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TITLE: Remains of the Dead: Exploring a Human Anatomical Collection from Brazilian Amazon.
AUTHORS: Francisca Alves-Cardoso1,2,3,* and Viviane Lira1,4
1 CRIA – FCSH, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Av. Berna, nº 26-C / Lisboa / Portugal/
Zipcode: 1069-061.
2 IFCH - Universidade Federal do Pará - Campus Universitário do Guamá- Instituto de
Ciências Biológicas- Rua Augusto Corrêa, nº 1- Belém do Pará, Brasil. Zipcode: 66075-110.
4 CAHID- Centre for Anatomy & Human Identification- College of Art, Science &
Engineering- University of Dundee - Dow Street, Dundee, UK . Zipcode: DD1 5EH.
*CORRESPONDING AUTHOR: Francisca Alves Cardoso, CRIA – FCSH, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Av. Berna, nº 26-C, Zipcode:1069-061, Lisboa, Portugal; email: francicard@fcsh.unl.pt; phone number: (+351) 217908300.
SUGGESTED RUNNING TITLE: Traumatic injuries on crania from the Brazilian Amazon
KEYWORDS: Anatomical collection; Trauma; Violence; Brazil
ABSTRACT
Osteological lesions can be important to positively identify human remains in forensic contexts, as well as contribute to past population studies. However, their analysis requires training and appropriate research conditions, which may lack in certain geographic areas as for example the Northern region of Brazil. Emphasizing existing resources, such as anatomical collections, may help to address this issue. This study explores the anatomical collection Professor Dr. Manuel da Silva Braga (MSBC) of the Federal University of Pará (Brazil), introducing the traumatic lesions identified in 7 crania (13.7%; 7/51), of male (4) and female (3) individuals. The sample profile, and the cases identified are in accordance with the pattern of violent victims in the region. This study is the first of its kind in Pará State, contributing with case studies, and examples, to the disciplines of biological anthropology and paleopathology, as well as bioarchaeology and forensic discipline. It also highlights the significance that anatomical collections may have in the development of those disciplines, suggesting a need to reappraisal and reevaluation of existing resources as these may be use for training and research. Lastly, this study builds a bridge towards the social and cultural context of the collection reinforcing the value of an interdisciplinary approach to human remains.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was undertaken as part of a funded project by CNPQ (reference: CNPQ-400998/2010-6). The authors would like to thank: Dra. Izaura Vallinoto, coordinator of the Museum at the study period of the collection and consultant of the project; Dra. Ana Rita Pereira Alves for data on the historical background of the
collection; the Centro de Perícias Científicas RENATO CHAVES (Scientific Police
from Pará), especially Dinorah Silva Diogenes de Castro and her team, for the technical help provided and fruitful discussions. Francisca Alves Cardoso is an FCT funded postdoctoral fellow (FCT: SFRH / BPD / 43330 / 2008). Viviane Freire Lira is a funded 2
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PhD candidate at CAHID, UK (CNPq: process 229772/2013-7). This paper was presented as a poster in the 39th Annual Meeting of the Paleopathology Association, Portland, Oregon, USA.
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The current paper explores a paleopathological approach to a series of crania that
appertain to an anatomical collection composed of unidentified individuals from the
Brazilian Amazon region. The aim of this paper highlights the importance of anatomical
collection in nowadays training and teaching of paleopathology and human osteology
alongside anatomy in countries, or regions, in which the access to human remains is
challenging. It will reinforce how osteological lesions may contribute to individual and
population studies whilst discussion their social and cultural context, stressing social
inequalities embedded into the collection construction. The cases here presented are the
first described for the Brazilian Amazon region.
The current article emphasis a paleopathological approach to skeletonized human
remains emphasizing the study of disease expressed in the human skeletal mostly
through osteological changes (Ortner, 2003). The usage of “paleopathology”, rather
than pathology, relates with the viewpoint given to the study of the remains here
presented, and the contribution that this type of analysis may offer in past population
studies. It is given significance to the “osteobiography” of the remains analyzed (Mayes
& Barber, 2008, many more exist). This will provide a biocultural approach to the data
(Armelagos & Gerven, 2003). This approach strengthens the collection’s training and
research profile in both forensic and archaeological contexts. The cases here described
are those of traumatic lesions, framed within the collection social and cultural context.
Trauma was chosen because it can easily be identified in dried bones. Furthermore,
skeletal trauma, warfare, homicide and violent behavior are amongst the skeletal
changes mostly used in exploring human behavior evolution and complexity, social
inequalities, as well as forensic contexts worldwide (Berryman & Haun, 1996; Fibiger
et al., 2012; Roksandic et al., 2006; Šlaus et al., 2012; Smith, 2003; Walker, 2001).
Additionally, the methodological assessment of traumatic lesions in human remains is 2
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the same regardless of archaeological or forensic context, in the sense that emphasis is
placed in dried bones (Cova, 2010; Cunha et al., 2006; Lovell, 1997; Ortner et al.,
2008).
This paper, and to the authors’ knowledge, will be the first describing cases from
the Brazilian Amazon region. In the last decades there have been an increasing number
of past populations studies in Brazil, many of which accentuating violence and
traumatic injuries (Lessa & Mendonça de Souza, 2006; Lessa, 2011;
Rodrigues-Carvalho et al., 2009, amongst others). In 2010, Sheila Mendonça de Souza addressed
in her article O Silencio Bioarqueológico da Amazônia (The Bioarchaeological Silence
of Amazonia), the overall lack of data on human remains from the Brazilian Amazon.
Understanding the development of past population studies in Brazil is a key factor in
comprehending why only in recent years there has been an increase in publications, and
research on human remains. Many of the recent publications share an academic lineage,
which highlights the contribution of Sheila Mendonça de Souza and former students,
namely Claudia Rodrigues-Carvalho and Andrea Lessa (Lessa & Mendonça de Souza,
2009; Rodrigues-Carvalho et al., 2009, to mane but a few). Associated with the history
of the discipline development, the poor preservation of human remains due to the
acidity and humidity of the soil is another major contributive factor for the absence of
studies based on human remains (Mendonça de Souza et al., 2010). This is particularly
true for the Northern region of Brazil, which comprises the Brazilian Amazon region.
Located on the North Region of Brazil, Belém is the capital of the State of Pará, which
is one of the largest states of the country, second only to the State of Amazon (IBGE,
2002). Together they comprise most of the Brazilian Amazon region. The combination
of a large territorial dimension and high rates of murder are a major problem, and
concern in such states. Associated with the geography and climate, many bodies linger 2
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undiscovered until they are in an advanced state of decomposition (Guimaraes, 2003).
The equatorial climate of the region is a major factor in the increased speed of
decomposition of a human body: high temperature, humidity and rainfall are the major
variables to consider (Mann et al., 1990). Between the years 2000 and 2003, 76.6% of
the cadavers without identification were found putrefied or skeletonized (Lessa, 2009).
In cases such as these, methods developed and employed by those that study human
osteological remains are frequently the only way to build a biological profile. This
scientific knowledge is shared by physical and forensic anthropologist,
bioarchaeologists and paleopathologists (Black & Ferguson, 2011; Little & Kennedy,
2010; Martin et al., 2013; Sauer, 1998).
In contexts such as those described above, access to human remains for teaching
and training may rely on the contribution of specimens from anatomical collections.
These provide contextualized and well preserved remains, which allow for detailed
analysis of bones and osteological changes. The relevance of anatomical collections
may be found both in forensic and in archaeological contexts, and is comparable to that
of human identified skeletal collections worldwide.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
The case studies here presented appertain to the Professor Dr. Manuel da Silva
Braga Collection (MSBC). During the development of the current research (2010-2011)
the collection was housed at the Anatomical Museum of the Biology Institute of the
Federal University of Pará, in Belém, Brazil. In the early 80´s the museum received
several unclaimed cadavers from the medical examiner officer of the scientific police of
Pará. Although the provenience of the material is known, i.e. it is known that they were
recovered from the State of Pará, it was impossible to ascertain the exact location where 2
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the remains were found, and in which circumstance, since the records associated with
each individual cadaver were nowhere to be found due to changes of the museum
location over the years. As a result, information concerning sex, age at death and cause
of death was unknown, as well as the total number of individuals originally donated to
the museum. The MSBC was primarily built to be a teaching collection for medical
sciences in the Federal University of Pará (Villanoto et al., 2004). As a result, due to the
manipulation of the osteological material over the years, mostly by students, former
complete skeletons are now disarticulated. Nevertheless, a detail study was undertaken
and circa of 853 bones were cataloged. The crania revealed to be the most informative
element of the collection. They provided a minimum number of 88 individuals, and
exhibited the most significant osteological changes of pathological origin: particularly
those related with traumatic events. For this reason only the crania which preserved at
least 50% of their original form, with sufficient morphological features to assess sex
were selected for the present paper (Buikstra & Ubelaker, 1994: and therein references).
Although sex was diagnosed, careful consideration was given to the high level of
phenotypic variability of the population of Pará State (Pena et al., 2011), which could
bias sex assessment based on cranial morphology. Adult age at death was determined
estimating the complete fusion of the spheno-occipital suture (Akhlaghi et al., 2010),
since it translates the transition of individuals to a biological maturity around 21 and 19
years of age for males and females respectively. The remaining biological indicators of
age associated, such as suture closure, were not considered due to the high degree of
variability and low reliability of the methods (Franklin, 2010; Hershkovitz et al., 1997;
Sahni & Jit, 2005). Furthermore, almost all crania were coated with a varnish layer,
which in some cases prevented a detailed observation of the sutures. All crania were
first observed macroscopically. Those which presented possible traumatic lesions were 2
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further examined using magnifying lenses, as well as X-ray. The lesions observed were
described in detail and referenced as to location and shape, as well as additional specific
characteristics of the lesions. All material was measured and photographed for future
comparative examination. The lesions were assessed as to their nature, i.e. ante- or
perimortem status. Due to the provenance of the material, and its use as a teaching
collection, the postmortem changes were also considered.
Since, postmortem lesions assessment are not devoid of complexities, as
postmortem events occurring and following the decomposition process of the body may
difficult the correct interpretation of peri- and postmortem traumatic events (Cappella et
al., 2014; Ortner et al., 2008; Weiberg & Wescott, 2008; Wheatley, 2008); and becasue
taphonomic processes may contribute to the variability of changes observable in bone
and interfere with the assessment of the timing of occurrence of the bone changes
(Stodder et al., 2008; Ubelaker et al., 2008), the interpretation of the osteological
changes were classified as indicative of Presence or Absence of bone remodeling, which
complemented the identification of peri- and antemortem lesions. This classification
does not relate to the timing of the event which leads to the bone breakage, but to the
osteological changes observable in the bone. A secondary distinction was made to
assess if the lesions with no visible (to the eye) bone remodeling could be of
postmortem nature. To distinguish between postmortem changes, and changes that
could have occurred at death or very close to death, i.e. perimortem and antemortem,
color variation, fracture outline, fracture surface appearance, and fracture angle as
described in forensic and anthropological text books were also used (Galloway, 1999;
Ortner et al., 2008; Sauer, 1998). An attempt was also made to identify the trauma
mechanism, since some objects may leave distinctive markings on the bones. The 2
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lesions were therefore identified and classified into gunshot wounds, sharp force
injuries or blunt trauma (Sauer, 1998).
The results are presented twofold: firstly, an overall sample results with a
descriptive summary of the outcome of the study, according to sex distribution,
remodeling of the lesion, its location and type of trauma are presented and described
within the social and cultural context of the collection; secondly, the traumatic cases
positively identified are reported individually according to type of trauma – gunshot
wound, sharp and blunt force trauma – with detailed description of the lesion observed,
and an imbedded discussion as to its nature, and possible etiology. This presentation
permits: discussing at an individual level all cases reported which vary significantly in
nature and probable etiology; to build detailed differential diagnoses between traumatic
events and post mortem damages, and ascribe some of the particularities of the lesions
observed to specific contexts and interpretations.
OVERALL SAMPLE: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The results here presented are, to date, unique for the state of Pará concerning traumatic
lesions observed in skeletonized human remains. This strengthens the importance and
uniqueness of this study. At time of the study (2010 – 2011) the collection was
composed by a very limited number of specimens, and no donations were expected, nor
were other remains being added to the collection. Therefore, its “uniqueness” status
empowers this small collection of maximum importance as a reference collection for
teaching cases, as well as comparative analysis in the Northern Brazil, and in the Pará
State. Among the 51 crania selected for the study, 23 (45%) were classified as male and
26 as female (51%). The remaining cases were classified as of undetermined sex (4%).
Traumatic lesions were observed in 13.7% of the analyzed sample (7/51): four males 2
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(57.1% - 4/7) versus three female (42.9% - 7/8). On Table 1 there is summary of the
injuries and their characteristics. All lesions on male crania presented signs of
remodeling, indicating that they had occurred prior to the individual’s death. Two
females exhibited lesions with healing signs, and one of them also had two perimortem
injuries. The third female only had a perimortem wound. Two polytraumatic cases were
present. As to laterality, the lesions were mostly located on the left side (60% - 6/10) of
the crania. The facial region had four lesions recorded: two on the frontal bone and two
on the zygomatic (see case reports description). Several types of injuries were
identified, namely: gunshot wound, sharp and blunt force trauma, and a combination of
cut and blunt force lesion (Table 1). No other changes of pathological etiology, such as
infection, were found in association with the traumatic lesions. It was impossible to
relate these events with other traumatic lesions observed in postcranial bones due to the
current disarticulation of the skeletons.
Discussing the results of the overall sample one can argue that these are in
accordance with the profile of victims of violent crimes in Brazil: mostly young males
(Brazil, 2011). With such homogenized profile, individualizing characteristics may
assist in identification, and a paleopathological approach to the remains may yield
significant data as to the individual’s medical story, which in forensic context may lead
to a positive identification as healed traumatic injuries can be used to narrow the
number of possible matches within a pool of missing people (Cunha et al., 2006; Steyn
& Iscan, 2000). Regrettably, in the North Region of Brazil and within forensic contexts,
the detailed description of bone changes, and pathological cases is rare (not to say
absent) (Yasar Iscan & Olivera, 2000). Some of the latest publications in forensic
anthropology focus on facial reconstruction (Fernandes et al., 2012; Tedeschi-Oliveira
et al., 2009), case reports, or laboratory protocol adopted by local medical examiner´s 2
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offices (Francisco et al., 2011; Soares & Guimarães, 2008; Vaz & Benfica, 2008). The
mention to the use of information driven form osteological changes, as identifying
characteristic, is brief. This may be related with the fact that forensic anthropology
experts’ lack background in physical anthropology and paleopathology, as most of them
are primarily forensic odontologists (Iscan et al., 2000; Lessa, 2009). In context such as
this, and in regions in which access to skeletonized human remains is challenging,
anatomical collections represent an excellent opportunity and a valuable resource for
training on assessment, and the interpretation of lesions on dried bones. Their value is
akin to that of identified skeletal collections, and an excellent alternative to
archaeological samples and paleopathological cases. There have been paleopathological
cases described in archaeological contexts (Lessa, 2011; Rodrigues-Carvalho et al.,
2009). Unfortunately, many are not detailed and knowledge dissemination is mostly
limited to academic circuits, not reaching non-academic experts. Anatomical collections
also provide an opportunity to explore and discuss their population of origin, and
associated social and cultural specificity. For example, the age and sex profile
associated with the traumatic cases found in the MSBC is comparable to the violent
profile of the State of Pará. Trauma and traumatic cases are frequent, as is violent
behavior. In the 80´s (decade of the formation of the collection), the city of Belém of
Pará (capital of the State) and metropolitan area had homicide rates that were higher
than those found for the entire country, and this rate has increased more than 500% in
the last decade (2000-2010) (Waiselfisz, 2011: 154). In 2010 the State of Pará occupied
the 3rd place, of the 27 Federal Units of Brazil, in relation to homicide rates (Waiselfisz,
2011).
CASES REPORTS: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION. 2
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Cranium #MACr.01, probable male, has a gunshot wound (GSW) type of lesion (Figure
1). It has a single orifice, on the left parietal, just above the parietal striae and associated
with the parietal tuber (Figure 1A). The lesion has irregular borders in the inner table of
the cranium, and the circumference is narrow (Figure 1B) when compared to the outer
table that exhibits a healed round shape wound (Figure 1C). Such changes are often
seen in high impact trauma, in which a round or ovoid shape format lesion is present at
the external surface of a cranium, and in the inner table beveling may be observed (Di
Maio, 1999; Quatrehomme & Iscan, 1998). No lesions that might be characterized as an
exit wound were observed (Klepinger, 2006). There is a noticeable bone remodeling
throughout the external diameter of the lesion (1C). Even with the significant bone
healing and grow it is possible to delimitate the original diameter and shape of the
injury on the outer and inner table. Externally, the original penetrate injury had a
diameter of 25 mm. Differential etiologies, such as trepanation or other pathologies
capable of producing this, or similar type of lesion and bone remodeling were
considered (Kaufman et al., 1997). However, the endocranial beveling is one of the
most important indicators, and characteristics, of an entrance wound by a projectile,
hence its classification as a GSW (Quatrehomme & Iscan, 1998). Radial fractures are
absent, and although often seen in GSW they are not crucial to its identification
(Berryman & Haun, 1996; Di Maio, 1999). Unfortunately, it was not possible to
establish the directionality of the gunshot due to the absence of an exit lesion. However,
the location of the hole associated with the parietal tuber and striae suggests that the
injury was caused by a third party rather than being self- inflicted (Druid, 1997).
Considering the remodeling of the lesion (Figure 1C), it is clear that the individual
survived the event. Whether a projectile, or any associated fragments, was surgically
removed is speculation. Any assumption based on the presence of metal residues from 2
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projectile, or fragments would have been seriously compromised due to the years of use
and manipulation of the remains by students and teachers, and diagenetic and
taphonomic processes may interfere with metal residue signature (Di Maio, 1999;
Taborelli et al., 2012).
Blunt force traumas (BFT) were observed in 50% (4/8) of the crania: one case of
perimortem injury - #MACr.22 (Figure 2) and three with antemortem injuries -
#MACr.42, #MACr.54 and #MACr. 44 (Figures 3, 4 and 5).
The perimortem BFT was identified as a circular depression on the left maxilla
and zygomatic bone of female individual #MACr.22. The bone loss of the right side of
the face (Figure 2A), both the zygomatic and maxilla, invalidates a bilateral
comparison. There is also a fracture line on the left infraorbital margin (Figure 2D). The
absence of remodeling on this fracture line, and the fact that blunt force trauma in the
facial area is usually related to assault and suggestive that this event may have occurred
with the individual alive, and at a timing close to death. However, this is a mere
interpretation based on the absence of macroscopic evidences of remodeling, and the
location of the fracture line. This was the only case of BFT on the face. This cranium
also had a peculiar area with exposed trabecular bone on the diploid on the left parietal
(Figure 2B and C). There are no signs of bone response, or a lighter coloration in the
surrounding area. However, because the area has been covered with varnish it is
impossible to be precise as to its perimortem or postmortem occurrence; though, the
most probable scenario is that of a taphonomic origin.
The antemortem BFT cases were associated with two male individuals (Figures
3 and 4) and one female individual (Figure 5). The case #MACr.42 (male) shows a
blunt trauma located on the left temporal bone (Figure 3A). The point of impact is well 2
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defined (Figure 3B). The wound has a circular shape with a diameter of approximately
19 mm. Despite the depth of the lesion, the outer table has maintained its integrity. The
remodeling of the bone appears settled, and the lesion completely healed with no sign of
active remodeling. A fracture line is still noticeable. A concentric shaped-line,
associated with the traumatic line, is also observable. It is located interiorly to the
impact point, given a sense of depth to the wound (Figure 3B). The direction of the
blow is uncertain, but the fact that the depression on the anterior part of the fracture is
deeper than the one on the posterior part indicates that the applied force was not evenly
distributed at contact. As the impact point possesses a well-marked line, it is more likely
that the trauma was produced by a round object with a flat edge.
The second case of antemortem BFT is crania #MACr.54, also a male
individual. It presents a circular-shaped trauma located on the right supraorbital margin
(Figure 4A). The diameter of the lesion is of 16mm, and the outer table exhibits a partial
bone loss (Figure 4B). Despite the void on the lower region of the lesion, it is important
to notice that the bone remodeling on the supraorbital margin is complete, i.e. no signs
of active remodeling were present at time of death. The pneumatic cavities of the diploe,
in the supraorbital margin, are an effective biological protection against trauma,
contributing to less mortal consequences and survival (Kanz & Grossschmidt, 2006).
This crania also has two radiated fractures: one on the temporal line (Figure 4B), and
another on the great wing of the right sphenoid (Figure 4C). Both healed, but with slight
changes to bone morphology. Adjacent to the traumatic lesions, there are changes that
are postmortem (Figure 4B and C, with indication PM). These are sharpen edged, and
show no signs of remodeling (Sauer, 1998). The postmortem breaks are most probably
related to the autopsy procedure, including the rounded bone loss on the right sphenoid
and parietal (Figure 4C). 2
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The last of the BFT case (#MACr.44) is the most interesting in the collection has
it presents a mosaic of several lesions. This is the cranium of a female individual that
exhibits evidence of two sharp trauma, that happened in fresh bone and one antemortem
blunt force trauma. The BFT is a depression located on left parietal, with no associated
fracture, and in which the outer table remained intact (Figure 5A). When compared to
the other cases of antemortem BFT this appears to be the less severe one. It resembles a
thumbprint carved in clay, common in shallow trauma (Figure 5B) (Klepinger, 2006).
One of the sharp trauma lesions is a cut-like lesion on the orbital region of the right
zygomatic (Figure 5C). This change is tilt upwards with a small break on the lateral
side, which suggests an upward directionality of the blow. There is no evidence of
remodeling, but there is a noticeable elevating on the bone, which is more likely to
happen in fresh rather than dry bone (Sauer, 1998). The second sharp trauma lesions
exist on the left side of the frontal bone near a supraorbital foramen (Figure 5D). It has
17mm in length, being slightly deeper and wider on its anterior end. The wound
presents sharp edges, and the color of the fracture does not differ from the surrounding
bone extremities. The radiating fracture line – identified as FL in Figure 5D – may be
the result of applied force to the area, and an indication that the blow occurred in fresh
bone, since there are no signs of remodeling. As the frontal bone is one of the facial
bones that requires a strong impact force to be damaged (Lovell, 1997), a cut injury as
the one observed in this cranium, would have to be caused by an heavy sharp object,
combining a cutting and crushing mechanism to leave. The break on the anterior end of
the lesion and the angle formed by the edges can be used as an indicator that the blow
was inflicted downward from right to left, in an angle different than 90º. However this
is a mere interpretation. 2
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In this case (#MACr.44) the location of the injuries is indicative that they were
produced in two different moments, both in fresh bone. The existence of traumatic
lesions with different healing timings, and the fact that they were found in a female
individual are suggestive of continuous violence, suggestive of domestic violence
and/or domestic abuse. This is not uncommon on the North region of Brazil, where one
in five women reported episodes of physical abuse (Gawryszewski et al., 2008;
Reichenheim, et al. 2011).
Sharp force trauma (SFT) was found in cranium #MACr.27 (Figure 6A). This
probable male cranium has two distinguishing remodeled lesions: one observed on the
right zygomatic, just below the frontozygomatic suture (Figure 6B), categorized as an
incisive wound, being longer rather than deeper (Klepinger, 2006): the second lesion,
located on the zygomatic process of the right temporal bone (Figure 6C), suggests a
puncture wound. It is wider in the anterior portion than on the posterior one, which
suggests that the sharp object had a single blade: the thin portion would correspond to
the blade side, and the wider portion to the no-cut side of the object. The location of
both injuries suggests they were caused by two different attacks. However, it is
impossible to be precise as to when or even if they were simultaneous. Cranium
#MACr.27 also exhibits on the right parietal bone a discontinue cleft that does not
present signs of remodeling (Figure 1A – black arrows PM). It is most likely the result
of taphonomic changes related to the fragility of the inner table due the furrows of the
middle meningeal vessel.
The last case relates to a cranium of a probable female (#MACr.33) (Figure 7A)
with a remodeled line on the left temporal bone that connects with the spheno-temporal
suture (Figure 7B). There are some postmortem damages, but the remodeling process is
notorious. This change can be the result of a remodeled incisive wound caused by a 2
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sharp object, or the remodeled line of a radiating fracture (Figure 7B and C). In the later
case no impact point was found, maybe due to the bone loss on the distal part of the
temporal bone and the sphenoid. Fractures lines, on the cranial vault are also present
which may likely be a result of a direct trauma action (Lovell, 1997).
CONCLUSION
This study highlights the contribution of paleopathological perspectives in
studying material from anatomical collections, alongside the importance that anatomical
collection may have in teaching and training providing resources, and examples, the
knowledge of past populations studies, and comparative pathological case studies.
Traumatic lesions, due to their associated nature with violent behavior, or events, are
amongst the most used and believed informative with regards to human behavior and
consequently the development of human society itself. They provide information on
timing of occurrence, prior or at time of death; if an individual has survived; and if he
was submitted to any medical care. Furthermore, information on the type of trauma
yields data on the weapon used, and location of the lesion provides clues as to it being
accidental and/or violent nature. The current study has identified all of these
particularities, and most of them were recorded in male individuals. Such results are
expected if one takes into account data from violent crimes and homicides in Brazil, in
which male individuals are mostly represented. Traumatic injuries such as the ones
observed would be of significant help in providing positive identification, since they are
severe, and could therefore be related with events easily remembered by relatives or
friends of the victims. Despite the fact that our sample material is small, they represent
the first cases associated with traumatic injuries described in human remains from the
State of Pará, becoming a reference for any future studies.
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Table 1: Summary table of the traumatic lesions from the crania of the MSBC.
Case Nº Sex Remodeling Location Size (mm)* Type of trauma
#MACr. 01 Male Present Left parietal 25 Gunshot
#MACr. 22 Female Absent Left maxilla/zygomatic 14 Blunt
#MACr. 27 Male Present
Right zygomatic - Cut
Zygomatic process on the
right temporal bone
13 Cut
#MACr. 33 Female Present Left temporal -
#MACr. 42 Male Present Left temporal 19 Blunt
#MACr. 44 Female
Present Left parietal Blunt
Absent Right zygomatic Cut
Absent Left frontal 17 Cut
#MACr. 54 Male Present Right supraorbital margin 16 Blunt
Legend: MACr – Museum Anatomy Crania.; * measurements of the diameters of the
lesions. 2
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