Gender asymmetries in golf participation: tradition or discrimination?

UNIVERSIDADE DO ALGARVE FACULDADE DE ECONOMIA

GENDER ASYMMETRIES IN GOLF PARTICIPATION: TRADITION OR DISCRIMINATION?

HELENA MARIA DE ALBUQUERQUE E CASTRO AMARO DOS SANTOS REIS DE FIGUEIREDO

PhD Thesis in Tourism

Research conducted under the supervision of: Professora Doutora Antónia de Jesus Henriques Correia

UNIVERSIDADE DO ALGARVE FACULDADE DE ECONOMIA

GENDER ASYMMETRIES IN GOLF PARTICIPATION: TRADITION OR DISCRIMINATION?

HELENA MARIA DE ALBUQUERQUE E CASTRO AMARO DOS SANTOS REIS DE FIGUEIREDO

PhD Thesis in Tourism

Research conducted under the supervision of: Professora Doutora Antónia de Jesus Henriques Correia

GENDER ASYMMETRIES IN GOLF PARTICIPATION: TRADITION OR DISCRIMINATION?

Doutoramento em Turismo

Declaração de Autoria do Trabalho

Declaro ser o(a) autor(a) deste trabalho, que é original e inédito. Autores e trabalhos consultados estão devidamente citados no texto e constam da listagem de referências incluída.

Helena Maria de Albuquerque e Castro Amaro dos Santos Reis de Figueiredo

……… (assinatura)

Direitos de cópia ou Copyright

©Copyright: Helena Maria de Albuquerque e Castro Amaro dos Santos Reis de Figueiredo.

A Universidade do Algarve tem o direito, perpétuo e sem limites geográficos, de arquivar e publicitar este trabalho através de exemplares impressos reproduzidos em papel ou de forma digital, ou por qualquer outro meio conhecido ou que venha a ser inventado, de o divulgar através de repositórios científicos e de admitir a sua cópia e distribuição com objetivos educacionais ou de investigação, não comerciais, desde que seja dado crédito ao autor e editor.

Aos meus pais, Olga e Pedro João

To all women…

“No challenge comes to us that we cannot handle. If a challenge comes, that means we can handle it.” Sri Swami Satchidananda

i

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I thank Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia, under the fellowships program PROTEC, and the Direction of Escola Superior de Gestão, Hotelaria e Turismo, Professor Paulo Águas, for funding this project, allowing me time and availability to plan the interviews all over Portugal, which I would not have achieved otherwise. Special thanks to the Direction of the PhD Program in Tourism, especially to Professor João Albino da Silva, for accepting me on the program. I further thank the Professors of the program who shared their knowledge with us, greatly contributing to my scientific and methodological development; their example inspired me and I am grateful for the support they showed me over these years.

I am grateful to Professor Efigénio Rebelo for the many conversations he took to persuade me to engage in this journey. Without his help, I would probably be still wondering whether I should… or not…

I thank the Department of Languages, who worked hard in order to free me from lecturing so I could take my research further: Alexandra Pereira, Cidália Guerreiro, Elisabete Pereira, Manuela Mendonça, Maria José Marques, Paula Correia, Rita Baleiro. Filipa Perdigão and Kate Torkington helped in a moment of distress, by disclosing the “themecode” tool to me. This thesis is a tribute to their friendship, support and encouragement.

I thank Professor Ana Ferreira for the constructive advice in the early stages of choosing the theme.

Sofia Soares Franco was a crucial help in finding bibliographic material that was almost inaccessible, which enriched this thesis; Thank you, Sofia.

I thank João Pedro Ferradeira for his invaluable help: all the figures, tables and all formatting of the thesis have his signature. Thank you, João.

I am thankful to the fantastic women I interviewed, so full of enthusiasm, always ready when I asked for further contribution, clarifying details, answering my late questions. Thank you for your interest in my work, as you understood it was “in the interest of women golfers”…

Thank you my little, great friend Rosária Pereira, my companion throughout these long years: we started this journey together, we are finishing it together. We supported each other; we had inspiring discussions along the process. Together we laughed, together we wept, we suffered together and together we hope to succeed in this journey.

I thank my brothers and sisters, my large and loving family, for their unconditional love, their immense strength and generosity, their example facing adversity, their trust in me, and for being my “home” whenever I feel lost in life.

I thank my husband Luís, who stood by me all these years, who witnessed my euphoric moments, held me up in the many moments of anguish, who went across the world to

ii

attend tourism conferences (this new subject of discussion came into our lives…), always attenuating my fears and faults, always praising my successes. Never, at any moment, did the fascination for this research work prevail over my love for you.

I thank the many friends who encouraged me, whom I cherish in my heart.

I thank Professor Lee Phillip McGinnis for accepting to co-author the last two Papers, for his enlightening guidance and advice. It has been a challenge to meet his expectations.

I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my supervisor, Professor Antónia Correia: thank you for all the sharing and learning, for everything you taught me, for giving me thorough and helpful guidance, for believing in my abilities and for your infinite patience. Thank you for the suggestions that always took me further than I expected, facing new discoveries and going deeper into the subjects. Thank you for supporting me in the bad moments, for pushing me forward in the moments of hesitation, when I wanted to give up and surrender. Thank you for many long hours of work, but thank you also for all the good times we had together, the good laughs and our “minutes of success”.

iii

ABSTRACT

The present thesis is about leisure and sports, more precisely about the low women’s participation in golf. Since for centuries, golf has been ascribed as a men’s game, the idea is to examine how and to what extent gender discrimination has been tacitly accepted, avoided or overcome by women, thus the thesis focuses on gender issues and leisure paradigms. Having begun by understanding the facilitators and constraints that have influenced female participation in golf along the centuries, through a qualitative research, where depicting amateurs and champions/professionals’ participation, this thesis ends with an overview of the strategies women use to cope with the discrimination that still persists in the game. The three dimension of factors paradigm (Crawford and Godbey, 1987; Crawford, Jackson and Godbey, 1991; Godbey, Crawford and Shen, 2010), acting as constraints (Jackson, 1997, 2005) and/or facilitators (Raymore, 2002) to participation decisions was introduced on leisure sciences, stressing the relation between women’s life contexts and the strategies they adopt in order to succeed in a men’s world (McGinnis, Gentry and McQuillan, 2009), being this a major contribution to the body of knowledge in gender issues. Hence, this thesis relies both in social sciences and consumer behaviour, observing a gender perspective. Results suggest that gender inequities in golf, more than discrimination are a consequence of a strong tradition.

Keywords: Golf, Gender Asymmetries, Facilitators and Constrains, Negotiation Strategies.

v

RESUMO

Esta tese aborda a questão da baixa participação das mulheres na prática do golfe, visando compreender se as assimetrias de género inerentes a este desporto se devem à tradição cultural britânica dos clubes “for-gentlemen-only” ou a práticas sociais discriminatórias.

O objetivo desta pesquisa é apreender quais os fatores que induzem as mulheres a optar por uma atividade de lazer de cultura fortemente masculinizada, obedecendo a uma forte tradição, que levanta constrangimentos à sua participação. Um segundo objetivo que moveu este trabalho, foi identificar estratégias e modos que estas mulheres encontram para lidar com as desigualdades de género na prática deste desporto.

A revisão bibliográfica da investigação centra-se fundamentalmente nas questões de género, no comportamento do consumidor e no estudo do lazer e do desporto sob uma perspectiva de género. Desta análise da literatura emergiu uma vasta compilação de fatores que motivam ou inibem a decisão de participar numa atividade de lazer. Filtrados os fatores que mais claramente estão relacionados com o golfe, procedeu-se a uma segunda fase de recolha de elementos. De modo a melhor compreender quando se iniciaram e como se manifestaram essas assimetrias no golfe, procedeu-se a uma abordagem de 25 histórias de vida de jogadoras anglo-americanas que se tornaram famosas nos séculos XIX e XX. Para além de tentar delimitar temporalmente o início da exclusão das mulheres dos clubhouses, identificaram-se quais os fatores de motivação destas jogadoras, bem como os constrangimentos que mais pesaram no abandono da prática do golfe.

Com base na revisão de literatura e nos fatores recolhidos nas 25 histórias estudadas, e tendo em vista estabelecer um paralelo com a atualidade, a fase seguinte deste trabalho centrou-se em percursos de vida de mulheres golfistas em Portugal, à luz das teorias que fundamentam esta investigação: a teoria ecológica dos sistemas (Bronfenbrenner, 1979, 1989, 1992), e a onda histórico causal (Woodside et al., 2007) em articulação com os fatores intrapessoais, interpessoais e estruturais (Crawford e Godbey, 1987; Crawford et

al., 1991; Godbey et al., 2010) que facilitam (Raymore, 2002) ou inibem (Jackson,

vi

A investigação recorre a uma metodologia qualitativa, em que se adota o método da triangulação (realização de 39 entrevistas, observação participante e recolha de documentação), sendo as entrevistas interpretadas através da análise de conteúdo. Como forma de preparar esta análise de conteúdo, construiu-se um theme codebook, no qual se incluíram as três dimensões e os 33 fatores facilitadores ou inibidores, identificados na literatura e na abordagem etnográfica realizada. A cada um foi atribuído um código numérico. Esta codificação permitiu, não só agrupar os excertos dos discursos das entrevistadas com os fatores por elas percecionados, como obter dados sobre a sua frequência nas verbalizações e sobre as autoras dessas mesmas verbalizações. Para validar as interpretações das entrevistas, os fatores mais significativamente percecionados foram integrados num questionário com uma escala de concordância que foi aplicado às mesmas participantes.

A última fase da pesquisa fundamentou-se nas hipóteses de estratégias de negociação avançadas por McGinnis, Gentry e McQuillan (2009), que emergem dos comportamentos baseados em rituais que reforçam a hegemonia masculina deste desporto, como por exemplo, a limitação das mulheres jogarem em certos dias da semana por serem os mais requisitados pelos homens. Quando inseridos num ambiente adverso, os indivíduos desenvolvem modos de negociar a sua participação de diversas maneiras, decorrentes dos seus antecedentes contextos de vida e perceções. Os autores teorizam que as golfistas tendem a viabilizar a sua participação de diversas maneiras: através do consenso, da cedência, para não criar conflitos, i.e., accommodating (as que aceitam e acomodam); ignorando ou não percecionando abertamente, i.e., unaware (“não penso que o golfe seja masculino”) e unapologetic (põem em causa as tradições culturais e propõem medidas mais inclusivas para as mulheres).

A tese apresenta uma proposta inovadora, ou seja, postula a articulação entre cada uma das dimensões de facilitadores e inibidores com um dos tipos de estratégias acima descritos: a dimensão interpessoal interage com a estratégia accommodating, a intrapessoal com a unaware e a estrutural com a unapologetic.

Uma vez que a amostra abrangeu um vasto espectro de níveis de experiência de golfe – campeãs/ profissionais e amadoras – até às mulheres que jogam apenas para acompanhar familiares ou amigos, “o golfe social”, os resultados foram analisados

vii

separadamente em dois momentos: o primeiro quando se estudou quais os fatores preponderantes na decisão e o segundo quando se verificou qual a estratégia escolhida mais ou menos conscientemente por cada mulher.

Os resultados manifestam a grande heterogeneidade entre estes dois grupos, por exemplo na variável “tempo/ falta de tempo”: parte das amadoras não tem tempo para jogar devido aos seus contextos de vida, enquanto que as profissionais o consideram um “falso constrangimento”, afirmando que se trata apenas de estabelecer prioridades. A nível estrutural, relativamente às políticas de golfe e das instituições ligadas à modalidade, as profissionais são muito mais críticas, talvez por terem um conhecimento mais profundo sobre o funcionamento dessas instituições.

A nível das estratégias adotados, houve resultados inesperados: não seria de antever que as mulheres mais competitivas do país manifestassem um comportamento

accommodating (acomodativo), mas tal verificou-se, o que pode significar que os

valores culturais e tradicionais da sociedade portuguesa podem prevalecer mesmo quando as mulheres são incentivadas a participar numa atividade considerada um dos bastiões da hegemonia masculina.

As implicações teóricas surgem ao nível da contribuição para os estudos sobre as questões de género, comportamento feminino no lazer e no desporto. As implicações práticas revelam importantes linhas de orientação para os intervenientes e decisores nesta modalidade introduzirem modificações de modo a cativarem mais mulheres para a prática do golfe. As limitações derivam de apenas se terem entrevistado mulheres a viver em Portugal, pelo que são necessários estudos que visem analisar o ponto de vista de jogadores masculinos, para além de testar o modelo noutros desportos e noutras nacionalidades.

Palavras-chave: Golfe, Assimetrias de Género, Facilitadores e Inibidores, Estratégias

ix

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

FIGURES ... xiii

TABLES... xv

ABBREVIATIONS LIST ... xvii

CHAPTER 1 ... 1

1.1 Background and Purpose of the Research ... 2

1.2 Aims of the Thesis ... 7

1.3 Theoretical Insights ... 8

1.4 Conceptual Framework ... 12

1.5 Organisation of the Thesis ... 15

1.6 Methodological Routes ... 17

1.7 Overview of the Papers ... 26

CHAPTER 2 ... 45

Abstract ... 46

Introduction ... 47

Literature Review ... 48

Theoretical Background ... 55

Methodology and Findings ... 59

Conclusions, Limitations and Future Research ... 65

References ... 68 CHAPTER 3 ... 77 Abstract ... 78 Introduction ... 79 Theoretical Framework ... 81 Methodology ... 88 Findings ... 92

Conclusions, Limitations and Perspectives for Future Research ... 95

References ... 98 CHAPTER 4 ... 103 Introduction ... 106 Literature Review ... 108 Theoretical Framework ... 111 Methodology ... 114 Findings ... 118

x

Conclusions, Limitations and Further Research ... 128

References ... 131

CHAPTER 5 ... 135

Abstract ... 136

Introduction ... 137

Facilitators / Constraints on Female Golf Participation ... 138

Methodology ... 138

Findings ... 140

Conclusions, Limitations and Further Research ... 143

References ... 146 CHAPTER 6 ... 149 Abstract ... 150 Introduction ... 151 Literature Review ... 153 Conceptual Framework ... 154 Methodology ... 156 Results ... 158

Conclusions, Implications, Limitations and Further Research... 164

References ... 166 CHAPTER 7 ... 169 Abstract ... 170 Introduction ... 171 Theoretical Background ... 174 Conceptual Framework ... 179 Methodology ... 180 Discussion ... 183

Conclusions, Limitations and Further Research ... 194

References ... 198 CHAPTER 8 ... 203 Abstract ... 204 Introduction ... 205 Theoretical Framework ... 207 Conceptual Framework ... 213 Methodology ... 215 Discussion ... 218

xi

References ... 229

CHAPTER 9 ... 235

Summary of Major Findings ... 236

Theoretical and Methodological Implications ... 239

Empirical and Managerial Implications ... 241

Limitations of the Research and Paths for Future Research ... 243

xiii

FIGURES

Page

1.1 - Conceptual Framework of the Thesis..………...………... 13

1.2 – Research Stages………... 14

1.3 - Structure of the Thesis………... 15

1.4 – Data Triangulation………... 20

2.1 - The 3D Factors – Conceptual Framework...………. 59

2.2 - Conceptual Framework: A Revisited Model of Women’s Golf Participation………. 64

3.1 - Chronological Sample………...………... 91

4.1 - The 3D Factors Paradigm………...…………...……….. 113

4.2 - Conceptual Framework: Women’s Golf Participation Model………. 117

4.3 – Caroline’s Golf Participation Model………... 118

4.4 - Paula’s Golf Participation Model………. 120

4.5 – Claire’s Golf Participation Model………... 122

4.6 – Maria’s Golf Participation Model………... 123

4.7 - Judith’s Golf Participation Model……… 125

4.8 – Angela’s Golf Participation Model………. 127

6.1 - Decision to Participate in Golf Model Based in 3D Factors…………..…..………… 155

7.1 – From Causal Historical Wave to Strategies – A Conceptual Framework ..………… 180

7.2 – Accommodating Strategy……… 190

7.3 - Unapologetic Strategy……….. 192

7.4 – Unaware Strategy……… 193

xv

TABLES

Page 1.1 - Map of Intrapersonal, Interpersonal and Structural Factors………...… 9 1.2 – Ritual-based Negotiation Strategies………...………… 10 1.3 – Quantitative Versus Qualitative Paradigms……… 18 1.4 - Sample Stratification………...………… 23 2.1 - Map of Intrapersonal, Interpersonal, and Structural Factors………...………... 60 3.1 – Relevant Intrapersonal Factors………...………… 92 3.2 – Relevant Interpersonal Factors………...………… 93 3.3 – Relevant Structural Factors……….………... 94 5.1 - Dimensions and Factors Illustrated by Excerpts From Interviews………..………... 140 5.2 - Comparing Professional and Amateur Golfers………...………… 142 6.1 - Sample Stratification………...………… 157 6.2 - Intrapersonal, Interpersonal and Structural Factors……… 159 6.3 - 3D Factors: Different Perceptions by Age Group………...………… 161 6.4 - 3D Factors: Different Perceptions by Marital Status………..………… 162 6.5 - 3D Factors: Different Perceptions in Women With or Without Children...………... 163 7.1 – Profiling the Women Sample………..………... 181 7.2 – 3D Factors by Number of Instances and Informants………..………… 184 8.1 – Information About the Interviewees………...………… 217

xvii

ABBREVIATIONS LIST

3D Three Dimensions of Factors

CHW Causal Historical Wave

ECM Extended Case Study Method

EGA European Golf Association

EST Ecological Systems Theory

FPG Federação Portuguesa de Golfe – Portuguese Golf Federation IAGTO International Association of Golf Tour Operators

PGA Professional Golf Association

PENT National Strategic Plan for Tourism

TP Portuguese Tourism Board

1

CHAPTER 1

2

1.1 Background and Purpose of the Research

The purpose of the present thesis is to examine women’s perception of the factors that may inhibit or facilitate their option for a male-dominated game such as golf, and what strategy modes women use to negotiate their participation in this sport. Understanding what factors are determinant in inducing their decision to participate is of crucial importance to unveil policies that those in charge in golf institutions and golf course managers can adopt to attract more female participants to this leisure activity.

As golf has been attracting a number of individuals that leave their homes either to join (as a player) or attend (as a spectator) competitions around the world or as “golf tourists” to enjoy holidays at a golf destination, the concept of golf crosses the borders of leisure to assume the form of a tourism product. In fact golf has been considered as a tourism product with increasing importance within the economy of several countries. According to the Professionals Golfers’ Association (hereafter: PGA) “the game of golf is contributing over €15.1 billion to the European economy” (PGA, 2013: 7). Portugal is no exception; golf is considered a tourist product that, to a certain extent, compensates the seasonality effects of a tourism marked by the well known summer weather conditions.

Aside from the non-seasonal effects of golf, its economic impact is noteworthy. In the national strategic plan for tourism (PENT 2013-2015), Turismo de Portugal states that the European golf market estimates one million golf travellers per year, and the prospect is that these figures may double by 2015. In Portugal, this product represented 6.3% of foreign tourists in the country (TP, 2013: 68-70). The relevance of this product to the national tourism economy has been acknowledged (Correia and Kozak, 2012; Correia and Pintassilgo, 2006; Mendes, Valle and Guerreiro, 2011). Turismo de Portugal considers golfing activity among the 10 strategic products for the development of tourism in Portugal (TP, 2013) and, the International Association of Golf Tour Operators (IAGTO) (2013) elected Portugal/Algarve as “Europe’s Leading Golf Destination 2012”.

Despite the spill-over effect of golf in regional and national economies, this sport persists as a men’s bastion. Statistics displayed by the European Golf Association

3

(hereafter: EGA) indicate that, in 2010, the 38 European affiliated countries accounted for 4.439,233 players, 2.895,537 being male and 1.104,123 female golfers. Confirming the male-hegemonic culture of the game also in Portugal, Portuguese female participation in golf is around 20% - 25% (EGA, 2012; 2013) following the European and USA patterns. EGA (2009) figures reveal a great asymmetry between male and female participation in the practice of this sport, as the masculine segment represents more than 70% of the total population of golf players. Yet, as Reis, Correia and McGinnis (see: Paper 6) explain “the annual average growth rate in rounds has decreased 1.8% from 2005 to 2012, which means that there are fewer male players in 2012 (10, 702) than there were in 2005 (12,359) (EGA, 2012).

This revealed stagnation could be reversed by adopting policies capable of increasing women’s involvement. This evidence was recognized by several golf club managers, the regional director of the Portuguese Golf Federation (hereafter: FPG) and the president of the female department of FPG (see: Paper 2). In fact, the situation justifies the persistence of a female minority, since the number of women playing golf in absolute terms keeps growing, having reached a total of 2, 599 in 2013 (EGA, 2013). Actually, women’s participation varies between 20% and 25% (EGA, 2012 – 2013). The male hegemony of golf can be traced from the 19th century and persists till these days.

Actually the game of golf was first ruled by the Scottish in 1744, being regarded as an elitist sport for older people with a high socio-economic background: golf was seen as a “man’s game” (Haig-Muir, 2000; Maas and Haasbrook, 2001; McGinnis, Chun and McQuillian, 2003), reproducing the traditional pattern of the “for-gentlemen-only” British clubs (Chambers, 1995; George, 2010; Vamplew, 2010). Under this influence, it was acceptable for golf clubs to exclude women, not admitting any female members. Leisure historian Borsay (2006: 85) advances that: “the elite used sport and the arts to define and justify its position in the social order”, considering the gender asymmetries in sports more a consequence of this social order rather than of discrimination. Yet, evidence shows that gender prejudice has persisted in golf until the present day.

Since the beginning of golf women have been interested in this sport but more recently, the fact that their life expectancy is growing, giving them free time after retiring, that their economic power has increased in many areas and considering a recent appetence

4

for sports/leisure open-air activities, has clearly implied that this market segment presents a great potential. To understand women’s option to engage in a male-dominated activity and how this hegemony has persisted until today moderates the present research focusing on female golf players living in Portugal who practise this leisure activity. Thus, the study is engrained in leisure sciences, abandoning the feminist theories that moderate many gender studies (Butler, 1990, 1999; Bryson, 1993; McLeish, 1993; Swain, 1995).

This thesis aims at analyzing and understanding life contexts and background environments that have facilitated or inhibited female golf participation in Portugal, as a starting point to assess the strategies these women have used to succeed in a masculine leisure activity.

In his historical perspective, Borsay (2006: 81) questioned:

“What factors determined the character of a gentleman’s recreation? Of undoubted importance was the requirement for a substantial expenditure of money and time since this was precisely what the productive orders could not afford”

and he further reflects that although “the boundaries between male and female leisure have been fixed historically (...), leisure has been a powerful arena for the moulding and expressing of sexual identities” (Borsay, 2006: 121).

Research indicates that the study of women’s leisure is intrinsically related to the gender roles in society and the constraints women face deriving from gender inequities in most domains (Crawford and Godbey, 1987; Fjelstul, Jackson and Tesone, 2011; Henderson, 1990; Henderson and Hickerson, 2007). This topic has raised great research challenges as it has to be observed under a different perspective from men’s leisure (e.g. Deem, 1986; Shaw, 1994).

By means of consumer behaviour, the idea of understanding how and to what extent motivation for the decision to participate is life-context dependant becomes crucial; hence studying these women’s backgrounds, previous sports experiences, contextual life settings and environments is the starting point of the present research. This thesis

5

proposes that the most suitable framework in which to embed the research is the interaction of the Ecological Systems Theory (hereafter: EST), (Bronfenbrenner, 1979, 1989, 1992), and the Causal Historical Wave Theory (hereafter: CHW) (Woodside, Krauss, Caldwell and Chebat, 2007) with the three dimensions (3D) paradigm – intrapersonal, interpersonal and structural factors (Crawford and Godbey, 1987; Crawford, Jackson and Godbey, 1991; Godbey, Crawford and Shen, 2010) that inhibit (Jackson, 1997, 2005) or facilitate (Raymore, 2002) participation. Examining what motivates women to play and what conditions their involvement is the first step towards a deeper understanding of the strategies women use to succeed in golf, coping with the gender bias of the game, which is, above all, a new approach in gender literature.

In order to understand gendered sports participation scholars have adopted a wide range of approaches (e.g. Banet-Weiser, 1999; Carroll and Alexandris, 1997; Crawley, 1998; Koivula, 1995; Roster, 2007; among others). Golf, for its marked gender asymmetries, has been studied under a historical perspective in order to establish the influence of British cultural traditions that were shifted to this practice (e.g. George, 2011; Vamplew, 2010), or under a more pragmatic and functional approach that aims at highlighting women’s view points and advancing alternatives and solutions (Haig-Muir, 2000; McGinnis, Chun and McQuillian, 2003, 2005). McGinnis, Gentry and McQuillan (2009), for instance, go further in examining the various ways and modes adopted by women to stay in golf, and have presented findings that deserve to be considered.

Due to an increasingly competitive golf market environment and the threat of golf stagnation, marketers are eager to understand how can they reach new markets and make golf settings more attractive to women. This need is recognized by several scholars who have been researching on this issue. However, most of this research relies on acknowledging how women may or may not participate due to the golf courses’ conditions that are definitely not prone to welcome women, for instance, the generalized lack of facilities in the clubhouses, the limitation to play on certain days or times (“men’s days”), the lack of top competitions with visible media coverage thus involving higher prizes, and sponsorships that facilitate participation in a sport that is still expensive.

6

Golf course managers could apply the findings from these studies to adjust golf courses in line with women’s needs and perform more goal-directed promotion towards female market customers. Nevertheless, this is a very limited approach since the adaptation of golf courses to women needs is far from being enough. The problem goes beyond structural conditions, as this is an engrained issue that slashes the boundaries of intrapersonal and interpersonal drivers of human behaviour (see: Paper 5).

Thus to further comprehend women’s behaviour when engaging in a leisure activity where discrimination is more than evident, the intrapersonal, interpersonal and structural factors should be outlined. The former two emerge from the microsystem of the person: the intrapersonal relate to the inner self of the individuals, such as personality, motivation, self-esteem; the interpersonal addresses the relationships among individuals with family, friends, reference groups, as well as spousal interactions, family obligations, or an ethics of care (looking after the others’ needs before one’s own). The structural deriving from the macrosystem, consists of societal structures, associations, institutions within the individuals exist: golf courses environments, policies, as well as cultural and social attitudes and behaviours, or lack of time or money.

This thesis focuses on golf experiences and perceptions of gendered practices that induce negotiation behaviours. This brings us to essential research on tourism behaviour where Woodside, Caldwell and Spurr (2005) apply the “ecological systems theory to examine the contextual facilitating and constraining factors in the thoughts and actions of individuals regarding work, leisure and travel alternatives” (Woodside et al., 2005: 1). Facilitating and constraining factors have been pertained by many researchers to leisure preferences and sports preferences. This thesis intends to understand whether these factors are perceived as enablers or inhibitors to the decision-making process, either in leisure and sports in general, or golf in particular.

In spite of the extensive application of the facilitators/constraints paradigm to travel decision-making, leisure, and sports participation, there is still a gap in understanding the importance of adverse environments that raise a number of new, still under-researched, constraints. It is claimed that gender influences individuals’ choices and behaviour since childhood (White, Cox and Cooper, 1992). Traditionally, the variable

7

gender has been analysed as a structural constraint (Jackson and Henderson, 1995; Khan, 2011; Raymore, Godbey and Crawford, 1994; Scott and Jackson, 1996; Wimbush and Talbot, 1988) that moderates individuals’ leisure behaviour. Aside from these findings, the variable gender could be regarded as a factor that influences the whole set of intrapersonal, interpersonal and structural factors of individuals’ behaviour.

1.2 Aims of the Thesis

Therefore, the present thesis framework is as follows: the decision to participate in leisure relates to a set of external and internal processes that frame our decisions. These choices relate to personality traits, past experiences, family incentive or restriction, to groups of friends who choose the same leisure activity, and to issues such as the geographic location, lack of time, or money. Yet, when women are motivated to engage in a masculine leisure activity, another set of processes arises and has to be dealt with: clear or more subtle discriminatory practices that relate directly or indirectly to social and cultural traditions and values, life styles and behaviours that are manifest in sports such as golf and will be more difficult to surmount. Additionally, whereas some factors are easily identified, perceiving gender prejudice may be far less conspicuous. Many women are unaware of gender bias even in areas where discrimination has been openly acknowledged. Therefore, it is not expected that they should recognize and verbalize gender constraints in a male structured game such as this one.

This being so, the research issues can be formulated as the following four objectives:

1. To examine whether and to what extent Portuguese female golfers are

aware of gender inequities in golf participation, an objective that is present in all the Papers.

2. To identify and depict which factors act as facilitators or constraints to

participation, covered in Papers 3, 4 and 5.

3. To account for different perceptions and attitudes across the

Champions/Professional and amateur women players, covered in Papers 4 and 5.

8

4. To identify and analyse which strategies Portuguese women engage in, to

continue to play golf despite its adverse environment, covered in Papers 6 and 7.

The intention of this chapter is to offer an overview of the theoretical and empirical backgrounds for the thesis. After establishing the importance of golfing activity to the economy of tourism in Portugal, and elaborating around how an increase in the female market women may add a contribution to its economic development, the aims of the thesis are set in four subjects. The following section discusses theories grounded in human behaviour.

1.3 Theoretical Insights

The present research is anchored on the Ecological Systems Theory (hereafter: EST) by Bronfenbrenner (1979, 1989, 1992) that places the individual within several systems, the two most frequently applied to leisure research being the micro and the macrosystem. The first relates to past and present roles, activities individuals have experienced in their interactions, whereas the macrosystem is the larger context in which the individuals function, including structures of society and its institutions plus societal conceptions of ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and gender. At the moment a decision is required, a causal historical wave originated in one’s microsystem hits the individual, so decisions may be influenced by one’s childhood, past experiences and beliefs. This idea is postulated by the causal historical wave theory (Woodside et al., 2007) and interacts with the intrapersonal, interpersonal and structural factors (Crawford and Godbey, 1987; Crawford et al., 1991; Godbey et al., 2010) that act as facilitators or constraints. Yet because this is not a static process, the same factor may be perceived under more than one dimension. Further, the same factor may act as facilitator or constraint: for instance, family interactions is consensually seen as an enabler factor for participation: family interactions is consensually seen as an enabler factor for participation if another element of the family participates, whereas in case where the husband does not play, the wife tends to abandon the game. Facilitators are the factors that enable participation, i.e., motivation, testing your ability and skills, group of friends, socializing, whereas constraints inhibit participation, i.e., lack of time or money, family obligations, unfriendly golf club environments.

9

1.3.1 Facilitators and constraints

The present thesis concerns these factors that moderate the option for engaging in a sport clearly deemed as male-prevalent. Table 1.1 below presents the facilitators and constraints outlined in the literature and presented in Paper 1.

Table 1.1 - Map of Intrapersonal, Interpersonal and Structural Factors

Source: Own Elaboration - List of authors and full references are in Paper 1.

This table compiles a thorough overview of studies on leisure and sports addressing different approaches to gendered leisure participation. Researchers have built a vast

Intrapersonal factor Interpersonal factor Personality

One’s childhood Family incentive Past experiences or particular life experiences;

ability, knowledge

Friends; companion interaction; societal expectations and images

Motivation; preference for another sport Spousal interaction

Individual beliefs, i.e., self-esteem

The “ethic of care” constraint women's caring role; family obligations;

Lifestyle factors and domestic situations; professional context

Personal skills/performance; superior skills

and/or tournament scores Stages in the family life cycle Personal fears Prevailing gender norms;

Positive gender role model

Feeling of selfishness A fear of selfishness; the guilt of having fun Lack of / sense of entitlement to leisure Make space for themselves

Previous tourist / sport experiences; longer

practice sessions and greater concentration Company to travel / to participate Lack of ability; lack of knowledge; sense of

failure, “subordinate status or disadvantage”; skill acquisition

Unable to find a partner to participate with Cultural and social negative attitudes; social structure, support from parents, peers, and teachers

Social networking; mentor with other women Structural factor

Money; economic factors; men obtain greater earnings

Course policies/conduciveness; exclusion from clubhouses; outdated dress code; on-course interactions: non-acceptance of men being beaten by women; excessive drinking, cigar smoking and folded arms

Time; time-pressure

Infra-structures; lack of facilities; disparate expertise in the coaching staffs and academic tutoring; provision of equipment and supplies; scheduling of games and practice time; merchandise discrepancies

Traditional society; cultural and social attitude Status quo

Geographical location; socio demographics; proximity definitions (e.g., within

10

body of knowledge on the subject of the decision to participate in leisure and scoped the factors that facilitate or constraint that decision. By identifying the factors that facilitate or constraint participation decisions the above mentioned studies identify and describe the contexts in which the individuals live and with which they interacted in the past, in order to explain what moderates sports behaviour as facilitating or constraining, according to different lifestyles, life stages and facts. This list of factors, further developed in Papers 1 and 2, was used to draw a conceptual model that also combines the strategies outlined by McGinnis et al. (2009) from which this thesis developed.

1.3.2 Strategies for Succeeding in Golf

In spite of the unwelcoming atmosphere of the golfing activity women still participate, showing there are ways to deal with adverse contexts and prevail in the decision to be involved. Thus, exploring the variety of modes to negotiate participation is an objective of the thesis. Literature does not provide many studies addressing the issue of strategies in leisure and sports (Laurendeau and Sharara, 2008; Silva, Reis and Correia, 2010), so to frame the type of strategies used in golf, McGinnis et al. (2009) research was used. It allowed grouping of Portuguese women golfers under three ritual negotiation styles:

accommodating, unapologetic and unaware. Table 1.2 outlines the above mentioned

strategies, which are further explored in Papers 6 and 7.

Table 1.2 – Ritual-based Negotiation Strategies

Accommodating

(i.e. acknowledging masculine rituals and working around them); “not confronting the male hegemony of the game, preferring to participate in separate groups from men and helping to perpetuate difference between men and women; tending to defer to their male partners’ wishes.” (adp. McGinnis et al., 2009: 26).

Unapologetic

(i.e. challenging masculine rituals that threaten entitlement to golf and attempting to create women-inclusive alternatives); “women are as entitled as men to play golf; Women in this group negotiated male bias in golf by directly challenging it and trying to change it” (adp. McGinnis et al., 2009: 26).

Unaware

(i.e. focusing on golf as a sport; ignoring/denying masculine dimensions of golf rituals). “Enjoying golf intrinsically; not experiencing or thinking about gendered structures; seemingly oblivious to gendered ritualistic markers and activities: differentiated teeing areas, separate leagues, gender-specific equipment that could perpetuate sexism in golf” (adp. McGinnis et al., 2009: 29).

11

Departing from this framework that enlightens the theoretical fundamentals of the research, a summary of the main literature findings are in the following sub-section.

1.3.3 Summary of Prior Research

Literature on leisure and sports participation covers a variety of sports and research is spread around a multitude of countries and locations. Most analyses on decisions to participate in golf and consequent behaviours are carried out in the USA and UK, or in countries where golf was initially introduced by the British such as Australia and now Portugal. Cultural differences amongst people in various countries can cause significant variations in golfers’ behaviour. The present study attempts to test and expand – in a systematic fashion – current theoretical underpinnings and relationships amongst important factors in golf participation, including past experience, motivation, family or friends’ incentive, as well as cultural and social attitudes that are engrained in the male nature of the game and that are difficult to overcome.

Gender in tourism (for instance see: Swain, 1995; Shaw, 1994) has been the object of a plethora of studies, and golf tourism has kept the interest of numerous researchers (Hudson and Hudson, 2010; Farrally et al., 2003). Consequently, the issue of gender in leisure and sports is addressed under various approaches (Henderson, 1994; Gilbert and Hudson, 2000; Roster, 2007) whereas gender asymmetries in the practice of golf also provide a body of research that emerges from different perspectives: a historical approach aims to understand gender prejudice as a tradition deriving from societal class stratifications (Crane, 1991; George, Kay and Vamplew, 2007; Hudson Jr., 2008; Mair, 1992); a sports viewpoint analyses skills and performances (Abrahamsen, Roberts and Pensgaard, 2007; Hume, Keogh and Reid, 2005; Moy and Liaw, 1998; Pyles, 2007) advancing suggestions and advice (Chambers, 1995; Hecker, 1904); or, and this is the core interest of the present thesis, highlighting gender discriminatory practices ascribed to golf tradition (Haig-Muir, 2000; Callan and Thomas, 2006) by understanding motivations (Correia and Pintassilgo, 2006) and factors that moderate female golf involvement (for instance see: McGinnis et al., 2003, 2005, 2009; McGinnis and Gentry, 2006).

12

In reviewing existing literature on constraints and facilitators to participation, few empirical works seem to advance alternative ways women find to cope with adverse conditions and continue practising, despite not being welcomed. Previous studies have consistently demonstrated cross-cultural differences in various dimensions of factors that facilitate or inhibit the decision to engage in a male environment, but not many authors have addressed the strategies participants develop when immersed in such unfriendly leisure contexts (Laurendeau and Sharara, 2008). Nevertheless, McGinnis et

al. (2009) do address this deficiency showing the need for further studies to evolve

around this topic, since it may produce paramount guidelines for introducing changes in golf environments. To meet this topic, the last part of this thesis is elaborated around the strategies Portuguese female golfers adopt. Under these theoretical tenets the conceptual framework is described in the following section.

1.4 Conceptual Framework

The main purpose of the research “Gender asymmetries in the golf participation: tradition or discrimination?” is to advance research on leisure sports participation by clarifying and describing the way women in Portugal choose and decide to participate, or not, in golfing activity. The findings reported will enhance gender behaviour analysis and elucidate on how, why, and to what extent gender heterogeneity relies on intrapersonal, interpersonal and structural factors.

This thesis departs from the three dimensions of factors theory and the facilitators/constraints paradigm to outline women’s life contexts as a way to understand their strategies. Hence, a collection of dimensions and factors presented on Table 1.2 was employed, integrating the factors gathered from the ethnographic approach of women’s stories over the centuries, as a foundation for the revisited model that is embedded in this paradigm.

The present study proposes the articulation of the Ecological System Theory (EST) (Bronfenbrenner, 1979, 1989, 1992), supported by the Causal Historical Wave theory (CHW) (Woodside et al., 2007), and the three dimensions (3D) paradigm – intrapersonal, interpersonal and structural factors (Crawford and Godbey, 1987;

13

Crawford et al., 1991; Godbey et al., 2010). The results reflected the influence of the micro and macrosystem in which individuals exist on explaining current behaviours. Further, this research suggests the interaction of this framework with McGinnis et al. (2009) ritual-based negotiation strategies. The idea is to test if the importance of these theories on the behaviour of Portuguese female golfers determines the type of strategies these women adopt in order to continue to participate in a male-dominated sport. McGinnis et al. (2009) research was employed to frame the three strategic behaviours: accommodating, unapologetic and unaware. The conceptual framework is presented in Figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1 - Conceptual Framework of the Thesis

Source: Own Elaboration.

This research is grounded on qualitative and quantitative analyses (Alvesson and Kärreman, 2011; Burawoy, 2009; Denzin and Lincoln, 2003, 2011; Elliot, 2005; Jennings, 2010; Ren, Pritchard and Morgan, 2010; Riessman, 1993; Silverman, 2004, 2007; Veal, 1997) and is developed over several phases, which lead to the production of seven papers to accompany the different stages of the thesis. The Figure 1.2 summarizes in a succinct way the seven papers aligned with the research questions. Extended

14

clarification of each phase, methodology, findings and results, as well as conclusions, limitations and paths for future research are provided individually in each of the papers.

Based on the literature review and the conceptual model in Figure 1.1, twenty-one research proposals frame the study accordingly with the different stages that structured this thesis, as illustrated in Figure 1.2. Figure 1.2 evidences the sequence of the research proposals in light of the papers produced along this research.

15

1.5 Organisation of the Thesis

Below, the organisation of the thesis, including empirical undertakings, is laid out followed by an overview and summary of the seven Papers that structure this thesis (Figure 1.3).

Figure 1.3 - Structure of the Thesis

Source: Own Elaboration.

The first objective aims to provide insight into cultural traditions that have kept women away from the practice of golf by studying what motivates women to join a male-dominated leisure activity where they are not welcomed. To meet the first part of this objective, information was gathered from a literature review and historical approaches (Papers 1 and 2). The second part of the objective is examined over Papers 3 to 5. Golf course managers and marketers are willing to find ways to attract new customers and are beginning to look at women as a potential market that should not be ignored. Paper 1 hypothesises the existence of facilitating and constraining factors in women’s involvement in golf. Paper 2 deepens the understanding of the moderating factors by applying a historical ethnography approach to a timeline from the 19th and 20th centuries to the present day and across nationalities, from Anglo-American to Portuguese women golfers. This connection is enhanced in Paper 3 where the Portuguese champions’/professionals’ perceptions and verbalizations of the factors are depicted.

16

The second objective attempts to understand whether Portuguese women with a larger spectrum of golf experiences (champions/professionals to amateurs) perceive the moderators that facilitate or constraint their participation. A sample stratification of 39 participants comprised several profiles in order to perceive differences across the profiles.

The third objective addresses the different perceptions by champions/professionals vs. Amateurs. By means of content analysis, Paper 4 hypothesises that the different golf behaviours (champions/professionals vs. amateurs) as well as the profiles under study present identifiable dissimilarities specific to each group. Paper 5 aims to validate the interpretation of interviews, through a questionnaire applied to the same participants, to meet the research presuppositions. The data triangulation allows gathering more insights about these women’s behaviour.

The fourth objective endeavours to assess strategies which Portuguese women use the most to overcome or to avoid gender inequities in golf, a field that has not been thoroughly explored in sports participation. In fact, as marked dissimilarities moderate these two types of players’ behaviours – champions/professionals and amateurs – they are looked upon separately, in Papers 6 and 7. The outcome of these studies will add new knowledge about the attitudes and behaviours that can be adopted to continue practising, despite the unfriendly conditions.

Paper 6 posits that these women’s life contexts moderate the type of strategy they adopt to continue to play. It might be assumed that at top competitive levels, women might be easily accepted for their skills and performance but, despite the respect that men show for a present or past champion, the gender prejudice of the game endures. This Paper deals with a very specific group of players; thus assessing amateur golfers is the next step to further develop this proposal. Paper 7 focuses on amateur golfers and reinforces the idea that the higher perception of each dimension of factors interacts with each negotiation strategy.

17

1.6 Methodological Routes

1.6.1 Overview

This thesis uses a qualitative research approach (Alvesson and Kärreman, 2011; Burawoy, 2009; Denzin and Lincoln, 2003, 2011; Elliot, 2005; Silverman, 2004, 2007) to achieve the objectives. Since the methods used were not detailed in the papers that compose the thesis due to word limitations, this section offers a structured methodological route. Although not intending to replace the methodology readings of the aforementioned papers, it reinforces and relates all the methodological routes of this thesis under a more coherent and structured perspective.

The objectives and research questions show that this exploratory study aims to assess the factors that facilitate or inhibit the decision of Portuguese women golfers to participate in golf, a male-dominated leisure activity. Thus the research strategy consubstantiated according to previous studies addressing the facilitators/constraints paradigm (Woodside, Caldwell and Spurr, 2005, 2006; Woodside, Krauss, Caldwell and Chebat, 2007). Despite the advantages presented by the qualitative research (a richer and deeper understanding of life contexts and the verbalizations of the participants), quantitative research associated with the positivist paradigm has prevailed in the majority of tourism studies (Decrop, 1999; Riley and Love, 2000).

In the last decades many authors have enhanced the qualitative body of knowledge (Bryman, 2004; Seale et al., 2004; Silverman, 2001) The option for qualitative methodologies conforms to the literature in this field so further details are provided so as to understand its application in the present study.

A major author who applied the qualitative methodologies to consumer behaviour studies enhancing what was designated by humanist research was Hirschman (1986), inspiring the current study to adopt this option instead of a positivist one. Table 1.3 briefly summarizes the main differences between these two approaches, in which the option for the humanistic approach is grounded.

18

Table 1.3 – Quantitative Versus Qualitative Paradigms

Quantitative Qualitative

 Based on positivism (social facts have an objective reality).

 Only observable phenomena can be counted as knowledge.

 Knowledge is established through accumulated facts.

 Hypotheses are derived and tested scientifically through fixed methods.

 Evidence is collected in objective and unbiased way.

 Variables can be identified and relationships measured.

 Based on interpretivism (reality is socially constructed).

 Knowledge of the world is based on thinking about and representing our experiences (social constructionism).

 Emphasis on the human, interpretative aspects of knowledge of the social world.

 Emphasis on social, historical, cultural contexts in which data are embedded.

 Variables are complex, interwoven, difficult to measure.

Source: adp. from Torkington (2012).

Qualitative research is concerned with the meanings people give to phenomena built in the social world in close relation between the phenomena under study and the researcher, allowing the latter to immerge in the settings, for a much richer understanding of the contexts in which the research takes place. This will be reflected in the reliability of the researcher’s interpretation of the contexts in which data are embedded.

Tourism and leisure behaviours are, above all, social phenomena and thus an interaction between the individuals and their experiences can only be understood under a holistic perspective, i.e., by observing the contexts in which decisions and options are taken (cf. Bronfenbrenner, 1979, 1992). This is only achieved by giving voice to the participants; therefore, this thesis follows the qualitative methodologies under a humanistic perspective.

According to Yin (2003) the case study method is suitable to embed the present research for it examines a contemporary phenomenon. The case study method implies a detailed analysis using different data sources and various data collection methods that can be either qualitative or quantitative (Eisenhardt, 1989). This way, limitations of this method can be minimized. Yet, qualitative methods are criticized for lacking methodological credibility (Decrop,1999), deriving from the use of limited, small samples not allowing the generalization of findings and due to the fact that interpretation of the materials depends on the researchers.

19

At a certain point, due to the sample limitations, the Extended Case Study Method (hereafter: ECM) was applied. Actually, the sample of the female champions and golf professionals is only six women, even if it includes the whole universe existing in Portugal. Since these participants are crucial to an understanding of the whole subject under study in this thesis, the ECM was used for it applies reflexive science to ethnography in order to extract the general from the unique, to move from the ‘micro’ to the ‘macro’, (Burawoy, 1991, 2009a, 2009b). The extended case method “constructs

genetic explanations, that is, explanations of particular outcomes (…) in the genetic

mode the significance of a case relates to what it tells us about the world in which it is embedded” (Burawoy, 1991: 280-1) (see: Paper 6). Further, the authors posit that, since the champions and golf professionals are considered a “unique social situation” the ECM “pays attention to its complexity, its depth, its thickness” (Burawoy, 1991: 281). Holt (2002) explains why he uses this approach in his notable studies: “The ECM is aligned with the sociological variant of cumulative theory building in that it seeks to build contextualized theoretical explanations of social phenomena” (Holt, 2002: 73) (see: Paper 6).

Further, qualitative research presupposes a method of validation that relies on data triangulation. Several authors (Decrop, 1999; Denzin, 1978; Eisenhardt, 1989; Hartmann, 1988; Hirschman, 1986) defend that in order to confirm and validate the interpretation and results of the interviews data triangulation should be applied. Decrop (1999) posits that it allows understanding a phenomenon or the research questions issues by means of three different and independent sources. Denzin (1978) advances four types of triangulation:

1. Data triangulation that uses several types of empirical evidence.

2. Method triangulation that implies different qualitative and quantitative methods.

3. Research triangulation that implies various approaches to the same theme or phenomenon.

20

4. Theoretical triangulation involving different perspectives to interpret the same theme or phenomenon.

Thus, according to these presumptions, data triangulation was applied in the present research, as shown in Figure 1.4.

Figure 1.4 – Data Triangulation

Source: Own Elaboration

The methods presuppose three procedures:

First – A literature review and an ethnographic approach were made to

enumerate the factors that may be considered in order to develop the conceptual model. The initial questions derived from the pertinence of the factors that moderate the decision to participate in relation to tourism and leisure consumer behaviour and travel decision-making (Raymore, 2002; Jackson 2005; Silva and Correia, 2008). The details of this stage are in section 1.6.2.1.

Second – An in-depth interview was designed and data were collected via a

21

the data collection method adopted, as well as data analysis, are further explained in section 1.6.2.2.

Third – A questionnaire was drawn up to validate the author’s

interpretations; this validation was performed in two steps: first, the author questioned the same participants, at a different time; second, a cohort auditor was invited to participate. The details of this stage will be explained further in section 1.6.2.3.

1.6.2 Methodological Procedures

1.6.2.1 Literature Review

This initial stage involved an exhaustive literature review on the subject in order to build a conceptual framework in which to embed the research questions that drive the thesis. The literature helped define the questions in a clearer way, since the fundamental concepts were well identified through the analysis of the core authors in gender in tourism, leisure and sports participations. This phase resulted in the production of the

Paper 1.

Following the literature review, the study used a historical ethnography approach to further understand and determine why and how golf began to be ascribed as a men’s game, but, above all, to identify the ways women found to excel in golf in the 19th and 20th centuries despite all the gender constraints. This historical ethnography was applied to 25 life stories of Anglo-American female golfers and confirmed facilitators and constraints from the literature review. Further, more factors were revealed, such as race discrimination, a factor that is not so relevant in present days. The secondary data employed derive from books by golf historians, autobiographies and narratives (Bell, 2001; Chambers, 1995; Crane, 1991; Hudson, Jr. 2008; Kahn, 1996; Mair, 1992; Tinkler, 2004), who highlighted gender inequities in this sport. The outcomes of this analysis are detailed in Paper 2.

22

1.6.2.2 In-depth Interview Procedures

This second stage focused on the choice of a theoretical sample, the interview script, and application of the interviews to the selected participants as well as data collection, and data analysis.

The sample included the Professional and Amateur Champions and the four Golf Professionals existing in Portugal (out of 110 only four are women – Associação de Profissionais de Golfe de Portugal, PGA, 2013). The 33 remaining respondents participated through snowball sampling, adding to a total of 39 in-depth semi-structured interviews. It is a theoretical sampling (Glaser and Strauss, 1967; McCracken, 1988; Ragin, 1994; Woodside, MacDonald and Burford, 2005), according to which the profiles are chosen by theoretical reasons and not on a statistical basis. The sampling strategy used is not intended to offer representativeness, but to focus on exploring and describing facilitators and constraints relating to a specific group of Portuguese female golfers. The theoretical sampling considers combinations of case profiles across 4-7 attributes and recommends 5-8 interviews per cell (McCracken, 1988; Woodside et al., 2005).

Table 1.4 displays the stratification of the interviewees, illustrating the number of profiles created based on social status, in accordance with McGinnis et al. (2003), who argue that most of the constraints women experience in sport participation are mainly due to their social condition. The profiles created were: the level of golf experience; age group; marital status; with and without children. Ages ranged from 14 to 67 (one woman did not answer), 18 were single or divorced, 21 married; 27 without children and 12 with children. Five were students, and the others have different occupations. Some profiles are unfeasible to reach, namely single women with children, thus this profile is not considered.

23

Table 1.4 - Sample Stratification

Golf experience Age Group Marital Status Married With/Without children

Champions & Golf Professionals 6 women Under 40 24 women Single/Divorced 18 women With Children 12 women Amateur golfers 33 women Over 40 15 women Married 21 women Without Children 27 women

Source: Own Elaboration

Interview Script and Data Collection

To prepare the data triangulation the interview script was developed. The in-depth interview (Glaser and Strauss, 1967; Jennings, 2010; Ragin, 1994; Woodside et al., 2005) intended to reach a holistic interpretation of the participants, their present and past environments and to realize their participation decision. The interviews were semi-structured, but we also “allowed the respondents’ answers to guide the flow of the interview” (Laurendeau and Sharara, 2008: 31).

The script was divided into three parts: the first presents a matrix covering earlier sport experiences and the second comprises 80 open-ended questions, detailing the person’s life background and socio-demographics, daily life routines regarding professional and extra-professional activities; the last part centres on sport experiences, behaviours and factors the female golfers face when choosing a male-dominated sport. Questions were inspired by and borrowed from various studies (Alexandris et al., 2011; Hennessey, Macdonald and Maceachern, 2008; Ramkissoon and Nunkoo, 2012) (see: Appendix 2 - Interview).

Interviews with the 39 women golfers occurred during the years 2010 and 2011. Champions/Professionals’ interview duration ranged from 90 minutes to 180 minutes, whilst the amateurs’ interviews lasted between 45 minutes to 300 minutes, at a place chosen by the participants, such as club houses or the respondent’s house. They were all conducted in Portuguese, even with the two foreign women who are Swedish but living in Portugal and showing good Portuguese language ability. Data collection is detailed in Paper 7, as follows: “When this research was delineated, the first author had the opportunity to join women golfers in three different periods throughout the year: the “Ladies’ Week” in Vilamoura, October 2010, where she had the first contact with a