International Scientific Journal – ISSN: 1679-9844 Nº 1, volume 14, article nº 8, January/March 2019 D.O.I: http://dx.doi.org/10.6020/1679-9844/v14n1a8
Accepted: 26/08/2018 Published: 20/12/2018
REPRESENTATION OF RELIGION IN PRINT MEDIA IN BRITAIN AND
JAMAICA: A COMPARATIVE STUDY
REPRESENTAÇÃO DA RELIGIÃO NA MÍDIA IMPRESSA DA
GRÃ-BRETANHA E DA JAMAICA: UM ESTUDO COMPARATIVO
REPRESENTACIÓN DE LA RELIGIÓN EN LOS MEDIOS IMPRESOS
DE GRAN BRETAÑA Y JAMAICA: UN ESTUDIO COMPARATIVO
Mr. Alton Grizzle1, Dr. Felipe Chibás Ortiz2
1
Programme Specialist; Communication and Information Sector (CI) UNESCO, Autonomous University of Barcelona (PhD. Candidate),
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3519-5330 altongrizzle@gmail.com
2Associated Professor of University of São Paulo, ORCID: http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5506-4560
chibas_f@yahoo.es
Resumo: Quem ou o que é apresentado na mídia perdeu importância na esfera
pública. O presente trabalho reúne uma investigação sobre a representação nos meios de comunicação de massa de seis religiões e grupos seculares em quatro jornais do Reino Unido e Jamaica realizados em 2013. Através da análise de conteúdo, os autores tentam determinar, entre outras coisas, o que era o elemento mais importante nas notícias sobre a religião, se as fontes usadas ou o discurso ou tema principal de cada uma dessas religiões. Conclui-se que não parece haver grandes diferenças na representação da religião por meio desses sistemas de mídia e países com culturas e contextos sociopolíticos semelhantes. O islamismo e o cristianismo receberam a representação mais "negativa", mas também um enquadramento "positivo" para o cristianismo, enquanto algumas religiões não são representadas de forma alguma. Este último resultado visa concluir que a liberdade religiosa e o diálogo inter-religioso estão relativamente ausentes do discurso público e jornalístico. Isso pode estar falando de censura ou autocensura e Barreiras Culturais à Comunicação.
Palavras-chave: cultura midiática, cidadania comunicativa, competência sociocultural, educação multicultural, estudo transcultural, multiculturalismo, práticas culturais, comunicação religiosa, barreiras culturais à comunicação.
Abstract: Who or what gets „re-presented‟ in the media and how has not lost importance in the public sphere? This research is an investigation into the representation of six religions and secular groups on the whole in four newspapers in the UK and one in Jamaica made in 2013. Through content analysis the authors attempted to ascertain, inter alia, which religion was more prominent in the news, sources used and the main discourse or subject about these religions. It concludes that there does not appear to be major differences in the representation of religion across these media systems and countries with similar culture and socio-political context. Islam and Christianity received the most „negative‟ representation but also „positive‟ framing for Christianity and others while some religions are not represented at all. Freedom of religion and inter-religious dialogue is relative absent from the public and journalistic discourse. This could be a result of censorship or self-censorship and Culture Barriers to Communication.
Keywords: Communicative citizenship, socio-cultural competence/skill, multicultural
education, cross-cultural study, multiculturalism, cultural practices, religious communication, Cultural Barriers to Communication.
Resumen: Quién o qué se presenta en los medios ha perdido importancia en la
esfera pública. El presente trabajo recoge una investigación sobre la representación en los medios de comunicación de seis religiones y grupos seculares en cuatro periódicos en el Reino Unido y Jamaica realizada en 2013. A través del análisis de contenido, los autores intentan determinar, entre otras cosas, qué religión era más predominante en las noticias, las fuentes utilizadas así como el discurso o tema principal de cada una de estas religiones. Concluyese que no parece haber grandes diferencias en la representación de la religión a través de estos sistemas de medios y países con cultura y contexto sociopolítico similares. El Islam y el cristianismo recibieron la representación más "negativa" pero también un encuadre "positivo" para el cristianismo, mientras que algunas religiones no aparecen representadas en absoluto. Este último resultado apunta para concluir que la libertad de religión y el diálogo interreligioso están relativamente ausentes del discurso público y periodístico. Esto pudiera estar hablando de una censura o autocensura e Barreras Culturales en la Comunicación..
Palabras-clave: Cultura mediática, ciudadanía comunicativa, competencia
sociocultural, educación multicultural, estudio transcultural, multiculturalismo, prácticas culturales,comunicación religiosa, Barreras Culturales a la Comunicación.
1. Introduction
Major efforts have been exhausted bringing religion closer to media, or to break down the traditional boundaries between the “religious” and the “media.” In
light of such efforts and various research, some have tried to show the necessity of building new bridges between religion and media. These attempts have even made scholars believe that in the “media age,” the secular is sacred and the sacred is secular (HOSSEINI, 2008). This endeavor was aimed at the unification of the two important elements of contemporary human life: religion and media.
This study explores how major religious faiths and secular groups on the whole are represented in print media in Britain and Jamaica. The aim of this study was to critically assess selected print media, over selected intervals through content analysis, to determine how religions are framed or represented or if they are presented at all. The implications of these findings are contextualized drawing on cultural, social, economic theoretical perspectives.
Authors like Ozolins (2016) and Figueras (2017), suggest a needs of the religion and culture in dialogue, because exist a relations between the religion, cultures, media and power (2016). This all increases with the appearance of digital social networks (Élmano, 2017; Pace, 2017).
Historically, media have always played a key role in national and international social, political and cultural affairs. Media are seen by many as primary and indispensable social institution contributing to social order and social change. The same can be said about religion albeit the two are very different as institutions. Silverstone in his widely referenced work on Why Study the Media notes, “It is all about power of course, in the end. The power media have to set the agenda. The power they have to destroy one. The power they have to influence and change the political process. The power to enable to inform. The power to deceive. The power to shift the balance of power between state and citizens; between country and country...” (SILVERSTONE, 1999, p. 143). He suggests the following five assumptions about media technologies in his exploration of “media in politics and the politics of the media” (ibid): they are inherently social; as cultural forces they are equally political being disposed to debates about access and participation; media have always been instrumental, in democracies and tyrannies, to disseminate and manage information thereby becoming a part of “managing nation state”; then there is the changing nature of media and the attendant changes in their relationship to societies; final is the fact that we live in a “plural world” both in and outside the media. “...No media politics... can afford to ignore this pluralism... And no national or global politics can afford ignore to ignore the media” (SILVERSTONE, 1999, p. 145-146).
Following the arguments above about the media, one could easily attribute this entire description to religion by a mere replacement of the phenomenon/word “media” with the phenomenon/word “religion”. Religion is also about power, religions are fundamentally social institutions, they are cultural and political forces, play key role in democracies and tyrannies and have changed and are changing in societies. Can religion be ignored nationally and globally? Demerath III (2002) talks about religion‟s extricable relation to power, politics and state. Hoover points to the special type of challenge religion poses to both theory and research insofar as “rationalist science has had a difficult time dealing with something that seems always to reserve some part of itself from rational scrutinyi” (HOOVER, 2002, p. 25). In a strangely remote similarity, the media or journalism, with its armored claim of the “the public‟s right to know” often vehemently resist surveillance from outsiders (HANSEN, COTTLE et al., 1998). Additionally, Hoover noted that media scholars have the tendency to treat religion as trivial, unimportant or increasingly unimportant aspects of social and cultural life. Yet Hoover himself argued that scholarships in religion and media have converged partially owing to convergence in the phenomena themselves, religion and media (HOOVER, 2007, as cited by Hoover, 2002). Major studies on the intersection of media and religion started in the 1950s and intensified with the emergence of “televangelism” in the 1970s (ibid).
Soukup (2002) traces the association between communication media and religion way back to the recounting of myths and cave painting; drawing attention to the long association between Judeo-Christian practices and communication and a parallel to the existence of religious themes in Western art, music and manuscript traditions.
Many media organizations, particularly in the developing world or former colonies of the west, found their origins in religious organizations or movements. The fact that the first radio voice broadcast was a religious service solidifies the strong ties between media and religion (SOUKUP, 2002).
As media have developed into independent institutions in some societies, other institutions become „dependent‟ on media (HJARVARD, 2008, p. 11). Arguably, religion is one such institution. Whether media and religion should be seen as separate spheres that influence each other or they are more interconnected (HOOVER, 1997,; HOOVER 2002; BIRENATZKI, 1995), the sanctity of religion, held by many who practice it, brings its representation by media into much disrepute.
Hoover (1994) pointed out that many journalists consider religion as innately controversial and fear that any treatment of it will result in criticism. This representation or framing of religion by media is influenced by historical, social, economic and cultural factors.
This study explores whether some religions may be more prominent in the press because they are more closely related to local cultures, for example. Conversely, others may be omitted because they are not widely practiced in a particular country or region. Yet others may receive much „negative‟ or „positive‟ media coverage because of controversies surrounding them or major historical events occurring at a particular time.
This research project is important because among other important aspects of social and political life mentioned above, both media and religion are embedded in cultures and as institutions transmit cultural practices and contribute to globalizing cultures. As pointed out by Hoover above, we live in a plural world; a pluralism that cannot be escaped. Furthermore, “germane and central to media development is the recognition that if the media are to accomplish their democratic potential, then they should reflect diversity in society” (GRIZZLE, 2012, p. 15). This diversity, which encompasses inter-religious and media products dimensions, is increasing crucial to peace and human development as is embodied in the Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions1. Over 148 countries signed as parties to this legally binding international agreement in 2005.
The association of religion with conflicts in past and present times is of relevance here. As Silk (2000) posits, “At the turn of the millennium there is, indeed, little question that religion or if one wants to be nice about it, the name of religion, has been increasing associated with conflict around the globe. From Kosovo to Khartoum, from Jerusalem to Jakarta, the struggle for power and pelf both within and between countries can often now be cast in religious terms” (SILK, 2000, p. 1). Living sharing the same public space with different religions can be a source of conflicts and cultural barriers to communication (GRIERA; BURCHARDT 2016). Therefore, an understanding of religions and the promotion of religious dialogue in societies, in and through media, is necessary for peace.
1 http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/cultural-diversity/diversity-of-cultural-expressions/the-convention/convention-text/. Accessed on 25 January 2013.
This is corroborated in the approach and methodology of the 20 Cultural Barriers to Communication, in which one of the barriers studied is a Religiocentrism. Cultural Barriers to Communication are understood as being a set of factors, symbolic or concrete, going beyond idiomatic differences and making communication more difficult for people or organizations from different ethnicities, values, countries, regions, religions or cultures (CHIBÁS ORTIZ, 2017). Conceptualizing those factors has helped us understand, prevent and deal with conflicts (RAJABI, 2015). According to a research carried out in 11 countries by Chibás Ortiz, religion is the second Cultural Barrier to Communication in order of frequency and importance (2017).
This study will therefore contribute to the question whether the media is sufficiently diverse regarding religious content and representation. The main objective of this article is to diagnose what are the similarities and differences observed in the manifestation and representation in the communication of religions studied in Jamaica and the United Kingdom through a content analysis of some of the main newspapers of both countries.
2. Materials and Methods
Methodologically, the study uses quantitative content analysis to surface the manifest features of religious representations in so-called „Quality‟ and „Popular‟ newspaper in these countries with „high‟ and „medium circulation‟. These cardinals are defined later in the article. The focus on print newspaper is to facilitate a deeper analysis over a longer period (past to modern era) and across two countries to detect important trends. The decision to focus on two countries is aimed at a comparative analysis of certain media systems in countries with similar historical, cultural and social comets of media representation.
The study seeks to answer the following research question: How are major religions represented in the press in Britain and Jamaica? To answer the question about how major and minor religions are represented in the press in Britain and Jamaica, the main thrust of the study was done primarily through content analysis of national press in UK and Jamaica. The study includes an analysis of six major religions (Buddhism, Christianity, Confucianism, Hinduism, Islam, and Judaism) of the world and secular groups as a whole. The top five religions and the secular groups were chosen on the basis of „followership‟. Judaism was chosen over Sikhism as the six religion, though the number of adherents for the latter is greater than the
former, because of the significance of the Jews to global geopoliticsii. The following are shown the Table1 Religions/Keywords used for searching and the Table 2 - Religion of the World Ranked by Adherents, that show some interesting data about this.
Table 1 - Religions/Keywords used for searching
1. Christianity (Protestantism and Catholicism); Christian; catholic; pope; priest; protestant; bible
2. Islam; Muslim; Islamic; Quran or Koran 3. Secular/Nonreligious/Agnostic/Atheist 4. Hinduism, Hindu,
5. Confucianism,( Confucius), Confucian 6. Buddhism, Buddhist
General keywords Religion, religious, fundamentalist, fundamentalism,( monk, god, temple, church, mosque)
Sources: Various
Table 2 - Religion of the World Ranked by Adherents
NUMBER RELIGION ADHERENTS
1. Christianity (Protestantism and Catholicism) 2.1 billion
1. Islam 1.5 billion 1. Secular/Nonreligious/Agnostic/Atheist 1.1 billion 1. Hinduism 900 million 1. Confucianism 1. Buddhism 376 million 1. Judaism 15, million
Source: www.adherents.com – 5 May 2010
There are many definitions for religion. For this study, Dobbelaere‟s definition is used, religion is “a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to a supra-empirical, transcendent reality that unites all those who adhere to it into a single moral community (Silk, 2000, p 48).” Each of the religions and secular groups considered is a classification of multiple distinct movements, sects, divisions, denominationsiii etc.
The study explores how religions are represented in print media in the referenced countries. The decision to focus on print media is to facilitate deeper analysis over a longer period and across two countries to detect important trends including relationship with reporting religion and major historical events. Second, the large majority of television stories emanate out of print stories particularly wireless services (Krauss, 2000; Schudson, 2005, p. 153). According to Schudson (2005), news outlets, television equally to print depend overwhelmingly on services such as Agence France-Press, Associated Press and Reuters. Finally, as this is a study of limited period and the lead research was living outside of the countries considered for this research, decisions was also based on ensuring the highest accessibility and availability to the research material needed.
3. Procedures
Through a multistage sampling, selection of newspaper titles were chosen according to two key dimensions, so called “quality” and “populariv”. Popularity is further divided
high and medium circulation (SEYMOUR-URE, 1996). This helped to organize coding and analytical categories to facilitate analysis and make comparisons between different types of newspapers. Four newspaper titles (The Gleaner, The Guardian, the Times and Daily Mail) were analyzed to obtain a representative sample of newspaper coverage of religion in these countries. Table 3 summarizes the titles, sample issues and their classification. The synthesis of these procedures is shown in the Table 3 - Sample Titles and their Classification - Issues and Periods considered Table 3 - Sample Titles and their Classification - Issues and Periods considered
Number Newspaper Titles
Life of Newspaper
Country Classification Years considered
Number of Issues per year 1 The Guardian 1821-Present UK Quality with
Low Circulation (358,844) 1989, 1993, 1997, 2001, and 2011 60 (12 per year) 2 The Daily Mail 1896-Present UK High Circulation (2,400,143) “ 60
3 The Times 1785-Present UK Quality with medium circulation (617,483)
“ 60
4 The Gleaner 1834-Present Jamaica “ 60
TOTAL 240
For the selections of issues/dates a composite week sampling procedure was used and following four-year time intervals (plus the year 2011): 1989, 1993, 1997, 2001 and 2011. The year 1989 was used as a starting date to ensure that the fourth period coincides with the year 2001 (9/11). The leap from 2001 to 2011 was necessary to track trends in the aftermath of the Arab Spring while limiting the sample for greater focus. Table 2 and 3 show time periods and dates of issues for each title which were reviewed. Twelve issues were selected per year. Six hundred and twenty (629) articles were reviewed: 116 in the Gleaner; 200 in the Guardian; 210 in the Times; and 103 in the Daily Mail.
Table 4 - Dates of Issues for each Period and Titles considered and Table 5 - Number of articles considered per year for each newspaper show complement this information.
Table 4 - Dates of Issues for each Period and Titles considered
1989 Sunday January 1st; August 13th
Monday February 6th; September 11th Tuesday March 7th; October 10th Wednesday April 5th; November 8th Thursday May 4th; December 14th
Friday June 2nd
Saturday July 1st
Sources: Various
1993 Sunday January 17th; August 22nd
Monday February 15th; September 27th Tuesday March 16th; October 26th Wednesday April 21st; November 24th Thursday May 20th; December 23rd
Friday June 16th
Saturday July 17th
Sources: Various
YEARS CONSIDERED TOTAL NEWSPAPERS 1989 1993 1997 2001 2011 The Gleaner, Jamaica (Quality) 11 19 26 33 27 116 The Guardian, UK (Quality) 31 45 37 47 40 200 The Times, UK (Medium Circulation) 37 42 45 44 42 210
The Daily Mail, UK (High
Circulation)
- 14 17 31 41 103
TOTAL 78 120 125 155 150 629
Source: Authors
Newspaper content relating to the following categories/genres were measured: hard news reports - headlines, editorials, letters to the editor, feature articles and religious sections of these newspapers were these existed. Articles included in the sample satisfied the following requirements: 1) the primary, secondary or “passing” subject of the article would be about one of the religions under analysis and not just religion in general; 2) if the article was about economic, social or cultural issues but make frequent reference at least three occurrences or dedicates at least of quarter of it content to the relationship of a particular religion to the issue under discussion, it was included in the sample; 3) if the article is about an event organized or to be organized by a specific religion and any form of subjective description or opinionated statement is made, it was analyzed; 4) all articles that fit these criteria were used irrespective of size.
These included: 1) Articles that satisfies the content description outlined above; 2) Adjectival descriptors and descriptive phrases; 3) types of sources of these articles where available; 4) the genre of each article; 5) the subject of the articles;
Analytical Categories used to address the main themes of the study:
These categories formed the basis of the coding scheduled used and is based on review of literature and my own interest in global development priorities such as
intercultural dialogue and (encompassing inter-religious dialogue and its necessity for peace), freedom of expression (including freedom of religion).
a) Type of newspapers in which relevant text about religions appear. b) Day, month and year the article appears.
c) Type of article/item.
d) Which religion is the article about or is referred in the article? e) Who or what are the sources of the article presented?
f) Who and/or what is the subject of articles on religion? g) dominantly about individuals or the institutions;
h) What is the prominence of the religion in the article?
i) Is the article about a negative or positive event, occurrence or situation? j) Is the article a direct report of an event, occurrence etc. or more opinionated in a negative, positive, neutral or balanced/fair (mixed) context? An article is neutral if it about a release of official religious documents or press releases, typically describing an announcement or event without any particular direction. It is positive if it proposed arguments for a particular religion or religious situation. It is negative if it offers arguments against. It is balanced/fair if it has arguments both for and against.
k) Descriptive words or statements. How are these persons or situations framed/defined by the media?
l) Does the article encourage or promote inter-religious dialogue? By this I mean any form of discourse about religious tolerance, intercultural dialogue respect, freedom of religion etc.
m) What signs or symbols are evident in these articles or what signs or symbols accompany them?
n) Major national, regional or international events linked to the report in the article.
The main statistical method used in our analysis is percentages and difference in proportions as I draw comparisons between type of newspapers and countries. The entire methodology was tested with a sample of representative content to look for problems to refine certain elements as was necessary.
The subject of the articles studied was a crucial cardinal used in this study. It served as a pointer to general framing of religion in the newspapers assessed and together with the category Tone of the Articles and actual quotes taken from selected
articles helped to ascertain exactly what was said about these religions, to what they are associated or whether a particular religion was endorsed or rejected – their representation. The comparison offered below between newspapers and countries focuses on the main subject of news articles that concerned with religion. The findings described below in association with this category is based on the main subject of the articles reviewed. In other successive articles we will explore further the other variables studied in this research.
4. Results
In this article we are show it fundamentally the results of the in the Daily Mail (UK) because of the space and for this journal have the most representative and important information about of the principal topic of the present research.
Religious officials, adherents of religions and document or official statement of non-religious bodies were predominant sources used by Daily Mail in the articles reviewed - 25%, 41% and 47% respectively. Let us see in this respect the Table 6: Subject of the article - The Daily Mail (UK). Out of 103 articles reviewed, that summarizing the information.
Table 6: Subject of the article - The Daily Mail (UK). Out of 103 articles reviewed
Subject of the Article Main Secondary Passing
Action of an official of a particular religion 19 3 1
Action of religious scholar 1 0 0
Content in official statement or documents for a religious body
7 2 0
Action by „adherents‟ of the religion being reported
43 18 1
Victim of an action carried out by a particular individual or institutions of the religion
9 7 2
Benefits adherents claim to receive from being a member of a particularly religion
1 0 0
Positive influence of a particular religion or
religions on politics, economics, cultural practices or other social issues
Subject of the Article Main Secondary Passing
Negative influence of a particular religion or religions on politics, economics, cultural practices or other social issues
1 4 2 Inter-religious dialogue 0 2 3 Intra-religious dialogue 1 0 1 Freedom of Religion 0 0 2 Inter-religious conflict 4 2 1 Intra-religious conflict 1 6 1
Other (If the main subject is Other and = war: X) 7 Source: Authors
The actions of adherent of religions occurred most frequently as the main subject in 42% of the articles. This was followed by the action of a religious officials in 18% of the articles considered, respectively. 0% of the articles highlighted the positive influence of a particular religion and less than 1% positive influence as main subject. Subjects relating to inter/intra religious dialogue, and freedom of religion were between 0 and 1% of articles as main subjects. Inter-religious conflict occurred as main subject in 4%.
Actions of officials or adherents of religions were common subjects of the articles relating to religion in all four papers with little difference across country and types of newspapers. The former occurred in 24% of the articles in the Gleaner, Jamaica; 24% in the Guardian, UK; and 18% in the Daily Mail, UK. The Times which is a medium circulation paper stood out with action of religious officials occurring in 35% of the articles - one and half to twice the others. These findings are not surprising as many studies show that news about political elites, public figures, the rich and famous and heads of powerful economic and social organizations receives much coverage in the news despite the medium (SCHUDSON, 2005; HANSEN,COTTLE, 1998; ZELIZER, 2005; PALOUTIZIAN, 2017). At the time of writing these research findings, Pope Benedict VI announced his resignation as head of the Catholic Church, a first occurrence in the last 600 years. This made cover story, editorial or feature story in almost every major newspapers around the globev.
Actions of members of religious groups were also relatively high as subjects occurring in 35% of the articles in the Guardian; 26% in the Times; and a whopping 42% in the Daily Mail which is a high circulation paper. While this subject was lowest in the Gleaner at 17%, the Gleaner was the only newspaper that gave major coverage to the positive effects of a religion as a subject – in 26% of the articles. No doubt the research showed that in 99% of these cases the articles was about commendable contribution of Christianity (including Protestantism and Catholicism) to social and economic development in Jamaica as mentioned earlier. For the three newspapers in the UK, the positive effect of a religion ranged from between 0-4% of articles with this as subject.
14% of the articles in the Gleaner were concerned with the negative influence of religions. This was significantly high in comparison to the 4% in the Guardian, 0% Times and 1% Daily Mail. Here again the majority of the articles in the Gleaner were about negative effects of Islam. However, Catholicism, was not far behind regarding negative criticism or discourse.
Freedom of religion and inter-religious dialogue was a major point of interest for the researchers. For one, working for an international and intercultural development agency has foregrounded the importance of freedoms, tolerance, dialogue and mutual understanding. Freedom of expression (FOE) is perhaps one of the most guarded freedoms in the world, enshrined in the constitution of most countries. A corollary FOE is freedom of religion. The legally binding Convention on Cultural Diversity ratified by over 155 countries, including Jamaica and UK, encompasses the necessity for intercultural dialogue, mutual understanding and respect cultures. Here again as religion is a cultural memevi it is also relevant to this important agreement. However, this research showed marked absence of inter-religious dialogue and freedom of religion in the four newspapers. Whether this can be extend to the public sphere, as a whole, requires further research. Freedom of religion and inter-religious dialogue was among the least covered subject in all four newspapers: 0% and 3% respectively for the Gleaner; 0% and less than 4% for the Guardian, respectively; less than 2% for both in the times yet inter-religious conflict was 6%; and 0% and 1% for the Daily Mail, respectively.
These findings have much implication to the promotion of peace and tolerance in the public sphere insofar as religious differences and lack of dialogue among and within religions, historically, have resulted in many conflicts or conflicts in the name of
religion. As Senghaas (2002) in his study of „non-Western„ (Hindu, Confucian and Islamic) cultures and that of Western cultures such as Judeo-Christian concluded, “all civilizations have internal differences that in some cases led to conflicts” (MAHDAVI, KNIGHT, 2012). Should it not be that the media as part of its function to promote diversity, facilitate this needed dialogue? Indeed, it may be through dialogue that the “dignity of difference” can be unearthed, elevated and appreciated resulting not in conflict but pride and new experiences, respect and richness (cf. ibid, p. 13). Inter/intra-faith dialogue is not presented as a panacea but an important starting point. Indeed, many authors point to contestations of inter-faith dialogue (DALLMAYR, 2012; SAFFARI, 2012; ADAK, TURAN, 2012; MAHDAVI, KNIGHT, 2012; RAJABI, 2015; OZOLINS, 2016).
5. Discussion and conclusions
This study has confirmed that the two largest religions, Islam and Christianity, received more coverage in the four newspapers reviewed. Both were subjected to „negative‟ reports albeit more articles underscored some positives of Christianity, especially in Jamaica, than was found for Islam. Islam was almost never presented positively. These were followed by Judaism. Confucianism received zero coverage with the other religions following somewhere between the two.
The study also confirmed that the news sources are usually the same despite the topics covered; in the case of religion it is religious officials. Religious stories are also largely about the actions of religious officials though adherents of religions are frequently used as sources and are the subject of religious news. The findings have shown that there is no significant differences in the representation of religion across the two countries with similar histories and cultures. Nor is there major differences across the two countries nor so-called Quality and Popular newspapers. Scholarships was used to theorise and make sense of the findings. However audience research and news production studies would be need to gain greater empirical insights into what influences and the potential impact of representation on religions in these countries.
The similarities across media systems and across the countries is a point to be noted well. As pointed out earlier, both countries have interrelated histories as Jamaica was colonised by Britain. The development of press in Jamaica emanated for this colonisation. Both countries have similar political system; both connected
strongly to the Christian Church. While the two countries differ regarding state involvement in the media, like in Britain, the print media in Jamaica tend to be politically aligned - although this alignment can and often changes. All these factors coupled with the fact that the four newspapers are also similar might have contributed to the largely similar representation of religion in them (HALLIN, MANCINI, 2005).
Media and religion have a lot in common. For one it is a sort of love them, hate them for what they are, stand for and represent. And I do not intend a play on word here by using the word „represent‟. Concerning representation in media, many may argue that religions also „re-present‟ reality. Both have a form of „sanctity‟. For media, it is the sanctity of freedom of the press (FOP) and freedom of expression (FOE). And it is from the very same FOE and FOP that the sanctity of freedom of religion (FOR) flows. It is ironic, however, that this study has found that there is not much public discourse on FOR. Freedom of religion unifies both the religious and the non-religious making it, to some, more important that the inherent metaphysical sanctity with which adherents hold religion. On one hand there are authors like Hansen, Cottle e Newbold (1998) who posit, “The romanticised image on news workers as independent watchdogs challenging government and powerful vested interests may say more about a self-projected image than what remains a highly bureaucratic and less than critical professional practice” (HANSEN, COTTLE, NEWBOLD, 1998). This is quite pointed and might be more of a generalisation, as on the other hand, it was the renowned economist, Amartya Sen who famously argued that never before has there been mass poverty where there are free media.
In the end, therefore, it may not be about the media or religions in and of themselves that make representation of religion in media important or that has led to so much scholarship in this area. Certainly for some adherents it is about their sacred religion. But perhaps it is also about the diversity, ethic, fairness, objectivity, balance, truth and professionalism (all ideals?) that are expected to emanate from the privileged and protected fourth estate, the media. If the media are to uphold these ideals then fair representation of religion is a fair demand. The polemic is where this demand contravenes FOP. Public policy on cultural diversity and more specifically policies on pluralism and diversity in media must toe this line carefully.
The discussion about whether religions are promoted when others are relegated or censored by mass media is something that should be further studied.
Another necessary discussion is whether religion and its communication by the mass media contributes to the emergence of barriers to communication. In this sense, this work is only a starting point and not a point of arrival. Also as to whether one religion censures or forbids another. With the research described here no closed conclusions are offered in this regard. But there are questions and points of reflection, leaving the debate open.
For the peace is necessary in the actual moment a religious pluralism with an appropriate balance between the elements of the religion, culture, politic, globalization, technology and the media, without or with fewer cultural barriers to communication.
Highlights
The similarities across media systems and across the countries is a point to be noted well. As we pointed out both countries interrelated histories as Jamaica was colonised by Britain. The development of press in Jamaica emanated for this colonisation. Both countries have similar political system; both connected strongly to the Christian Church.
References
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