The Portuguese “Blue Shirts” and Salazar’s “New State”

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Reactionary

Nationalists,

Fascists

and

Dictatorships

in

the

Twentieth

century

Ismael

Saz .

Zira Box

.

Toni

Morant

.

_]ulián

_Sanz

Editors

Against

Democracy

palgrave

(2)

Ed.itors

Ismael Saz

Department of Modern

and Contemporary History

University of Valencia Valencia, Spain

Toni Morant

and Contemporâr)¡ History

ZiraBox

Department of Sociology and Social Anthropology

]ulián Sanz

and Contemporary History

Palgrave Studies in Political History

ISBN 978-3-030-22+L0-3 ISBN 978-3-030-224IL-0 (eBook) hnps: _{/ /}doi.org/ 10.1007 _/978 -3-030 -224L1 -0

@ The Editor(s) (ifapplicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzertand AG 2019

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The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse Il, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

CoNteNrs

Introduction

Ismael Saz,Zira Box, Toni Morant and _]uliánSanz

Part

I

Reactionary Nationalisms

The Action Française

in

a Transnational Perspective Olivier Dard

3

"Fellow Travelers": The

History

and

Evolution

of the Relationship Between the Nationalists and the Fascists

Lorenzo Benadusi

4

The Intellectual Roots and Political Foundations

of

Reactionary Spanish Nationalism

in an International Context Maximiliano Fuentes Codera

Reactionary Nationalism and Fascism:

The German Case

Hermann Beck

I

j b 29 49 67 B5

(3)

VI CONTENTS CONTENTS Vii

6 Paths

of

Political Right-Wing Thinkers

in

South America

in

the

Earþ

Twentieth Century: Problems and Questions

Fernando

_I.

Devoto

14

National Socialists and Conservative Nationalists

in

Germany

1933-f938

Michael Grüttner

259 105

f

5

The Constitutional Foundations

of

an Ethical State: The Portuguese New State

in

Comparative Perspective Goffredo Adinolfi

279 Part

II

Fascisms

7 Fascism and Fascists

in

Italy

Patrizia Dogliani

r25

₁₆

The Franco Dictatorship:

A

Proposal

for

Analysis in Terms

of

Political Cultures

ZtraBox

293

I

The German Fascists: Nazi Political Culture Toni Morant

145

L7

Vichy, a Fascist State! Olivier Wieviorka

3tI

9 Fascism in France:

A

Historiographical Development Since 1945

Olivier Forlin

165

18

_{Authoritarianism, Nationalism,}Fascism and National Security Doctrine: The Debate on Latin American Southern Cone Dictatorships Daniel Lvovich

327

I0

A

Fascism That Came

to

Stay| On Spanish Falange's Political Culture

lulián Sanz

r83

fndex 345

ll

The Portuguese

"Blue Shirts"

and Salazar's

ttNew _Statett António Costa Pinto

203

L2

Fascism

in

Central Burope: Big Fascisms

in

(Not That)

Small Countries

Traian Sandu

22I

Part

III

Dictatorships

13

Political Cultures

in

the Fascist

Italy:

Transversalities and Contradictions

Ismael Saz

(4)

Norps

oN

CoNTRIBUToRS

Goffredo

Adinolfi

is researcher

in

Political Science and Contemporâry

History

at

the

Instituto

Universitário

de

Lisboa.

His

research inter-ests are mainly focused

on

Fascism and Authoritarianism

with

special devotion

to

Salazar Fortugal.

He

has published mainly

on

Italian and

porruguese fascis¡r, including

Ai

conf,ni d,el _{føscisrno: Propøgønd.ø}ø

,oorriro nel Portogøllo søløzøristø (1932-1944) (2007), and 'The insti-tutionalization

of

propaganda

in

the fascist era: The cases

of

Germany, Portugal and Italy', Ewropeøtc Legøcy,17 (2012).

llermann

Beck

is

Professor

of

History

at

the

University

of

Miami' His publications include The Origiøs of the Authot

itøriøn

Welføre Støte

in

Prwssiø (Michigan Press,

1995)

and Tbe Føteful Alliøncø. Gervn'øn

Conservøtipes ønd' Nøzis

in

1933 (Berghahn,

2008),

and

(with

Larry

lones,

eds.) Frotø Weiruør to

Hitler

(Berghahn, 2019).

He

published numerous articles in American and European journals, including among orhers, the Joørnøl

of

Mod.ern _{History, the Journøl}

of

conternporøry

H'ist ory, and the Histor'is ch e Zei.ts chri.ft.

Lorenzo

Benadusi

is

Associate Professor

of

Contemporary History

(Roma Tre University). His research has focused on nationalism and Italian

fascism. His most recent publications include UJf'ciøle e gentilutlrl4z' Virtù

civili e vølori rnilitør'i in.

Itøliø,

1896-1918 (Feltrinelli, 2015); The Enetny of the New Møn. Honcosexaølity in Føscist Itøly (Wisconsin University Press,

20\2);

and

with

Giorgio caravale George

L.

Mosse\ ItøIy. Interpretø.ti'0ru) Reception, ønd Intelløctwøl Heritøge (Palgrave, 2014).

(5)

X NOTES ON CONTiUI]UTORS

Zira

Box is

Associate Professor

at

the

department

of

Sociology and Social Anthropology (Universitat de València). She has been a Visiting Scholar at the University

of

California-San Diego, the New School for Social Research,

the

University

of

Paris-Sorbonne and

the

New York University.

From

a

transdisciplina-ry perspective between Historical Sociology and Cultural

History

her research has focused

on

Spanish

Fascism and the process of legitimization of the Franco dictatorship.

In

addition to articles and contributions to various scholarly volumes, she is

the author of Espøñ,ø Añ.0 Cero. Lø construcción sirnbólicø d.elfrønquisrno

(Alianza,2010).

Olivier

Dard

is Professor of Contemporary History (Sorbonne Université).

His

research has focused

on

French political history, L'Action française

and European nationalism. Among his most recent publications is Chørles

Møørrøs, I¿ nøtionøliste intégrøl (EKF{O/Dunod, 2019).

Fernando

_].

Devoto is Professor of Contemporary History (Universidad Nacional de San Martín, Argentina). His research has focused on inter-national migrations, historiography, theory

of

history and fugentinian nationalism. His publications include Nøcionøksrno, føscisrno y

trød,icion-ølisrno en lø Argentinø wod.ernø (Siglo XXI, 2006).

Panizia

Dogliani

is

Professor

of

Contemporary

History

at

the Università di Bologna. Her expertise in European History has concluded different publications on political and social history

of

the Left and the

Right wings. On Italian Fascism, her most recent book is Ilføscisrno d,egli

itøliøni.

Unø storiø szciø.le

(UTET,

2014), translated

into

Spanish in 20t7.

Olivier Forlin

is Maître de confrrences

at

the Université cle Grenoble Alpes, rvhere he

is

member

of

the

LUHCIE

(Iø.borøtoire Unipersitøire Histo'ire Cøltøres Itølie Eørope). He is a specialist

in

History

of

the ldeas

and Political Cultures

in

France and ltaly, and his main research interests

include fascism, memory and national identity. Among many other

publi-cations, he is the author of Les intellectøels _frønçøiset l'hølie (]945-1955). Médiøtion culturelle, engø.gernents et reþrésentøtions (L'Harmattan, 200ó)

and Le Føscisrne. Historiogrøpbie et enjeøx rnérnoriek (La Découverte, 2013).

Maximiliano

Fuentes Codera

is

Ircturer

at the

University

of

Girona (Spain). Focused on cultural and political history, his main research

inter-ests are First World War, Spanish intellectuals and Spanish nationalism. His

NOTES ON CONTIUBUTORS XT

publications include F'spøitø e7,

lø

Prinoerø Guervø Møød.iøl (2014),

A

'Cirit

Wør Word's (2016, edited with X. Pla ancl F. Montero) and Spøin ønd'

Argerctinø in the First World Wøt". Tyønsnøtioøøl NeatrøIities (forthcoming).

Michael Grättner

is

APL

Professor

of

Modern History

at

the

Technische (Jniyersittit Berlin. Among many other publications, he is the

author of Stwdenten iru' Dritten' Reich (Schöningh, 1995) and Døs Dritte

Reich 1933-1939

(Keu

Cotta, 2014). Grüttner has also co-edited, with

lohn

Connelly, Un'iuersities wrud.er Dictøtorship (Penn State University Press,2005). His main research interests are the history of Nazism and the history of universities in twentieth-century Germany.

Daniel Lvovich

is

Professor

of

Contemporary

History

(Universidad Nacional General Sarmiento) and Researcher

at

the National Scientific and Technical Research Council

(CONICET),

both

in

Argentina' His research is focused on Argentinian nationalism. His publications include

Nøcionøliswo

y

øøtisernitisrno en

lø

Atgentinø (Javier Vergara Editor, 2003).

Toni Morant

is Associate Professor

of

Contemporary

History at

the

Universitat de València.

He

has becn Guest Lecturer at the universities

of

Potsdam, Humboldt

of

Berlin and Vienna. Focused

on

gender and fascism, his main research interests are francoism, nazism and the trans-national cooperation of the European fascisms in the Second World War.

He

co-edited Tot està. per

før

Vølènciø, Cøpitøl d.e Iø Repúblicø

1936-1937 (2016).

He

has published numerous articles

in

European

jour-nals, including the _{Joørnøl of}Conternporøt'y History, Zeitgeschichte, and Historiø y Políti.cø.

António

Costa

Pinto

is

Research Professor

at

the Institute

of

Social Sciences, University of Lisbon. His research interests include fascism and authoritarianism, political elites and democratization.

He

is the author

of

The Nøture of Føscisw Revi'sited' (2012), and he co-edited Rethin'king

Føscisrn ø.nd. Diotø.Tzrship

in

Europe

(2014),

Corporøtistø ønd, Føscisrw.

The Corporøtist Wme

in

Eørope

(2017)

and Aøthoritøriøn'isrn ønd, Corporøtisnt. in Eørope øød. Løtin Arwericø. Croxing ßord'ers (2019).

Traian

Sandu

is

habilitated Associate Professor

at

the

Sorbonne

Nouvelle.

His

main

research interests

are

Romanian Fascism ancl Communism, Central European History

in

the twentieth century, the

(6)

CHAPTER

iì

The

Portuguese

"Blue Shirts"

and

Salazar's

"l{ew

State"

António

Costø

Pinto

In February 1932,a group ofPortuguese fascist students in Lisbon founded an academic journal called Tlte Repolution

(A

Rewlwçøo). Most

of

the founding members belonged

to

the student section

of

Lusitanian Inte-gralism (Intøgrølisruo Løsitøno,Il,). The latter was a radical right-wing

monarchic movement that followed the example of French Action (Action

Frønçøisø,AF) created in the 1910s. Afew months later, the group invited Francisco Rolão Preto

to

be the journal's editor. He was a member

of

IL's

Central Committee, and his beließ were similar

to

those professed

by the group.

In

the summer

of

1932, the National Syndicalist Move-ment(Nøcioøøl Sind.icølisma, NS) was launched nationwide under Preto's charismatic leadership (Costa Pinto 2000).I

NS was founded during the transition

to

authoritarianism and unified the "political family" which had played an important role

in

the crises

and downfall

of

the Parliamentary Republic

(19ll-1926)

but had been

4.. C. Pinto

(E)

University of Lisbon (ICS-UL), Lisbon, Portugal e-mail: acpinto@ics.ulisboa.pt

O The Author(s) 20f9

I. Saz et al. (eds.), Reøctionøry Nøtionølists, Føscists ø.nd. Dictø.tzrships iø the Twentieth Centøry, Palgrave Studies in Political History, https:/

_/

doi.org/ 10.1007

_/

978- 3 - 030-224LL - 0

_-ll

(7)

204

A.c.PrNro

marginalized during

the

establishment

of

stable dictatorial

rule

_u¡¿s. Salazar at the beginning

ofthe

1930s.

NS belatedly unified fascisr currenrs arising from the large but divided posr-war radical right.

It

atrrâcted the most radical members of the parties and ideological pressure groups created during the twilight years _of_the Parliamentary Republic. Before

it

u'as outlawed and its leaders _{exiled in}

the mid-1930's, NS had set up an organization that included a sizeable

army sector and had organized several coup attempts against the salazar

regime.

Portuguese fascism was deeply influenced by the

IL.

Although many movements emerged during the post-war crisis that was not much influ_ enced by Integralism, its impact on NS leaders and supporters was deep. The capacity of the

IL

to successfully legitimate a new reacrionary ideol_

ogy within Portuguese political culture with an obvious foreign ideological influence was decisive.

The ideological vitality of

IL

and its ability ro permeare the elite

con-ditioned the successful spread

of

fascism

in

Portugal.

fu

stated by Her-mlnio Martins: "At the time when ltalian Fascist and Nazi models assumed 'world-historical' importance, those most predisposed to learn and emu-late them had all been grounded in the teachings and intellectual style

_of

IL".

Indeed,

IL

guided almost all attempts to create Fascist parties, which thus "pre-empted the ground from other influences and paradigms of the extreme right".

Ror,Ão

Pn¡ro

AND

INTEGRALTIMa

lusrruNo

Born

in

the Beira Baixa region

in

J.896, Francisco Rolão Prero was the youngest founding member of Integrølisnøo Løsitøno, an elitist study group created in the

l9l0s

and inspired by Action Française (French Action).

A

17-year-old monarchist émigré, he was the editor

of

the first Integralist newspaper) Alruø Portagwesø (Portuguese Soul), which was published in Belgium

in

1913 by young exiled monarchists, some of whom had taken

part

in

the anti-republican incursions

of

1911 and 1912. This was one of many publications created by young AF-influenced monarchist émigré students in France and Belgium. Preto was a frequent visitor to the Paris

headquarters of the French movement, and he later recalled:

"I

was in Lou-vain before the war and visited Paris many times.

I

used to visit the offices

of Action Française

in

the Rue de Rome, where

I

met Charles Maurras,

rr

rHE poRTUGUEsE 'BLUE sHIRTs" AND sALAzAR's "NElv

srÄTE"

205

Sainville, Pujo and Léon Daudet

...

I

spent many evenings with them" (Medina 1977. pp. I 85-8ó).

Maurras initially had a profound influence on

IL,

but this dissipatecl dur-ing the post-war period as others overshadowed his ascendancy over the portuguese movement's political and intellectual formation (Dard 2OI3). puring the 1920s, the proto-fascist dissident George Valois became Preto's

new point of reference: indeed, Preto claimed he was inspired by two

indi-viduals from different generations and political circles whose paths had

crossed during the first decade ofthe century: Georges Sorel and Georges Valois. Sorel was his true master. According to Preto, ""it was he who made

it all possible".2 In his final intervieq Preto claimed that "while the Inte-gralists were disciples of Maurras, the National Syndicalists were not

_-

they had cut their ties with Action Française ... Valois, well, he interested us: he had moved away from Maurras, he was Action Française's dissident" (Dard 2013). Preto's intellectual and political journey from Integralism to fascism did not make him an IL dissident, but his path is in many ways com-parable to

thatof

the founder of I'e Føisceøø (The Fasces). On the eve

of

lhe Sidónio Pais's dictatorship and, as the Integralists debated the transfor-mation of

IL

from an'ideological pressure group to a political movement' Preto returned

to

Portugal and became head of the group's social affairs

section.

Integrølisøoo Løsitøno started life on the eve of the First World War as a

club founded by a group of young monarchists who had been colleagues

at Coimbra University prior

to

the Republican Revolution of 5 October 1910 that overthrew the constitutional monarchy (Da Cruz 1986). The group soon ceased to be a literary society, however, and became politically

active. Some of the group's members participated in the first monarchist excursions launched from Spain against the recently established republi-can regime. During their brief exile

in

France and Belgium, they came into contact with AF, which became their key foreign ideological point

of

reference.

Following the passage of an amnesty law, the group returned to

Portu-gal and founded

IL.

They began publishing a newspaper and entered the

political and ideological battlefield. António Sardinha,

IL's

principal the' orist, had never been exiled and only became a Catholic and monarchist after the Republican Revolution (Sardinha 2006). Other members of the organization, including its youngest leader, Rolão Preto, had experienced life in exile and were more open to the influence of AF.

In

l9Ló, after the republican regime took Portugal into the FirstWorldWar on the side of the

(8)

l

206

A. c. PrNTO

Allies,

IL

became a political movertent.

It

launched a dai\, ne\4/spaper _that

popularized its political programme, which was ro ensure the restoradon of an anti-liberal, decentralized and traclitional corporatist monarchy.

Integralism left a profound intellectual mark on twentieth-century por_

tuguese culture. Although influenced by AF,

it

synthesized the icleals of a

peculially Portuguese reactionary nationalism in a new and enduring wav.

It

reinvented a medieval organic corporatist social "tractition", which

t(e

liberalism "imported" by the republic allegedly sought to destroy (Lloycl-Jones 2003).

To

boost

their

ideas, they rehabilitated

the

nineteenrh-centur)¡ counter-revoh"rtionary thought espoused by supporters

of

l(ng

Miguel. The first Integralists were rarher dogmatic regarding rhe

restora-tion of

the monarch)'. This complicatecl their relations rvith other

anti-liberal forces, such as traditional Catholics and conservative republicans. Up until 1918, IL focused on promoting pro-monarchist coups, effe ctively eliminating any chance of forging a rvider reactionary coalition-althougl-r

it

also rvorked enthusiastically rvith other anti-ctemocratic forces.

The 1910 revolution caught the Integralisrs, who had absorbed ..the thought of Renan and Taine

...

ancl the heat of Action Française's

lirera-ture" by the time they finished their stuclies, somewhat b), surprise (Raposo

1945,p.27).3 These were the years during u,hich they read Lc Bon,

Bar-rès, Maurras ancl, through them, came

to

knou'the main propoltents

of

f,n-d.e-siècle nationalism. As Sardinha later recalled: "Charles Maurras once

said 'our vvriting has led us to politics

...

but our nationalisrn is essentially

aesthetic (les lettres rulas znt cond.øit à. lø poli.tiqøe... wøis notre

nøtionøl-isnte co'notøence pø.y être esthétiqwe).'1As

I

reflect on our literary origins ...

I

recognise that literature also led us ro polirics" (Sardinha

1925,p.I47).

The proclamation

of

the republic had a formative ideological impact on Integralism, for which the republic was a "crowd democracy" that led urban social groups to the political arena. Already imbued with tlaclitional nationalism, their intellectual background railed against tire republic that

representecl the "principles of 1789". Yet, as noted b)' a for-rnding member,

at this time the L-rtegralists still lacked "the strong armour of a system" (Raposo 1945,p.27).

The Republican llevolution physically separatecl the group, with some

supporting pro-monarchist revolts and participated in volunteer battalions that carried out insurgent attacks from Galicia in 1911 and 1912. Following the defeat of these incursions, some went into self-imposed exile in France

and Belgium. Their letters bear rvitness to the influence of AF.

II THE PORTUGUESE'BLUE SHIRIS" AND SALAZAR'S 'NI]W STATE" 207 While

its

ideology rvas alreacly known,

the

French movement now

becanre the rnodel to emulate (Sardinha 2009). When the group returned

to Portugal immediately before the war, they created IL, which rvas forrnally

inaugr,rrated in

I9l4.In

a letter to a friend, Sardinha, who was then newly converted to Catholicism and a monarchist, explained the link between his

literattrre and ideological projects. Writing his book, O Vølor d.ø Røçø (The

Value of the Race, 1915), he saicl he wanted to clenounce aud unclertnine

,.the _enemy's_{interpretation of our}_history"._In_{his vievr',}the .,historical

cri-sis affectir-rg our country makes imperious demands of rvhat, uncler other circumstances, could be a psychologically peaceful and cultured youth". As

he prepared the Integralist programme, Sardinha explained the ideological and political principles that should guide

IL:

Monarchists, and the king hirnself, must be taught u'hat a monarchy is. We

have a pre ceclent: the discredited Miguelist literature. It must be re habilitatecl,

anc{ with the popularisation of the doctrines of Action Française, rvhich are

completely uuknown among us, we must creat€ a counter-revolutionary

the-ory that can teach these people tl.rat democracy is a socially infèrior f-orm of governlìlent) which implies the rejection of all the selective criteria that only

a rnonarchy can ofïèr.4

Most of the founding llembers of

IL

were dedicatecï to pronoting the

icleals of a traditional, clecentralized, corporatist and anti-liberal monarchy

as a \4/ay of historically legitimating Integralist nationaiism. Young

support-ers, on the other hand, were shaped by prolonged exile ancl the adventures

of war, which brought thern

into

close contact

with

French intellectual "proto-fascisrn" and Italian nationalism. Preto was decisively influenced by

the neo-nationalism espousecl by Corraclini inhís Ideø Nøzioøøle (National Idea) ancl by the words and deecls of the Italian nationalist r.vriter Gabriele

D'Annunzio.

The main themes of Preto's writing in the Integralist press following his

return to Portugal were war) the nation, socialism and organic synclicalism. If some

lL

leaders sought a return to a rural society and worried about how to end the chaotic industrialization that they believed had brought with

it

the evils of urbanization, Preto, on the other hand, combined the ideas

of

Sorel and Valois in a nationalist response to the crisis of liberalism and to a

potential revolutionary threat.

'fhe nationalism espoused by Preto ancl the Integralists never deviated

fi'om the traditions

of

Latin culture, which given its clominant influence

(9)

I

208

A. C. PÌNTO

among the Portugr.rese cultur¿rl elite, was initially French. Gerrnan natio¡-alisn and Nazism influenced Preto's activities in the I930s, but they never

overly impressed him: indeed, he was quite late

in

discovering National Socialism. Rather, Preto combined the French neo-nationalism of the

ple-rvar period rvith the mystique and action of Italian nationalisrn. His aclmi-ration for the French led him to state: "France is the centre of the rvorld,

it

is the

light

tl-rat becomes the intense and racliant Latin

light".

In

the

same article, he praised the achievernents of Ideø Nøzionøle and used an

expression that becarne famous at his fascist rallies in the 1930s: "By God, this shall cofite to pass!" Such statements were rare among the Integral-ist cohort, rvhich was ahvays concerned rvith finding national roots for its

ideas.s

In

a letter to Corraclini published

in

1920, Preto revealecl his belief

_i¡

the rebirth of the anti-clemocratic nationalism that woulcl usher in a new

classical epoch in the Latin countries. He felt

it

rvas necessary

to

"believe

in

the triumph of the Latin order, the classical order that embraces ancl

rnakes brothers of all people who are heirs to Roman civilization *France, Spairr, Italy and Portugal" (Preto

1920,p.3).

Preto remained faithful to Latin neo-nationalism as he was profoundly marked by the irnperialist ancl

civilizing myths of the "Latins" as discoverers of the rvorld, "warriors ancl

colonisers". His first articles for

A

Mon.ørqwiø,however) were more con-cerned with the present. During the war, he sought a reaffirmation of an

authoritarian nationalism as the only way to confi'ont the post-rvar era.

Preto foundecl the union section ofthe Integralist rnovement inspired by AF's briefpre-r'var flirtation witl-r the working class. Integralism was inspired by tlre Cercle Proudhozr (Pror.rdhon Circle), as well as by tl-re Sorelian and

rnonarclrist tract influenced by Valois, Lø Mortøtcl'tie et lø Cløsse Oøyri.ère

(The Monarchy and tl're Working Class), both of which were tempered by

a form of "integral corporatism".ó

The nelv utopia presented by the Integralists was that ofan "organic soci-ety" that could dignify the nation. IL's anti-capitalism was partly developccl

to counter the growing "denationalisation" ofa capitalism that disregarded national frontiers and threatened to destroy the nation.

Preto's national syndicalist programlne ancl his allusions

to

national myths were influencecl by the Italian nationalism

of

both Corradini ancl

Rocco. Their decisive influence is apparent in the articles Preto published in A Moøørqøiø; in his 1920 t:ook, A Monørqøiø / ø Restøw'øçã.0 dø Intelþen

-ciø (-|he Monarchy Is the Restoration of Intelligence), and in some of the

texts that served as the basis for his unpublished book, A Monørqu.'iø Sociøl

II THE PORTUGUESE'BLLIE SHII{TS" AND SALAZAR'S "NEW STAIE" 209

(The Social Monarchy) (Preto 2015 _).This early inflLrence counteracted the disillusion Preto felt as a result of the marginalization ofValois's syndicalism

by AF leaders.

By 1919, Preto was seeking thernes

for

mobilization frorn those he

regarded "Italian Integralists", those who were nationalists working "out-side the systetn?'ancl who had broken with liberalism in

l9Ì4.

These vtere dremes the reactionary AF was only reluctantly willing to accept. Rocco's call

for

"national synclicalism" through which

to

subordinate the masses

to a state constructed after the death of den-rocracywas a more important

source of inspiration for Sirt¡licølismo Nøcionøl than Corradini's mystical nationalism.T As the Italian historian Emilio Gentile notes: "unlike tl-re

reactionaries ancl traclitional conservatives, Rocco acceptecl the presence

of

the masses

in

contemporary society and thought that,

in

a fiìass society, state absolutism should use unions to control and dominate this new pro-tagonist of the moclern rvorld" (Gentile 1982, p. f 90). The post rT,ar crisis

convincecl Preto of this and brought him closer to the Italian nationalists. This showed Preto was less concerned than other Portuguese Integralists rvith the traditional pro-restoratiorì stance of AF.

Although he supported the traditionalism of

IL

ancl AF, Rocco inspireci Preto

to

organize "proclucers". Preto's corporatist project inrrolved the creation

of

a vast web of workers' and employers' unions on a regional

and industry-by-industry basis, complemented by syndicalist chambers that woulcl regulate wages, arbitrate labour conflicts and represent each sector. Initially vague and very schernatic, the project rvas often revierved during the 1920s until

it

became the programme that was at the core of National

Syncficalism during the 1930s. From the encl of the First World War on, the programme served as agitation propaganda.

It

gave Integralism a new lan guage that replacecl the aristocratic elitism with anti-capitalism ancl which radicalizecl the anti-plutocratic themes.

Trrn

Bn¡¡rnowN

oF

THE

REpuBLrc

AND TrrE

MrNoR

RoLE

OF FASCISTS

The most salient characteristics of the emergence of fascisrn in Portuguese post-war society were the precocious adoption

of

the paracligm

of

Ital-ian fascism, on the one hancl, ancl its weak and fi'agmented party political

expression, on the other.

The first political reference to fascism appeared during the briefdictator-ship of Siclónio Pais. An officer ancl university professor who had converted

(10)

210

A. c. PrNTo

to politics, a member of a conservative Republican Party, a deputy, and for-mer ambassador to Berlin, Sidónio Pais had a suaightforward goal: _to_get Portugal out of the war. After initial programmaric hesitations, he opted for a populist presidentialism. He limited Republican Party political activity, established universal suffrage and held a plebiscite ro declare himself presi-dent. sidónio Pais presenred a narional plan for the creation ofa corporaúst state inspired by Integralism. He attempted

to

unite several conservative parties into a single entity and allowed the independent exisrence only

_of

the monarchists and of a small Catholic Parry.

Sidónio Pais's political discourse was anti-plutocratic during the period of war shortages, directed against the party oligarchies, and espousing _a

messianic nationalism. He managed to unite monarchists and conservative republicans.

In

all this, he made full use of his charismatic srrengths. _He surrounded himselfwith a group of young army officers who accompanied

him and participated in his rallies. After his assassination by a rural union militant at the end

of

1918, the monarchists rose

in

the north, Ieading the republicans to mobilize

in

the urban centres. With large numbers

of

military units declaring themselves neutral, the way was left open for the

victory of the Democrats and a return to constituúonal normality.

Sidonism became a point of reference for post-war Portuguese fascists,

particularly for right-wing republican junior officers, intellectuals and stu-dents, who went on to create several parties that increasingly cited Mus-solini's party as their model. Many cannot be characterized as fascist in any

strict sense. Radical right is the most appropriate label given their

percep-tion of the nature offascism (and Mussolini's party) and the hodgepodge

of

ideological elements present within the groups. Some were heirs of Sidon-ism and united intellectuals, students and junior officers who were

republi-can and laic. Others emerged from Integralism. The growing participation of army officers in these organizations rvas especially notable.

The crisis of democracy in Portugal highlights the problem

ofinterpret-ing

the complex links between fascism and the various political families

within conservatism in the first half of the twentieth century. The rise

of

fascism was only possible as part of a coalition encompassing various ideolo-gies, interest groups and parts

ofthe

electorate until then represented by various conservative parties. This fact does not help one to understand what

was unique and innovative about the phenomenon, however. As noted by

Blinkhorn:

"it

cannot seriously be denied that as movements) parties and political ideologies, conservatism and fascism occupy very different

posi-II THE PORILIGUESE 'BLUE SHIITIS" AND SALAZAR'S 'NEIV STATE" 2TL

tions within the early and micl-twentieth century European right converg-ing at some points and conflicting at others" (Blinkhorn 1990, p. 13).

The fascists were divided and merely junior partners in the large coali-don that brought down Portuguese liberalism. They represented a minority ârnong the groups most affected by radical republicanism. The indepen-dent organizations founded during the 1920s were not strong) merely a

few among the many groups appealing for a military coup. NS was only a

srnall and lately formed part of the fascist current within the vast anti-liberal

coalition that sustained the Military Dictatorship.

It

was deeply influenced

by the cultural forces shaping Integralism. NS was programmatically com-mitted to an ideology of reaction against modernization.

It

evolved in an

authoritarian political context in which its main enemies already lacked a

wide margin for manoeuvre. The Portuguese fascists were a by-product

of

the institutionalization of the Military Dictatorship. They gained strength

because they were able to mobilize and garner the support ofjunior officers

at a time when the republican parties were suspended and the dictatorship hesitated over the creation of new institutions.

Neu

or.TAr SrN p

_rc¡r,r

_{sM :}

_A

_Ttp

_r

_c¡r,

F.q.s cr

sr

M ovsMn

Nts

oF THE r93OS

Paradoxicall¡ it was the Military Dictatorship established in 1926 that

per-mitted the organization of a fascist movement in Portugal. As with other

processes

of

transition

to

authoritarianism during the 1930s, one

of

the

challenges facing the institutionalization from above of the New State came

from below and from the right. InL932, Rolão Preto succeedecl in

unif

ing the radical right within a clearly fascist organization-the National Syndi-calist movement,

NS-that

was

to

become one of Salazar's main rivals at the beginning of the 1930s (Costa Pinto 2006).

The first steps in organizingNS took place during the summer of 1932.

By the end of that year,

it

had been fully established, although for tactical reasons its leaders denied this. The organization's statutes, which Preto signed, were published in 1933. The organization model NS adopted was

similar

to

that of many other European fascist parties. Preto had studied closely the structure

of

several

of

these parties, including the early Fas-cist movement in ltaly, Valois' Føisceøø (Fasce s) and the Spanish _Jantøsd.ø

OJ'ensiuø Nøcionøl-Sindicølistø (Unions of the National-Syndicalist

Offen-sive, _IONS).Preto's NS was constructed around the charismatic figure that brought together the pre-existing groups previously dominated by

(11)

Inte-212

A C. PrNro

gralism. The formation of this fascist parry is an example of the penerration model ofparty organization, in which the party was created around an indi-vidual, a small core of "political entrepreneurs" he associated u'ith and

_t[e

local groups established or reorganizecl to ensure loyalty to his leadership.

The European wave of new fascist movements was also an element

_of

political identitv, and Preto was at the forefront of this: in fact, NS propa-ganda was marked by its clear identification with European fascisln. It.w,as at the heârt of the movement's iclentity and distinguished it frorn Salazarism anci other political ideologies and forces. International developments were

follou'ed closeiy and became a point of reference for NS political acúvity and propaganda. Reference to international events rvas particularly impor, tant given that Portugal was progressing towards the consolidation of a

still-contested authoritarian order.

When asked about NS identification rvith ltaiian fascism

in

a United Press interview, Preto prudently replied:

They ale eviciently sinrilar rnovements, sorls of the same social anguish, of

the same collective necessity.

In

each countr)¡, however, the revolutionary wave breaks anci extends in a diflèrent r,vay and has unique characteristics and rhythrns. Fascism, Hitlerism are totalitarianisms that deify the Ceasarist

state, others seek to find in the Christian traditions ofthe Portuguese people the fbrmula that permits the harmonisation of the undisputed sovereignry of national interest u,ith our dignity as free men, as living spiritual beings.S

This interview was often cited when other authoritarian groups, partic ularly the Catholics, accused hirn of being a lnere follower of international phenomena.

Despite this demarcation, fascist conqlrests in Europe were a central

ele-ment of NS propaganda. Identification with fascism was a stmctural com ponent of NS political activity, helping rnobilize sectors of the political and cultural elite that identified with

it

and that lacked organizational

expres-sion. There were two key aspects to NS references to international events. The movement iclentified

with

regimes where fascism had lvon the day,

which were held up as positive examples of the "revolution".

It

also noted

tl-re solidarity among fascist movements, particnlarly those which r,vere ide-ologically close to NS or which emphasized "social" and "corporatist"

con-cerns. Almost all NS leaders \^/rote articles ar-rd participated in debates about fascism. .Attitudes to National Socialism ranged frorn reserved

to

uncon-

L.-1 I I THE PORTTTGTIF,SF, _{"BI-I]þ] SHIIìTS"}AND SALAZAR'S 'NEW STATE" 2T3

ditional support, but Italian fascism and the movements close to

it

were identified with cornpleteiy.

NS saw itself as an integral part of the fascist wave that seemecl ready to dominate the political fortunes of Europe after Hitler's rise to power. NS

nelvspapers, and Preto's editorials in particular, follorved Hitler's rise and his initial state reforms rvith enthusiasm. Part of the conservative press,

par'-dcularly the Catholic press, criticized Nazism. NS responded to all attacks by clefending Nazification rneasures ancl was or-ìly more moc{erate regarding

racist policies, although the persecution of the lews was excusecl by rnany

rvriting for the fascist press.

For Preto,

Hitler's

ascendancy represented

"the

new caclence

of

the national revolution in progress" er-nbodying the "strong edifice of the nerv state" throughout Europe. He supported Hitler's "revolutionary"

strat-egy and expressecl doubts about the German dictator's surrender to elec-toral principles-a move he believed coulcl "compromise his position". He preferred to see

Hitler

"free from political compromises, armed, vigi-lant and detennined" to redeem Germany.9 Preto was certain that neither the " Ceøtl'øM. nor the violence of liberal reaction

_-

nothing

_-

could hold back the breaking wave of Germany's national instinct", ancl he felt Hitler "owned the era".l0 Younger NS leaclers were even rnore unconditional in their support

for Hitler

and expressed fewer reservations about Nazism than clid Preto. They saw it as the great icleological movement of their gen-eratiorl. I:[ence, the following statenent in the first edition of O Nøcionøl Sintlicølistø (The National Syndicalist):

Hitler, great animator of the multitudes _[isthe] perfect incarnation of a

generation that loves and wants to fight, that ardently seeks to destroy the myths and sophisms of the past ancl to replace thern with the magnificeut realities of nationalisrn. I I

The instrr-rmental nature

of

Preto's editorials

on

Nazi Germany was

particLrlarly evident when he commented on the tensions between con-servative authoritarians and fascists resolved in favour of the latter. Preto

always stressed the similarities l¡etween Salazarism ancl the Dollfuss regirne

and criticized the conservative authoritarian mistrust of fascist movements. Nazism's "'social" ancl "anti-plutocratic" tendencies were held

up

as a

model to follow while the racist dimension was ignored. The fascist press

criticized those r'vho saw the persecution of the _Jervsas the dominant issue.

(12)

2I4

A. c. PrNTO

the liquidation

of

the opposition parties, the absorption

of

similar cur-rents of opinion and the extermination of the only tivo forces that seriously

oppose them

_-

_lewishcapitalisn-r and Marxism".12 Alrhough closer ro ltai-ian fascism, NS ignorecl the initial tensions between Italiän fascism _and Nazism and portrayed the Nazi clictatorship as heroic. NS criticized the

"conservative" non-fascist dictatorship

in

Lisbon and promoted itself as

the alternative force that u'ould create and consolidate a real Nelv State.

Solidarity u,ith sister movements was greater when the fi'amework was

closer to NS ideologically and culturally. This was the case rvith _{the JONS}

and the Falange in Spain (Payne 1999; Thomàs

201Ì).

The activities

_of

Brazilian fascists, such as Severino Sombra's Legi.ã,0 d.o Trøbølho (Labour League, LT) and PIínio Salgacto's AIB, were followed enthusiastically. Sorn-bra spent two yeal's in exile in Lisbon between 1932 and 1934 and took part in some NS rallies. After the foundation

ofAIB,

which incorporated

Som-bra's rnovement, the Portuguese fascists supported Salgado, who was also in exile in Portugal (Bertonha 20),4). As notecl in an article of _lanuary1933:

"our Brazilian contracles also rvant our principles, aclaptecl nìore or less to suit their circumstances, to proliferate exuberantly on the otl-rer side of the Atlantic".l3 Relations with the Falange u,ere intense and becarne particu-Llrly important after Preto was exiled to Spain. These were the movernents and "comrades" with which NS was most closely associatecl.

S¡r,Rz¿nAND

TrrE

PonrucunsE

VERSToN

oF "EunopEAN

FAscrsM"

The activities

of

fascist movements ancl the support they received from

fascist regimes contrasted with Salazar's "pruclence" and "lack of

combat-iveness and rnodernism".14 lIowever, NS condemnecl the extremist myths and violence of some Eastern European movements) such as the Romaltian

Iron Guard (Sandu 2014).

Ever attentive

to

Portuguese political events) the British Embassy r.l'as

a careful observer

of

the development

of

National Syndicalism. By July 1933, British diplomats feared that Salazar's position was in danger of being undermined by its r-rnprecedentecl growth

"in

numbers and in su'ength". By tlre sulnmer of 1933, however, NS faced a ciilemma. NS internal corre-spondence reveals that from early 1933 the movement had unsuccessfully tried to reach an agreement with the regime.

It

wantecl to play a leacling

role in the creation of new corporatiorls and to participate in the cre ation

of

a new order

with

the institutionalization

of

its rnilitias. While

it

for-II THE PORTUGI]ESE'BLT]L] SHIììTS" AND SAL.{ZAR'S "NEW STATE" 2I5

¡rally recognized Salazar's succe ss in irnproving state finances, NS opposed

¡is increasing monopoly on political power. Thus, they rejected his new

corstitution, claiming that

it

represented the victory of liberal principles over integral corporatism. As a result, NS began

to

oppose the

IJN

and

6ecame increasingly involvecl in rnilitary-led anti-Salazar conspiracies. The

promulgation of corporatist legislation in the sun-rmer of 1933 had an enor-mous impact on NS, given that the creation of a corporatist state was one

of its main airns and propaganda themes. The National Labour Statute

(Estø.t14t0 Nøciorcøl do Trøbølho, ENT) declared the corporatist principles

of the New State and was largely inspired by the Italian Cørtø del Løvoro, although tempered by the regime's Catholicism. The promulgation of the

ENT provoked tensions rvithin NS because

it

_{"stole [their]}thr-rnder". The coryoratism of the Constitution

of

1933 had not given organic elements

rhe monopoly on poliúcal representation desired by the Fascists.

It

concili-ated liberal and corporatist prìnciples of representation. The President and National Assembly were elected by direct universal suffi'age, although the latter, as well as the Corporatist Chamber (Câ.øcørø Corporøtivø) seldom met and had few real powers beyonct rubber-stamping executive decisions.

TBNrArrvs

CoN cr-us t

oNs

The Portuguese fascist élite originated rvith the radical right) emerging

from a youthful group that cl-rallenged the reactionary tractitionalism ancl

pro-restoration dogma of

IL.

The erìergerlce of this fascist élite under an

authoritarian political order allowed them to use

IL

provincial netrvork as

well as those of other fascistic parties created at the end of the 1920s. Sociall¡ NS had two particularly notable characteristics. First, its influ-ence alllong young anny officers and, second, a high number of

working-class members. The support of a significant number ofjunior oflicers gave NS the capacity

to

mobilize the actors who had played a central role in bringing down the Republic in the 1920s, particularly cluring the

unsta-ble years of the Military Dictatorship. NS upset the chain of command, as

lower-ranking officers took r-rp government and local administration posts, and the top brass found

it

very difficult to restore the hierarchy the first

yeirrs of the dictatorship.

The fascists organized themselves as a political party, which claimecl to be the faithful repository of the spirit of dre "revolution of 28 May". They supported military values and a radical turnover in the conservative political élite

to

allow for the rise of the young civilians ancl rnilitary officers who

(13)

216

A. c. PrNro

had participated in the 1926 coup. The fascists exalted the "tenerutiswo',

_of

the 28 May League for some years, as it expressed resistance to stabilization and the èoncomitant re-establishment of the chain of command.

The high number ofworking-class supporters should be assessed in con-text) as it is not indicative of a particularly significant fascist "working class" success or of a fascist alternative within the union movement. The fascist

movement developed under a dictatorial regime that severely limited the

scope of action of free unions. The movement aimed to create an embryo corporatist system while remaining flexible in terms of its ability to mobilize and form support groups in the unions

ofthe

service sector in particular, which later became a part of Salazar's corporatist "national unions".

The

fascist sffategy, however, was overtaken

by the

"constitutional pacts" between the military élite and Salazar, which joined conservadve

groups

within the

UN,

and

put

down fascist groups through violent and administrative repression. The conflict between the fascists and other authoritarian pressure groups that dominated Salazarism was expressive

of

a conflict that it's typical of the majority of transitions to authoritarianism undertaken

in

the presence of weak fascist movements. Its rapid

resolu-tion in favour of Salazarism and the concomitant defeat of the recalcitrant

fascists can be summarily explained as follows.

Since 1910, there had been competing political movements and

ideolo-gies able to \¡/ork with the military chieß of the dictatorship, which did not threaten the position and values of the military. luan Linz points our that even

if

its younger members sympathized with the fascists, in a transition to authoritarian rule the military tends to seek out bureaucratic élites and

conservative parties rather than fascists. This was certainly the case with the

Military Dictatorship established ín 1926.

The "constitutionalization" and gradual civilianization of the dictator-ship were negotiated according

to

a government initiative involving part of the civilian élite, mosdy law professors, led by the then young Finance

Minister, António de Oliveira Salazar. The fascists had a "negligible influ-ence" over these processes, as they were blocked by the existence of an

authoritarian right, which'was supported by powerful institutions such as

the Church, most military officers, as well as landowning and industrial groups.

When the Portuguese dictator decided to dissolve National Syndicalism

and repress its leaders, he also stressed that "foreign" fascist identity. On29 Júy 1934 Salazar formally announced the prohibition and break-up of NS. He said that the movement was "inspired by certain foreign models in terms

lr

rHEpoRTUcUESE'BLUEsHrRTS".qNDSALAZAR's'NEwsrATE" 2I7

of ideology and political activity" and that

it

"exalted the value of youth,

the cult of violence through direct action, the principle of the superiority of political power in social life" and demonstrated a "propensity to group the masses" behind a leader. He said NS constituted "the circle of an arc

that unites the commonly held and confused aspirations of the Portuguese

political extreme" and noted

it

wanted to be "the party _{that [controlled]} ¡þe destiny

of

the revolution". For him, the creation

of

a militia could only cause "worries

_-

unnecessary worries

_-

given the responsibilities

of

the army". He also felt that rather than contributing to order, NS was "a perturbing and disintegrating element within the nationalist forces of the Ñew State".15

In

September 1935, some national Syndicalists in alliance with several

other groups opposed to Salazar rose up in an ultimately unsuccessful coup

against the regime. This failure marked the end oforganized fascism in Por-tugal, with many former National Syndicalists joining the regime, especially following the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War in 193ó, when Salazarism

adopted a certain fascist choreography. Nevertheless, this process of inte-grating former fascists into Salazar's New State was deliberately weak and

bore all the hallmarks"of the regime elite's bureaucratic caution.

The regime institutionalized by Salazar was admired by many on the fringes of the European radical right, but above all by those of

Maurras-sian and traditional Catholic extraction, given its cultural origin. Salazarism was based on blend radical right-wing and anti-liberal social Catholicism. The New State meant the hegemony of a traditionalist, Catholic and anti-democratic right. Social Catholicisrn and the Church hierarchy constituted important instruments limiting the fascistization of the Salazar regime. In other words, these elements constituted the axis of a "functional

alterna-tive"

to

the role that fascism played in other countries in consolidating a

new authoritarian order in the 1930s.

Norps

l.

Sorne works of Rolão Preto were republished recendy: Rolão Preto (201 5 _).

2.

Ibid. The literature on Sorel is vast. For a general introduction, see Jennings

(re85).

3.

About Barrès, see Sternhell (1972).

4.

O Vølor d.ø Røçø:432-33.

5.

Rolao Preto, "A vaga nacionalista" . A Monørqøiø, 9 December 1919, p.

l.

6.

The inspiration of both the Cercle Proudhon's output and Valois's writings, especially the text quoted (Paris,

l9l4),

are clearly visible in Preto's ear'

(14)

2L8

A. C. PINTO

lier writings. On tÏe Cercle Proudhon and Valois's first phase, see Guchet (1990, pp.

_ll-I06),

Sternhell (1978,pp. 348-400), and Mazgaj (1979).

7.

Especially Rocco's manifesto, published

in

Políticø

in

1918, as well as

his interventions at the Nationalist Congtess

in

Rome in April 1919.

See Vivarelli (1991, pp. 291-98) and the reproduction of the manifesto,

pp.594-607.

8.

Revoløçã.0, l0 _{]anuary 1933, p. 2.}

9.

Rolão Preto, "A hora de Hif-ler,"' Rewløçã.o,23 March 1932, pp. L,4. 10. Rolao Preto, "Não!", Retoløçã.0,26 AprilL932,p.l.

ll.

O Nøcionøl S'indicølistø, Faro, no.

I,

18 December L932. L2. Alcd.cer,2l May 1933,p.2.

L3.

Uøiã.0 Nøcionø|, Leiria, 14 Jantary 1934.

14.

Uniã,0 Nøcionøl,Leiria,28 _January1934.

I5.

Official notice, Did.rio de Notíciøs,29 _{July 1934,}

p.l.

R¡rBnnNcBs

Bertonha, João Fábio. Integrølisrno: Problemøs, perspectivøs e qnestões

historiográf,-cøs. Maringâ: Eduem, 2014.

Blinkhorn, Martin (ed.). Føscists ønd the Conseryøtites. London: Unwin Hyman,

r990.

Costa Pinto, Antôruo. Tl¡e Bløe Shirts: Portøgaese Føscisrn in Interwør Eørope.New York: Columbia University Press, 2000.

Costa Pinto, António. "'Chaos' and 'Order': Preto, Salazar and Charismatic Appeal

in Inter-War Portugal'?. Totølitøriøn Moyernents ønd. Politicøl Rel,þions 7, no. 2 (2006):203-L4.

Da Cruz,

M.

B. Monárqøicos e Repablicønos sob o Estød.o Nozo. Lisbon: Dom Quixote, 198ó.

Dard, Olivier. Chørles Møørrøs: Le Mâine et L'Action. Paris: fumand Colin,2013. Gentile, Emilio.

Il

Mito d.ello Støto Nøovo: Døltøøtþiolittisrno øl Føsciswo. Bari:

Larerza,1982.

Guchet, Yves. Georges Vølois: L'Action Frønçø'ise, le Føisceøø, lø Répøbliqøe

Synd.i-cøle,2nd ed. Paris: Espace européen, 1990.

)ennings, Jeremy R. Georges Sorel: The Chørøcter ønd. Dewlopment of His Thoøght.

Basingstoke: Palgrave Macrnillan, 1985.

Lloyd-Jones, Siewart. "Integralismo Lusitano and Action Française: Their Roots and Shared Principles". Portøgøese _Joørnølof Sociøl Science 2, no.

|

(2003): 39-59.

Mazgaj, ParlJ^. The Action Frønçøise ønd Rewlutionøry Synd,icølisrn. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1979.

Medina, João. Søløzør e os Føscistøs: Søløzør e o Nøcionøl-Sind.icølisrø0, ø Hixóriø

d.e ørn C o nfli cto ( I 9

i

2- I 9 3 5 _).Lisbon : B er tand, L9 7 7 .

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