 0.67 Stranger 0.50 0.18 0.59 0.16 4.02 0.45 3.03 0.43 0.63 0.18 0.25 0.10 Total 1.80 0.08 2.33 0.07 2.72 0.06 2.88 0.07 2.56 0.12 2.81 0.09

theyshowedpositiveaffectexpressionssigniﬁcantlymoreoften,thanfearfulones(t(53)=6.19,p<.001)andmore

posi-tiveaffectthanfrustration/angerexpressions(t(53)=7.34,p<.001).Finally,duringthefrustration/angerepisodeschildren

expressedfrustration/angerfacessigniﬁcantlymoreoften,thanpositiveaffectones(t(53)=7.98,p<.001)andmore

frus-tration/angerexpressionsthanfearfulones(t(53)=19.48,p<.001).

5.2. Maineffectsofemotion-elicitingcontextandmothers’involvementontoddlers’behavioralstrategies

ArepeatedmeasuresMANOVAwasconductedandthreewithin-subjectlevelswereused:episode(fear,positiveaffect,

andfrustration/anger);maternalcondition(constrainedand involved)andthe19 strategies.Childgenderwasusedas

between-effectsfactor.Toreducethefamily-wisetypeIerrorrate,onlytheanalysessigniﬁcantatthep<.01levelwere

discussed.Signiﬁcantmaineffectswerefoundforemotionregulationstrategies(F(18,954)=165.13,p<.001);episode(F

(2,106)=36.19,p<.001)andmaternalcondition(F(1,53)=26.87,p<.001).

Duringfearepisodes(seeTable2)plannedcontrastestimatesanalysesrevealedthatchildrenexhibitedplayingwith

stim-ulusstrategiessignificantlymoreoftenduringmotherinvolvedperiods,thanduringmotherconstrainedones(t(53)=4.04, p<.001).Theyalsolookedforproximitytothestimulussignificantlymoreoftenduringmotherinvolvedperiods,than dur-ingconstrainedones(t(53)=7.78,p<.001).Intotal,infearepisodes(seeTable2)childrenexhibitedbehavioralstrategies significantlymoreoftenduringmotherinvolvedperiods,thanduringthemotherconstrainedones(t(53)=5.76,p<.001).

Duringpositiveaffectepisodes(seeTable2)childrenengagedtheirmotherssignificantlymoreoftenduringmother involvedperiods,thanduringconstrainedones(t(53)=3.68,p<.001).Theypassivelydisengagedtheirattentionsignificantly moreoftenduringmotherconstrainedperiods,thanduringinvolvedones(t(53)=2.96,p<.001).Childrenself-soothed themselvessignificantlymoreoftenwhentheirmotherswhereconstrained,thanwhentheirmotherswhereinvolved(t

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Table3

Meansandstandarderrorsforchildren’semotionalregulationstrategiesasfunctionofepisodeandmaternalinvolvement.

Episode Constrained Involved Total

M S.E. M S.E. M S.E.

Fear 1.80 0.08 2.33 0.07 2.07 0.06

Positiveaffect 2.72 0.06 2.88 0.07 2.80 0.06

Frustration/anger 2.56 0.12 2.81 0.09 2.68 0.09

(53)=3.10,p<.001).Finally,childrendirectedbehaviorstowardsthestrangerssigniﬁcantlymoreoftenwhentheirmothers’

behaviorwasconstrained,thanwhenitwasinvolved(t(53)=2.72,p<.001).

Duringfrustration/angerepisodes(seeTable2)childrenexhibitedfussingtomotherbehaviorssigniﬁcantlymoreoften

duringmotherconstrainedperiods,thanduringmotherinvolvedones(t(53)=4.05,p<.001).Theyengagedinpassive dis-engagementofattentionstrategiessignificantlymoreoftenwhentheirmotherswereconstrained,thanwhentheirmothers whereinvolved(t(53)=5.33,p<.001).Childrendistractedthemselvesfromthestimulussignificantlymoreoftenduring motherconstrainedperiods,thanduringmotherinvolvedones(t(53)=2.73,p<.001).Theyexhibitedproximityto stimu-lusbehaviorssignificantlymoreoftenwhenthemotherswereinvolved,thanwhentheywereconstrained(t(53)=11.13, p<.001).Childrenalsoreleasedtensionsignificantlymoreoftenduringthemotherconstrainedperiods,thanduringmother involvedones(t(53)=2.61,p<.01).Playingwithstimulusandresistance/controlstrategiesweretakenoutofthisanalysis becauseduringthemotherconstrainedperiod,thetoywastakenawayfromthechildtoaplacewheretheycouldseeit,but couldnottouchit.

Independentlyofmothers’involvement,childrenshowedbehavioralstrategiessigniﬁcantlymoreoftenduringpositive affectepisodes,followedbyfrustration/angerandbyfearepisodes(seeTable3).However,plannedcontrastestimates analysesrevealedthatsigniﬁcantdifferencesonlyoccurredbetweenfearandpositiveaffectepisodes(t(53)=10.47,p<.001) andbetweenfearandfrustration/angerepisodes(t(53)=6.10,p<.01),butnotbetweenpositiveaffectandfrustration/anger episodes.

5.3. Interactionsbetweenemotion-elicitingcontextandmaternalinvolvementontoddlers’emotionregulationstrategies

Asigniﬁcantinteractionstrategies×episode×maternalcondition(F(36,1908)=9.55,p<.001)wasfound.

Duringmotherconstrainedperiods(seeTable3),childrenexhibitedbehavioralstrategiessignificantlymoreoftenduring positiveaffectepisodes,followedbyfrustration/angerandfinallybyfearepisodes.However,plannedcontrastestimates analysesrevealedthatsignificantdifferencesonlyoccurredbetweenfearandpositiveaffectepisodes(t(53)=9.89,p<.001) andbetweenfearandfrustration/angerepisodes(t(53)=5.90,p<.01),butnotbetweenpositiveaffectandfrustration/anger episodes.Ontheotherhand,duringmotherinvolvedperiods(seeTable3)childrenexhibitedstrategiessignificantlymore oftenduringpositiveaffectepisodes,followedbyfrustration/angerandfinallybyfearepisodes.However,significant differ-encesonlyoccurredbetweenfearandpositiveaffectepisodes(t(53)=3.76,p<.001)andfearandfrustration/angerepisodes (t(53)=2.55,p<.01),butnotbetweenpositiveaffectandfrustration/angerepisodes.

5.4. Maineffectsofemotion-elicitingcontextandmothers’involvementontoddlers’emotionalexpressiveness

ArepeatedmeasuresMANOVAwasconductedinordertoexamineanysigniﬁcantdifferencesinchildren’semotional expressiveness.Weusedthreewithin-effectslevels:emotionalexpressions(fear,positive affectandfrustration/anger); episodeandmaternalcondition.Childgenderwasusedasabetween-effectfactor.Theanalysisrevealedsigniﬁcantmain effectsforemotionalfacialexpressions(F(2,106)=7.35,p<.001)andepisode(F(2,106)=37.94,p<.001).Nochildgender effectswereobserved.

Independentlyofmothers’behavior(seeTable4)childrenshowedexpressions(positiveandnegative)signiﬁcantlymore oftenduringfearepisodes,thanduringpositiveaffectones(t(53)=8.69,p<.001)andfrustration/angerepisodes(t(53)=5.23, p<.001).Theyalsoexhibitedexpressionssigniﬁcantlymoreoftenduringfrustration/angerepisodes,thanduringpositive affectones(t(53)=3.69,p<.001).

5.5. Interactionsbetweenemotion-elicitingcontextandmaternalinvolvementontoddlers’emotionalexpressiveness

Signiﬁcant interactions between emotional expression×episode (F (4, 212)=80.36, p<.001); emotional expres-sion× maternal condition (F(2, 106)=34.24, p<.001) and emotional expression× episode×maternal condition (F(4, 212)=27.76,p<.001)werefound.

Duringpositiveaffectepisodes(seeTable4)childrenexpressedpositiveaffectsignificantlymoreoftenduringmother involvedperiods,thanduringmotherconstrainedones(t(53)=3.62,p<.001).Theyalsoshowedsignificantlymoreoften frustration/angerfacialexpressionswhentheirmothers’behaviorwasinvolved,thanwhenitwasconstrained(t(53)=2.27, p<.001).Childrenexpressedfearfulfacialexpressionssignificantlymoreoftenduringmotherconstrainedepisodes,than duringmotherinvolvedones(t(53)=3.11,p<.001).

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Table4

Meansandstandarderrorsforchildren’semotionalexpressivenessasfunctionofemotion-elicitingcontextandmaternalinvolvement.

Episode Emotionalexpression Constrained Involved Total

Fear Positiveaffectexpression 3.29 0.63 4.52 0.65 3.91 0.58

Frustration/angerexpression 0.20 0.10 0.39 0.16 0.30 0.09

Fearexpression 6.67 0.70 6.36 0.63 6.50 0.57

Total 3.39 0.17 3.76 0.11 3.57 0.11

Positiveaffect Positiveaffectexpression 4.07 0.58 5.82 0.56 4.93 0.52

Fearexpression 1.29 0.36 0.35 0.19 0.81 0.24

Total 1.89 0.18 2.42 0.17 2.16 0.15

Frustration/anger Positiveaffectexpression 0.86 0.26 3.75 0.46 2.31 0.26

Fearexpression 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Total 3.29 0.13 2.32 0.15 2.81 0.11

Table5

Meansandstandarderrorsforchildren’semotionalintensityasfunctionofemotion-elicitingcontextandmaternalinvolvement.

Episode Constrained Involved Total

Fear 18.26 0.85 18.90 0.65 18.58 0.66

Positiveaffect 19.68 0.74 22.38 0.66 21.03 0.61

Frustration/anger 21.04 0.10 18.23 0.66 19.64 0.71

Duringfrustration/angerepisodes(seeTable4)childrenexpressedsigniﬁcantlymoreoften,positiveaffectduringmother

involvedperiods,thanduringmotherconstrainedones(t(53)=5.34,p<.001).Theyalsoshowedfrustration/angerfacial expressionssigniﬁcantlymoreoftenduringconstrainedperiods,thanduringinvolvedones(t(53)=9.16,p<.001).

Nosigniﬁcantdifferences(p<.01)betweenconstrainedandinvolvedperiodswerefoundduringfearepisodes.

Inmotherconstrainedperiods(seeTable4)duringfearepisodes,childrenshowedfearfulexpressionssignificantlymore often,thanpositiveaffect(t(53)=2.72,p<.001)orfrustration/angerones(t(53)=8.79,p<.001).During positiveaffect episodes(seeTable4)theyshowedpositiveaffectexpressionssignificantlymoreoften,thanfear(t(53)=3.50,p<.001) orfrustration/angerones(t(53)=6.08,p<.001).Duringfrustration/angerepisodes(seeTable4)theyexpressed frustra-tion/angerfacessignificantlymoreoften,thanpositiveaffect(t(53)=12.37,p<.001)orfearfulones(t(54)=19.02,p<.001). Inmotherinvolvedperiods(seeTable4)duringfearepisodes,childrenshowedfearfulexpressionssignificantlymore often,thanfrustration/angerones(t(53)=8.97,p<.001).Nosignificantdifferencesbetweenfearandpositiveaffect expres-sionswerefound.Duringpositiveaffectepisodes(seeTable4)childrenshowedpositiveaffectexpressionssignificantlymore often,thanfrustration/anger(t(53)=6.62,p<.001)orfearfulones(t(53)=8.43,p<.001).Duringfrustration/angerepisodes (seeTable4)theyexpressedfrustration/angerfacessignificantlymoreoften,thanfearfulones(t(53)=7.78,p<.001).No significantdifferenceswerefoundbetweenfrustration/angerandpositiveaffectexpressions.

Duringmotherconstrainedperiods,childrenexhibitedexpressionseitherpositiveornegative(totalofexpressionsper episode)significantlymoreoftenduringfearepisodes,thanduringpositiveaffectones(t(53)=6.79,p<.001).Theyalso exhib-itedexpressionssignificantlymoreoftenduringfrustration/angerepisodes,thanduringpositiveaffectones(t(53)=6.04, p<.001).Nosignificantdifferenceswerefoundbetweenfearandfrustration/angerepisodes.

Duringmotherinvolvedperiods(seeTable4)childrenalsoexhibitedexpressions(positiveornegative),signiﬁcantly moreoftenduringfearepisodes,thanduringpositiveaffect(t(53)=7.14,p<.001)orfrustration/angerepisodes(t(53)=7.35, p<.001).Nosigniﬁcantdifferenceswerefoundbetweenpositiveaffectandfrustration/angerepisodes.

5.6. Maineffectsofemotion-elicitingcontextandmothers’involvementontoddlers’emotionalintensity

Whenitcomestoemotionalintensityexperiencedbychildren,arepeatedmeasuresMANOVAwasundertaken.Two within-effectslevelswereused:episodeandmaternalcondition.Childgenderwasusedasbetween-effectsfactor.Nomain effectswerefoundforepisode,maternalconditionorchildgender.

5.7. Interactionsbetweenemotionalelicitingcontextandmaternalinvolvementontoddlers’emotionalintensity

A signiﬁcant interaction between episode_×maternal conditionwas found for toddlers’ emotional intensity (F (2, 106)=12.41,p<.001).

Duringfearepisodes,nosigniﬁcantdifferencesbetweenmaternalconstrainedandinvolvedperiodswerefound(see

Table5).Duringpositiveaffectepisodes(seeTable5)childrenexhibitedsigniﬁcantlyhigheremotionalintensityduring motherinvolvedperiods,thanduringmotherconstrainedones(t(53)=4.03,p<.001).Duringfrustration/angerepisodes

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(seeTable5)childrendisplayedsigniﬁcantlyhigheremotionalintensitywhenmotherswereconstrained,thanwhenthey wereinvolved(t(53)=3.01,p<.001).

Duringmotherinvolvedperiods(seeTable5)childrenshowedsigniﬁcantlyhigheremotionalintensityduringpositive affectepisodes,thanduringfear(t(53)=3.72,p<.001)andfrustration/angerones,(t(53)=4.97,p<.001).Nosigniﬁcant differenceswerefoundbetweenfearandfrustration/angerepisodes.

Duringmotherconstrainedperiodsnosigniﬁcantdifferencesp<.01werefoundbetweenepisodes.

Intotal,independentlyofthemothers’behavior(seeTable5)childrenexhibitedsigniﬁcantlyhigheremotionalintensity duringpositiveaffectepisodes,thanduringfearepisodes(t(53)=2.61,p<.01).Nosigniﬁcantdifferenceswerefoundbetween positiveaffectandfrustration/angerepisodesorbetweenfearandfrustration/angerepisodes.

6. Discussion

Toddlers’behavioralregulatorystrategiesvariedasfunctionofemotion-elicitingepisodes.Inparticular,childrenused moreoftenstrategiesduringpositiveaffectandfrustration/angerepisodesandfewerduringfearepisodes,partially confirm-ingourfirsthypotheses(Diener&Mangelsdorf,1999a).Inbothpositiveaffectandfrustration/angerepisodes,thestimuli weredesirableobjectstoplay,apianowithmusicalsoundsandlegos,respectively.Itmayhavebeenthatthedesiretoplay withthestimulusduringthepositiveaffectepisodesandthemotivationtoobtaintheobjectduringthefrustration/anger ones,madechildrenusemorestrategiesinordertoaccomplishtheirimmediategoalsandself-regulate(Camposetal., 1994).Wedidnotexpectedtofinddifferencesbetweenthefrequencyofstrategiesusedduringpositiveaffectepisodes andnegativeaffectones,however,thiswasnotconfirmed.Apossibleexplanationcouldberelatedtothefactthatthefear stimuluswastoaversivetopromoteanyapproachbehaviors.Moreover,showingfewerbehaviorsoftencouldalsoservean adaptationpurpose,giventhatthestimuluswasconsideredfrighteningbychildrenandevendangerous.Mostimportant, theseresultssuggestthatthedevelopmentofemotionregulationstrategiesmayfollowdifferentpathwayswhenitcomesto positiveversusnegativeaffectcontexts(particularlyfear),andthatpositiveaffectandfrustration/angerregulationmayshare commonaspects(inquantityofstrategiesmobilized,notquality),sincebothsituationsdeveloparounddesiredstimuli.

Toddlers’emotionalexpressivenesswasalsosignificantlyinfluencedbytheemotion-elicitingcontextexperiencedby children.Independentlyofthemothers’behavior,childrenexhibitedexpressiveness(eithernegativeorpositive) signifi-cantlymoreoften,duringfearandfrustration/angerepisodes,particularlyfear,andfewerduringpositiveaffectepisodes. Theseresultsdonotconfirmourinitialhypothesis,butsuggestthatchildrenmayuseexpressivenessasanimportantway toelicitmothers’behaviorsduringdifficultandnegativeemotionalcontexts.Specifically,whentheirsurvivalperceptionis threatened(fear)orwhentheydonothaveenoughresourcestosolveasituation(frustration/anger).Infact,recentstudies havesuggestedthatexpressionsoffearandangermayhaveco-evolvedtomimicfacesinordertoenhancetheir commu-nicativesignal(Sacco&Hugenberg,2009).Mostimportant,thereseemstobeadifferenceinthewaychildrenusebehavioral strategiesandemotionalexpressivenessasregulatoryresources,accordingtotheemotionalcontextexperienced(positive versusnegative).Toddlersseemtoexpressemotionsmorefrequentlyduringnegativeaffectepisodes(particularlyfear), thanduringpositiveaffectcontexts,asawaytosignaltheirmotherstheirdistress.However,fewerbehavioralstrategies areexhibitedduringfearepisodes,thanduringpositiveaffectorfrustration/angerepisodes.

6.1. Effectsofmaternalinvolvementontoddlers’emotionregulation

Toddlers’behavioralstrategiesvariedasfunctionofmaternalinvolvement,aresultsupportedbypreviousstudies(Diener &Mangelsdorf,1999a).Nevertheless,mothers’involvementseemedtoinfluencetheincreaseordecreaseofcertainstrategies indetrimentofothers,accordingtotheemotionalcontextexperienced.Duringfearepisodes,whenmaternalinvolvement wasobservedchildrenplayedwithstimulusandapproacheditmoreoften,thanwhenmotherconstrainedtheirbehaviors (e.g.,Diener&Mangelsdorf,1999a,1999b;Grolnicketal.,1996).Infrustration/angerepisodes,maternalinvolvementwas significantlyassociatedwithfewerfussingtomother,passivedisengagementofattention,distractionandtensionrelease behaviorsshowbychildren,whencomparedtomothers’constraint.Duringpositiveaffectepisodes,mothers’active partici-pationalsoinfluencedchildren’sbehavior,eitherbyincreasing(engagingtomotherstrategies)orbyreducingthefrequency oftheirstrategies(passivedisengagementofattention,self-soothing,andstranger).

Thesefindingssuggestthatdifferentemotionalcontextshavedifferentgoalsandtherefore,differentstrategiesshouldbe usedbychildren,namely,throughthemothers’involvement.Theseresultsareconsistentwiththefunctionalistperspective ofemotionregulation(Camposetal.,1994).Aspredicted,childrenshowedbehavioralstrategiessignificantlymoreoften whenmotherswereinvolved,andnotconstrained,duringfearepisodesasawaytoachievetheircontext-specificgoals (Camposetal.,1994),thatis,togetcomfortortoexplorethetoysafely.Duringpositiveaffectepisodes,nodifferences betweenmotherconstrainedandinvolvedperiodswerefound,asexpected.However,duringfrustration/angerepisodes, toddlersdidnotexhibitmorestrategiesduringmotherconstrainedperiods,thanduringinvolvedones(asawaytogetthe toybackandplay),asexpected.

Children’semotionalexpressivenessdidnotvaryasfunctionofmaternalinvolvement,butsigniﬁcantdifferenceswere foundasaresultofaninteractionbetweencontextandmaternalinvolvement.Assupportedbypreviousstudies(Diener& Mangelsdorf,1999a;Gross&Thompson,2007;Thompson,1994),ourresultsindicatedthatchildrenshowedpositiveaffect expressionssigniﬁcantlymoreoftenwhenthemothersbecameinvolved,eitherduringfrustration/angerorpositiveaffect

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episodesThisfindingisparticularlyinteresting,sincebothepisodesdevelopedaroundchildren’sdesireandapproach behav-iorstowardsthestimulus,particularlyduringfrustrationepisodes,wheretheobjectwasdesirable,butunattainable.Onthe opposite,themothers’involvementseemedtohavehadnosignificantimpactonchildren’spositiveexpressionsduringfear episodes,probablybecausethestimuluscausedtoomuchwithdrawalreactionsandemotionsonchildren.Whenitcomesto negativeexpressions(fearandfrustration/anger),themothers’involvementseemedtohaveadifferentialimpact,according totheemotionalcontextexperienced.Duringfearepisodes,itseemedtobufferchildren’snegativeaffect,sincenegative affectexpressionsshowednosignificantdifferencesfromtheconstrainedtotheinvolvedperiod.Duringfrustration/anger episodes,mothers’involvementwassignificantlyassociatedtolowerlevelsofstressandfrustrationexpressedbychildren. Duringpositiveaffectepisodes,childrenshowedfewerfearfulexpressionswhenthemotherwasengaged,whencompared tomotherconstrainedperiods.However,childrenexpressedfrustration/angerexpressionssignificantlymoreoftenduring motherinvolvedperiods,thanduringconstrainedones,probably,duetothenewnegotiationbehaviorsthatthemother’s involvementcreatedandimposedonchildrenwhenitcomestosharingthedesiredpositiveaffectstimulusduringplay.In fact,VanKleef&DeDrue(2010)reportedarelationshipbetweennegotiationbehaviorsandangerexpression.

Overall,childrendidnotexhibitsigniﬁcantdifferencesinemotionalintensityasafunctionofmaternalinvolvement; theywereonlyregisteredwhentheemotion-elicitingcontextsweretakenintoaccount.Thisindicatestheimportance ofinteractionsbetweenmothers’behaviorandemotion-elicitingcontextinthestudyofemotionalintensityduringthe toddler’syears.

Onthecontrarytoresultspreviouslyreportedintheliterature,focusingontoddlers’emotionregulationstrategiesduring challengingcontexts(seeBuss&Goldsmith,1998;Diener&Mangelsdorf,1999a;Parritz,1996),thisworkwasdevelopedat thechildren’shomesandnotatthelaboratory.Nonetheless,allthestimuliusedatthedyads’homeselicitedtheemotions theyweredesignedtoevoke,whichmeansthatemotion-elicitingcontextandmaternalinvolvementmanipulationscanbe inducedbothatcontrolledornaturalisticsettings.Moreover,theseresultssuggestthattoddlers’emotionregulatoryskills maybeindependentofchildren’sfamiliarityperceptiontowardsthesettingorplace,wherebehaviorsoccur.

6.2. Limitationsandfutureresearch

Thisstudyrevealedsomelimitations,similartoDienerandMangelsdorf’swork(1999a),themotherconstrainedand involvedperiodswerenotcounterbalanced,sinceduringpilottesting,maternalinvolvementseemedtochangethechildren’s emotionalinterpretationofthestimuli,particularly,duringfearepisodes.Infutureresearchitwouldbeveryimportantto studymothers’characteristics(depression,anxiety,maritalquality,etc.),whichmayleadtodifferencesinthequalityofthe mothers’involvement.

Acknowledgments

Theauthorswishtothankallthechildren,familiesandinstitutionswhoparticipateinthisstudy.Thisworkwassupported inpartbygrantsfromFCTtoI&DUnitNo.332/94andSFRH/BD/23365/2005.Wearealsogratefultoallthecolleaguesfrom Line1ofUIPCDE–DevelopmentalPsychologyfortheirvaluablecomments.

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