FREE THEMES
Permanence in the labour market and life satisfaction in old age
Abstract Population aging is a global trend that has drawn attention to policies to encourage a productive life and delayed retirement. Thus, it is necessary to expand our understanding of the effects of work on health indicators and well-be-ing in old age. The purpose of this study was to determine the association of permanency in the labor market with sociodemographic and medical factors and life satisfaction in elders. We used the database from Study FIBRA-RJ including elderly (aged > 65) clients of a private health care plan who resided in northern districts of the munici-pality of Rio de Janeiro. Among the 626 partic-ipants, 82 (13,1%) maintained paid jobs. Mul-tiple logistic regression showed that the odds of remaining working among the elderly were higher for men; and those with 9 years of studies or more, and those with high income; and those with no disabling clinical conditions and with higher sat-isfaction with life. This study confirms that work activities in old age are associated with better so-cial and physical health conditions. Moreover, we observed that the maintenance of work activities was associated with higher life satisfaction, inde-pendent of socioeconomic and clinical character-istics in old age.
Key words Aging, Elderly, Life Satisfaction, Em-ployment
Pricila Cristina Correa Ribeiro 1
Daniele Soares Queiroz Almada 1
Jéssica Faria Souto 1
Roberto Alves Lourenço 2
1 Departamento de
Psicologia, Faculdade de Filosofia e Ciência Humanas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais. Av. Antônio Carlos 667, Pampulha. 31270-901 Belo Horizonte MG Brasil. pricilaribeiro@ufmg.br 2 Faculdade de Ciências
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Introduction
Brazil suffers an accelerated process of popula-tion aging, stopping to be a country with a
pre-dominantly young population1. The reduction of
the working age population is one of the conse-quences of demographic transition and its social impact is strong enough to generate projections to start the contraction of this workforce to mid
20202. Parallel to this phenomenon, the
increas-ing proportion of elderly in the labor market happens, leading researchers to question, in re-cent decades, if we are prepared to absorb the population group that intends to continue
occu-pied until the last stage of life3,4.
According to the Brazilian Institute of
Geog-raphy and Statistics (IBGE)5, the rate of elderly
Brazilians that entered the labor market in 2013
was 27.4% and increased to 29.1% in 20146. The
increase of elderly in the labor market has been observed in the country, even in times when there is a decrease in employment for the other age groups.
The occupancy level of people that are 60 years old or older is even higher among those who have no retirement or pension; in 2013; for
example, the rate was 45.1%5. Therefore, the
oc-cupation in old age seems to be associated with the need to maintain or improve the family in-come at this stage of life. In this survey of IBGE, although the main source of the elderly pop-ulation income was the retirement or pension (67.6%), the work accounted for 28.3% of the
income composition of this group5. The need to
provide for the family, combined with the loss of purchasing power caused by low levels of social security benefits, can explain the permanence of elderly in the labor market. However, studies have found other factors that contribute to the maintenance of labor activities in old age; among them experiences of pleasure associated with the occupation, use of free time with physical and/or mentally stimulating activities; social recognition
and conservation of social ties7-10.
Traditionally, the term ‘retirement’ remit to the old age, even if it’s considered that retired individuals are also represented by non-elderly
people11. Retirement also refers to the retreat of
the old individual, in which the subject returns to the interior of the habitation and is no
lon-ger considered active in society12. In an interview
with six university professors, between 61 and 88 years old, aiming to understand what keeps them
in teaching activity, Moreira13 found that all of
them consider the work as the life core, feeling the old age as a loss and the retirement, while synonymous of not work, as expression of inabil-ity. However, it has increased, considerably, the disassociation between old age and retirement, a fact consistent with the changes in the social imaginary that not all retirees are at an advanced age and that old age is not synonymous of
retire-ment14.
According to Schwingel15, the elderly that
remains occupied and active after retirement and/or perform volunteer work showed better cognitive performance, greater satisfaction, and well-being with life, remaining independent in their daily activities. Similarly, other studies have shown that engagement in volunteer work in old age was associated with gains, as better life satisfaction, positive self-esteem, better physical health, positive self-rated evaluation of health, improving the depression and reducing the risk
of mortality7,16-18.
These works emphasize the importance of working after retirement, stating that, in addi-tion to being responsible for the proper physical and mental conditioning, it also gives the person a sense of usefulness and well-being. However, the relationship between the maintenance of paid work and life satisfaction in old age is not consensus in the literature. In a study of
Okamo-to19, the association between satisfaction with life
and paid work was not found in the investigated elderly men, this association was obtained only
for women. In the study of Nakahara20, this
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Methods
To compose the study population, it was used the basis of data from the Study of Fragility in Bra-zilian Older - Rio de Janeiro Section - FIBRA-RJ, (Estudo da Fragilidade em Idosos Brasileiros – Seção Rio de Janeiro - FIBRA–RJ), which evaluat-ed a sample of elderly clients of a private health care operator. The details of the study
method-ology have been published in another article21.
Briefly, the criteria for inclusion were being a client, for at least 12 months, of the health care operator; being 65 years old or older; and being resident in one of the districts of the North Zone of Rio de Janeiro City. A total of 9,769 individuals who met these criteria were selected as a sample, stratified by sex and age group. It was used an in-verse random sampling, as strategy for predict-ing the fillpredict-ing of 900 questionnaires. For strata of men and women with 95 years old or older, a full census was taken.
The 847 older adults, who responded to FI-BRA-RJ study protocol, were asked to respond, by telephone, to the occupation inventory, applied in the following year, after the data collection of the baseline. Of these, 81 elderly with cognitive impairment and / or severe functional and whose participation in the FIBRA-RJ study happened from the account of a substitute informant were excluded. In addition, 78 participants refused to answer the occupation questionnaire and other 62 were considered losses due to death or are no longer located after the face-to-face interview. Therefore, in this study, the records of 626 par-ticipants of FIBRA-RJ study were analyzed. It is important to highlight that among these last ones, 12 elderly did not respond to questions about satisfaction with life, thus their data were included in the association analysis of the stay in the labor market with the clinical and sociode-mographic conditions, but not in the crude and adjusted analyzes for investigation of association between work and life satisfaction.
The sociodemographic characteristics in-cluded are: age; sex; total years of study; and personal income. Self-reports about presence of chronic diseases were obtained (stroke, cancer, arthritis, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease [COPD], depression, osteoporosis and coronary artery disease), diagnosed by a doctor in the last year.
A questionnaire was used to assess the in-tensity of satisfaction with life referenced to
do-mains22. The evaluated domains were:
satisfac-tion with current life; satisfacsatisfac-tion with current life, compared with other people at the same age; satisfaction with memory; satisfaction with the capacity for doing daily activities; satisfaction with friendships and family relationships; sat-isfaction with living environment; satsat-isfaction with access to health services; satisfaction with the means of transportation. For each domain the respondent should rank their level of satisfac-tion by choosing one of the following response options: not much; more or less; very.
The information about the occupation was obtained through a questionnaire with semi-structured questions about the working activities conducted throughout life. The depen-dent variable of this study entitled “permanence in the labor market” was obtained with the an-swer to the question “Do you perform some work activity?”. In addition to this question, oth-er questions about occupation have identified if the work activity carried out by the respondent referred to a paid work. These questions were: 1) “What was (is) your main occupation?” 2) “Is this activity the same occupation performed lifelong?” and 3) “Describe the activities you per-form in your daily work routine”. The character-ization of the main occupation was made from a predefined list composed by the categories of the
Brazilian Classification of Occupation (CBO)23,
proposed by the Brazilian Ministry of Labor and Employment. According to this classification, the occupation would be a concept designed to en-compass the activities carried out by individuals in their daily work routine, which may or may not involve a formal employment.
To investigate the association between the permanence in the labor market and the socio-demographic, clinical and satisfaction
character-istics, analyzes associated with 2 test were
per-formed. To estimate the odds ratios (and their respective confidence intervals) for the associa-tion of the stay in the labor market with socio-demographic characteristics, presence of chronic pathologies and life satisfaction, a multiple logis-tic regression was performed.
For data analysis, it was used the software Sta-tistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 18.0. All results presented of relative frequency and association measures were weighted by sam-ple weight.
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Results
Of the 626 participants studied in this present study, 82 (13,1%) exercised work activities, while 544 (86,9%) stopped working. The permanence frequency in the labor market is showed in Table 1, according to the sociodemographic and clinical characteristics. Between the ones that were still working, it was observed a men predominance (55%), from 65 to 74 years old (58,4%), with thirteen years or more of study (45,9%) and in-come higher than 5,1 minimum salaries (66,3%). In the elderly group that stopped working, it was observed a women predominance (69,9%), from 75 to 79 years old (25,3%), with nine to twelve years of studying (34,3%) and income also high-er than 5,1 minimum salaries (49,3%).
There was less prevalence of every studied pathologies in the group that was still working compared with the group which has stopped working (Table 1). Systemic arterial hypertension and diabetes mellitus were exceptions, without reaching statistical significance. A better health condition is positively associated with working.
The group of elderly who was still working, reported being more satisfied with life, compared to those who stopped working, except for the sat-isfaction with the means of transportation. The association of permanence in the labor market with satisfaction referenced to domains is shown in Table 2.
Table 3 describes the results of a multiple lo-gistic regression and shows that the chances of remaining working were higher for men com-pared to women; for those with 9 or more years of study, compared to those with low education (not studied or until to 4 years of study); and for those with high income, compared to those who had personal income more two minimum salaries, regardless of medical conditions and life satisfaction.
The increase of age and the presence of heart disease, stroke, COPD, osteoporosis and de-pression were associated with fewer chances to remain in work activities. The association with the presence of cancer (p = 0.643) was not main-tained after adjusting for other pathologies, so-ciodemographic characteristics and satisfaction with life.
As for life satisfaction, the logistic model indicated that older people who remain in the labor market are more satisfied with life than those who stopped working, independent of so-ciodemographic characteristics and clinical con-ditions.
Table 1. Permanence in the labor market according to socioeconomic and clinical characteristics (N = 626).
Variable
Permanence in the labor market
Yes No
N (%) N (%)
Sex
Male 41 (45,0) 396 (69,9) Female 41 (55,0) 148 (30,1) Age group*
65-69 24 (28,7) 90 (15,6)
75-79 15 (19,5) 132 (25,3)
70-74 26 (29,7) 136 (23,7)
80-84 12 (15,7) 111 (21,8)
≥ 85 5 (6,4) 75 (13,7)
Schooling*
0-4 11 (13,7) 101 (18,3)
5-8 13 (14,9) 111 (20,4)
9-12 21 (25,5) 187 (34,3)
≥ 13 37 (45,9) 145 (27,0)
Family income*#‡
0-2 8 (9,7) 77 (14,2)
2,1-5 19 (24,0) 192 (36,4)
> 5,1 51 (66,3) 255 (49,3) Coronary Disease*
No 77 (93,8) 468 (85,6)
Yes 5 (6,2) 76 (14,4)
Stroke*
No 80 (97,4) 517 (95,0)
Yes 2 (2,6) 27 (5,0)
Arterial hypertension***
No 28 (33,9) 179 (33,0)
Yes 54 (66,1) 365 (67,0)
Diabetes mellitus***
No 63 (76,4) 423 (78,1)
Yes 19 (23,6) 121 (21,9)
Cancer**
No 77 (93,8) 519 (95,3)
Yes 5 (6,2) 25 (4,7)
Arthritis/Osteoarthritis*
No 63 (77,3) 337 (62,6)
Yes 19 (22,7) 207 (37,4)
COPD*
No 80 (97,3) 508 (93,5)
Yes 2 (2,7) 36 (6,5)
Depression*
No 77 (94,0) 462 (85,2)
Yes 5 (6,0) 82 (14,8)
Osteoporosis*
No 70 (86,6) 388 (72,0)
Yes 12 (13,4) 156 (28,0)
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Discussion
In this study, the permanence in the labor mar-ket after 65 years old was associated with male, younger age groups, with higher educational lev-el and higher income. In addition, this mainte-nance of paid work among the elderly was asso-ciated with better physical health and greater life satisfaction in the old age.
As for gender and age factors, Wajnman et
al.24 point out that men and women have, over
the life cycle, behavior and roles very different, compared to the labor market, thereby they reach the old age with very different levels of activity.
According to Rocha-Coutinho25, studies
con-ducted in different countries have shown that both men and women thought that the house and the children were female responsibilities, leaving the men of the family in charge of the financial support. This is a cultural reality, still preserved, mainly by the older cohorts, in which the role of the caregiver is predominantly occu-pied by women. It is known that domestic work and child care continue to be allocated to
wom-en, predominantly26,27. However, transformation
in the management and support of families have undergone significant changes due to the new fe-male roles in the labor market and family
struc-ture, consisting of couples without children28,29.
In Brazil, the reality is also modified as a result of legislation, whose social security and assistance guarantees to the elderly, benefited many women
who, although they have not formally contribut-ed to social security, had a guarantecontribut-ed income in
old age30-32.
As for the influence of age, it was found out that the rate of elderly who remained active in the labor market decreased with age, from 58.4% in the 65-74 years old group to 19.5% between 75 and 79 years old group. In Brazil, these results had already been observed in recent decades. For
example, Camarano et al.33 observed a
reduc-tion in the permanence rate in the labor market, which was around 47% at 65 years old, to 22.1%
after 75 years old. Similarly, Wajnman et al.24 also
highlighted that activity rates strongly declined with age. These findings are consistent with the
recent IBGE6 data that showed higher
occupan-cy rates for men, compared to women, and re-duction, according to the increase of the age, for both genders. This rate was 41.9% for men and 18.9% for women, aged over 60 years old, but fell to 30.0% for men aged 65 years old or more and 23.5% for those with 70 years old or more. More-over, even decreasing with age increasing, the lev-el of employment of men is higher than women in all age groups.
One factor that may influence the preva-lence of elderly men, who return to work after retirement, is the growing number of families, dependent on the elderly income. The elderly in the role of the main provider tends to delay their retirement or cause the return to work activities
to strengthen the domestic budget34-36
Table 2. Life satisfaction referenced to domains, according to the situation in the labor market (N = 614).
Domain Satisfaction
Permanence in the labor market
Yes No
N (%) N (%)
Not much/ More or Less
N (%)
Very
N (%)
Not much/ More or Less
N (%)
Very
N (%)
Current life** 23 (28) 59 (72,1) 262 (49,2) 270 (50,8)
Current life, compared with other people at the same age**
13 (15,9) 69 (84,2) 148 (27,9) 383 (72,3)
Memory* 39 (47,6) 43 (51,2) 277 (52,1) 255 (48,3)
Capacity for doing daily activities* 16 (19,5) 66 (79,7) 197 (37) 335 (62,8) Friendship and family relationships* 20 (24,4) 62 (75,2) 167 (31,4) 365 (68,6)
Living environment* 32 (39) 50 (61) 255 (47,9) 277 (52,2)
Health services* 32 (39) 50 (60,5) 263 (49,4) 269 (51,2)
Means of transportation** 39 (47,6) 43 (52,7) 256 (48,1) 276 (51,9)
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In the higher social classes, retirement is defined by the reduction income, since it refers
to the loss of bonuses10,37. Thus, better qualified
elderly is likely to remain active. This research found that 45.9% of the elderly who continued working after the retirement had thirteen years of schooling or more; this percentage was 27% in the group that came out of the labor market. It is assumed that older people with higher edu-cation probably had access to skilled occupations and chose to stay in the labor market, motivated both by income and by satisfaction with the work activities and achievements.
Reforming in pension systems and in spe-cific groups of workers admission policies, both in developed countries and in middle-income countries, as Brazil, act as incentives to postpone retirement and permanence of the elderly
pop-ulation in the formal labor market38. However,
older workers, including retirees who legally cannot receive benefits such as unemployment insurance, have unfavorable conditions of em-ployment, as lower and/or higher chances of dis-missal remuneration when compared to
young-er39. Due to appreciation of younger employees
and increased production capacity in the formal sector, the informal work is seen as a good op-portunity for those who want to remain work-ing and complementwork-ing the income after
retire-ment11,29. Thus, the elderly have been attracted to
part-time, temporary and autonomous jobs. As for health indicators, we found out that the medical conditions that increase the chanc-es of functional losschanc-es, such as coronary artery disease, stroke, arthritis/osteoarthritis, COPD, depression, osteoporosis were associated with the output of the elderly after retirement from the la-bor market. Hypertension and diabetes were not related to the permanence of the elderly in the
labor market. In Boot et al.40 study about
predic-tors of elderly in the labor market, the authors also pointed out the elderly and chronically ill, as well as those with few psychosocial resources at work, as the most likely to stop working. There-fore, we can conclude about the importance of maintaining physical health to stay in the labor market in old age and to return to these activities after retirement.
As for life satisfaction, we found out that el-derly people who continued to exercise paid em-ployment in old age reported being more satis-fied with life in its various dimensions (with life in general, with the social, cognitive and func-tional aspects and others) compared to those
who stopped working. In a study by Nakahara20,
Table 3. Odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals for association of the permanence in the labour market with sociodemografics characteristics, presence of chronicles pathologies and life satisfaction (N = 614).
Variables OR (IC95%) p-value
Sex
Male 1,00
Female 0,387 (0,328-0,456) 0,000 Age group
75-79 1,00
80-84 0,449 (0,334-0,604) 0,000 >= 85 0,716 (0,514-0,997) 0,048 Schooling
0-4 1,00
5-8 0,932 (0,711-1,222) 0,612 9-12 1,580 (1,235-2,021) 0,000 >= 13 1,891 (1,551-2,305) 0,000 Family income*
0-2 1,00
2,1-5 1,407 (1,059-1,868) 0,018 > 5,1 1,839 (1,511-2,238) 0,000 Life satisfaction
Very 1,00
Not much/More or Less
0,527 (0,446-0,624) 0,000 Coronary Disease
No 1,00
Yes 0,360 (0,268-0,483) 0,000 Stroke
No 1,00
Yes 0,556 (0,353-0,877) 0,012 Cancer
No 1,00
Yes 1,096 (0,795-1,511) 0,577 Arthritis/Osteoarthritis
No 1,00
Yes 0,732 (0,607-0,883) 0,001 COPD
No 1,00
Yes 0,565 (0,367-872) 0,010
Depression
No 1,00
Yes 0,454 (0,329-0,629) 0,000 Osteoporosis
No 1,00
Yes 0,705 (0,561-0,886) 0,003
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with elderly Japanese, there was no association of paid work with life satisfaction, and low so-cioeconomic status used to explain the lack of association between these variables. In contrast, in the present study, the population with paid work in old age was associated with better socio-economic conditions. It is assumed that, while among low-income elderly need to work does not seem to allow greater life satisfaction, in up-per-class maintenance of work can mean main-taining the social role and the quality of life and, consequently, greater life satisfaction in old age.
In this direction, other studies41-43 showed that
the maintenance of paid employment was asso-ciated with positive psychosocial outcomes in old age, such as social interactions and psychological well-being. Further studies are needed with older people of lower socioeconomic classes, living in middle and low income countries, to understand whether the permanence in the labor market, driven mainly by financial difficulties, impacts life satisfaction in old age.
The benefit of voluntary work, either for
ob-jective indicators of health16,17, either for
subjec-tive aspects, such as life satisfaction and posisubjec-tive
self-rated evaluation of general health18, was
am-ply demonstrated in the literature. This study did not examine the practice of volunteer work, and paid work was chosen as research object because this type of occupation is taken in gerontological literature as a category of activity that differs from other productive activities, such as those carried out only in their own domestic environment or held for the purpose of helping the others, as with
informal care and volunteering44. Thus, although
voluntary and paid work are both within the same sphere of social occupation for elderly, it is assumed that they are occupations from different natures and it is suggested that further popula-tion-based investigation is developed to compare their benefits among elderly Brazilians.
In addition, the directionality between work variables and life satisfaction was not the focus of this investigation, which followed cross-sectional design. Longitudinal studies should be
conduct-ed to identify if the maintenance of work in old age leads to greater life satisfaction or if it would be the most positive assessment of condition that would function as a profile of the elderly indi-cator who keeps engaged with work activities. It should also consider the socioeconomic pro-file of elderly respondents with higher educa-tion and higher income than the general elderly population, limits the generalization of associa-tions obtained between the sociodemographic and clinical characteristics and the permanence in the labor market. The profile of the studied population is associated with the population source of the study, composed by customers of a health provider company. This population may represent the Brazilian elderly with access to the private health sector that has been described as a population with better conditions of education and income and, consequently, greater access to care in health than the elderly population with
access only to the public health system45.
In the gerontology field, the study of satis-faction and paid work in the elderly prioritizes understanding the satisfaction of the elderly with their own work to identify the determinants of
early exit from the labor market42. The findings
of this study corroborate the scientific
litera-ture31,46-49 pointing social factors as determinants
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Collaborations
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Article submitted 15/04/2016 Approved 25/08/2016
Final version submitted 27/08/2016
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