Introduction: Repression and Cooptation in Mass Dictatorship

Paul

Corner

o

_Jie-Hyun

Lim

Editors

The

Palgrave

F{andbook

of

Mass

Dictatorship

pðlgrave

macmitlan

Ed.itors P¿rrl Corner Urriversity of Siena Sierra, Italy ]ie-Hyun Lin.t Sogang University

Seoul, Korea (Republic of)

To

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Viii

ACKNOWLEDGEMþ]NTS

dictatorship

and

colonial

slavery respectively.

Though

pever

intended,

those

loci

of

mass

dictatorship worked

out

as a

prompter

in

the historical

theater. Last,

not

the least,

wì would

like

to thank

the

contributors to

the

Handbook

for their

patience and

cooperation.

Making

a

Handbook of

34

entries,

includ-ing introãuctions,

demancls

enormous patience

from contributors

âs

well

as ecùtors.

On

behalf

of

all editors we extend

our

special thanks

to lenny McCall

and

Peter

Cary at

Palgrave

who

commissionecl

this Handbook,

desigr-red

to

conclude

the Palgrave series

of

Mass

Dictatorship. Our

warmest thanks

to

Jade

Moulds,

a Palgrave

editor, who

helped

us

enormously

with

her

professional-ism

ancl

pati.ni

,.rpont.

to our

editorial

demands.

Without

Paolo

Perri's

kind

involvenient

in

thé

last

stage,

this book could

not

have been

finalized,

and

without the

last

minLlte

assistance

of Cho

Rong Song and Hee

Yun

Cheong

the

volume

would

have been

without

the

subject

Index.

Paul

Corner

Siena, ItalY

NorBs

oN

CoNTzuBUToRS

Jie-Hyun Lim

Seoul,

I(orea (Republic

of)

Chørles

K. Armstrong

is The Korea Foundation Professor of Korean Studies

in

the Social Sciences in the Department of History at Columbia University. He is the author' editor

or

co-editor of five books, including most recently Tyrønny o!'the Weøh: North

Koreø ønd. the World., 1950-1992 (2013;

winner

of

the

John Fairbank Prize

of

the A¡nerican Historical Association) and Tbe l(oreøs (second edition,

20I4).

Choi Chøtærje¿ is Professor

of

History at California State University, Los Angeles. She

is the author

of

Cebbrøting Women: Gønd'er, Festivøl Cubøre, ønd. Bobhevih Id'eology,

1910-1939 (2002) and coauthor of The 20rh Centø.ly: A Retrospøctbe (2002). She is the coeditor of Americøns Expørience Røssiø: Encoøntering the Enigmø, 1917 to the Present

(2013), andof Everyd.øyLifeinRøssiø: Pøstønd.Presant(20L5).

Sheiscurrentlywork'

ing on a monograph tttled Disrøptive Trønsnøtionølisw, or Whøt Høppens When Røssiø

Enters World. History.

Pøøl

Corner

is Senior Professor at t}re University

of

Siena

in Italg

where he is also

clirector of the Centre for the Study ofTotalitarian Regirnes (CISReTo). He has special-ized in the study of the fascist regime

in

Italy and, rnore ge

nerall¡

in questions relating

to popular responses to authoritarian and totalitarian forms of government. A'rnong his

more

recent publications are

the

edited volume

Popølør Opinion

in

Totølitøriøn

Regirnes. Føscisw, Nøzism, Conornøøisrn

(2009)

and The Føscist Pørty øød' Popølør Opinion

in Møsolini\

Itøly (2012).

He

is a Senior Member of St. Antony's College, Oxft¡rd.

Jonøthøn

Dønnøge

is Associate Profèssor

of

Modern European

History

at Swansea

University,

UK. He

has

widely

researched the

history

of

policing in

moclern

Italy.

He

is

currently investigating police culture cluring transitions

frorn

authoritar-ian

to

democratic

states.

His

recent

publications include

Masolini\

Policernen:

Behøvioør, Id,eology

ønd Institutionøl

Cøbwre

in

Representø'tiln ø,nd, Prøctice

(20t2).

Robert

Ed¿lmøn

is

profèssor

of

Russian

history and

the

history

of

sport

at

the

University

of

California, San

Diego.

He

is the

autior of

Serioøs Fun:

A

History

of

Sþectø.tzr Sports

iø

the USSR

(1993)

and Spørtøh Moscow: the People\ Teøm

in

the

Worþerl Støte (2009) which was awarded the Zelnik prize for best book on any aspect

of

Slavic, East European and Eurasian history.

He is

the

co-editor

of

the

Oxford'

X

NOTES ON CONTIUI}UTORS

Høndbooh of Sports History and co-director of an international research project on sport

in the Global Cold War. He has received fellowships f]orn the John Simon Guggenheim Foundation and the National Endowment for the Hurnaniries.

Fed.erico Fiøchelsteiø is Prolèssor of History at the New School for Social Research

&

Lang College

in

New York City. Finchelstein is the arrthor

of

five books on fascist.tt,

populisrn, Dirty Wars, the Holocaust ancl _{Jewish history}

in

Latìn America and Europe.

His

last books

in

English are The Ideological Origins

of

the

Dirty

War (Oxftrrct UP,

2014) and Transatlantic Fascisrn (Duke UP,2010). He has been ¿ contributor to major Au¡erican, European, and L¿tin American newspaPers, including The New York Times,

The

Guardian,

The

Washington Post, Mediapart (France):

Clarin

(Argentina) ancl

Folha de S. Paulo (Brazil).

Gøid.o

Frøøzinetti

has carried

out

research and worked

in

Poland,

Hur.rgar¡

the

Czech Republic, Ukraine, Uzbekistan, Albania, Kosovo. F{e

is

curreutly

Research

Fellow and Lecturer

in

Contemporary European

History

at

the

Departrnent

of

Hurnanistic Studies, University

of

Eastern Piedmont "Amedeo Avogadro", Vercelli,

Italy. Recent publications include

"The

Former Austrian

Littoral

ancl the Rediscovery

of

Ethnic

Cleansing"

(2012);

_"Irish

and Eastern European Questions

(2014);

and

"southern Europe ånd International Politics in the Post-War Period" (2015).

Tøhøshi

Føjitøni

is Profèssor of History ¿t the University of Toronto where he is also

the

Dr.

David

Chu

Professor

in

Asia-Pacific Studies.

Much

of

his past and current

research has centered

on

the intersections

of

nationalism, colonialism, war, melnory, racísm, ethnicity, and gender, as well as the disciplinary and areä studies boundaries that

have figured

our

ways

of

studying these issues.

His

rnajor works include: Splend'id'

Monørchy (199ó); Røee _{Jbr Empire: I(oreøns} øs _Jøpønese ø'ttd. Jø'þã'nete øs Atøericøns iø

WWII (20LL)

a¡d Periloøs Mernories: The Asìø Pøcif'c Wør(s) (co-edited, 2001). He is also editor of the series Asiø PøciJìc Mod'ern.

Nobayø Høshi¡noto

is

Professor

of

Russian ¿nd Baltic

History

at

Kwansei Gakuin

Universiry

in

Nishinorniya, Japan.

His

fielcls

of

interests are socio-cultural history

of

e¿ucation

in

Russian Empire, Baltic area studies, and history and memory politics in

Russia and Central and Eastern European countries.

He

is the author

of

Cøtheriøe's

Draøm- Sopbiø's _Joørøey:

A

Sociøl History o.f WornønI Edøcøtion

in

Imperiøl Røsiø

(2004,

in

]apanese); Enopirø, Estø.tes (soslottiiø)

øntl

Schooh: Socio-cøltørøl History

of

Ed.øcøtion

in

Irnperiøl Røxi.ø (2010,

in

japanese), Metøory Politics:

Histlry

coryflicts

in

Eørope (201ó, in lapanese).

Døniel

Hed.inger is fellow at the Center of Advanced Studies ancl teaches European

history of the

lgth

and 20th century

in

the history department at

LMU

Munich. He

recentiy published his first book in the field of Modern Japanese history. Currently he is

working on the

Tokyo-Rorne-Berlin

Atis

in global historical perspective.

Konrød

H, Jørøøsclt is Lurcy Professor of European Civilization at the University

of

North

Carolina ancl Senior Fellow

at the

Zentrum

fiir

Zeithistorische Forschung in Potsdar¡.

He

has

written

and/or

edited over

fbrty

books

on

German history, rnost recently

"Out

of Ashes:

A

New

History

of Europe

in

the Twentieth Century."

He

is

currently working on a history ofpopular experiences

ofthe

cohort bom in the I920s.

His academic autobiography ancl thirteen articles, sarnpling his work, can l¡e found

in

Historicøl Sociøl Reseørcå, supplement 24 (2012)'

NOTF)S ON CONTRIIìUTOIì.S XI

tr[øreh.Jezirishl is the l.read of ]ournalism and Social Communication Chair at Nicolas Copernicus University in

Toruí.

His main academic irlterests include social anthropoi-ogy and conten.rporâry popular culture.

He

is the author

of:5

books and ahnost 100 academic papers on political science, sociology, poprrlar culturer contelrporary th€atre and rnusic. He is also the editor of several acaclernic books, and the head editor of

aca-dernic journal "Nowe Media" ("New Media").

Cøwionø

Kelly

is Profèssor

of

Russian at the Universiry

of

Oxford, ancl the author, åmong other books,

of

Comrød.e Pøvlih: The Risø ønd' Føll of ø Soviet Boy l:[ero (2005,

Russian

edition 2009),

Child'røn\ Worl¡|,:

Groving

Up

in Rusiø,

1890-1991 (2007),

and St Petersbørg, Shød'otvs of the Pøst (201+). She is currently working on a study

of

Le¡ingrad cinema,

l9ól*1991.

She is a Fellow of the British Acadern¡ and irr 2015 was

President

of

the Association of Slavic, East Euro¡rean, and Eurasian Studies, the first

person outside the USA to be elected to the position.

Høn

Søng

Kim.

received his Ph.D. degree in histolical sociology frorn Seoul National

U¡iversiry

His

dissertation,

entitled

"IJneven Screens, Contested Identities: USIS,

Cultural

Filrns,

and the National

hnaginary

in

South Korea, 1945-1972,"

ls

on Amerìcan film propaganda ancl the identity negotiation of South Korean ñhnmakers and

audiences during the Cold War. He is currently Annette ancl Hugh Gragg Postdoctoral

Fellow

in

Transnational Asian Studies

¿t the

Chao Center f'or Asian Studies, Rice University.

Michøel

l(irn

rcceived an A.B. in History

with

Honors and Magna Cum Laude frorn

Dartmouth

College and his PhD

in

Korean history

from

Harvarcl University's East Asian Languages and Civilizations Department. He is an Associate Professor of Korean

History at Yonsei University's Graduate School of International Studies. His specialty is

colonial Korea, particularly

the

print

culture, rnigration, wartime mobilization and

everyclay life . He has published over twenty articles and book chapters on Korean his-tory. His lecent publication include : "Industrial Warriors: Labour Fleroes and Everyday

Life

in

Wartime Colonial Korea,

1937-1945"

in Alf

Lüdtke

ed., Møss Dictøtorship: Collusioø ønd. Evøsion

in

Erøryd.øy LiJb (Palgrave 201ó) and an edited volume entitled

"Mass Dictatorship and

Modernity"

(Palgrave

2013).

Michael

Kirn

is also currently serving as Associate Dean of Underwood International College .

Søng-IIyøn

Kin¿

is associate profèssor at the Research Instinrte of Cor.nparative History

ancl Cr-rlture, Hanyang University, Korea.

He

holds

a

DPhil

in

chemisuy

frorn

the University of Oxford and a PhD in the history and sociology of science from the University

of

Edinburgh, and is currently involved

in

the

HK

Transnational Flumanities Project funded by the National Research Foundation of Korea. FIis recent publications include:

"The

Politics

of

Human Ernbryonic Stem Cell Research

in

South Korea: Contesting National Sociotechnical Lnaginaries" (2014); Dreørnscøpes of Mod.erni.ty: Sociotechnicøl

Incøginøries ønd. thø Føbricøtion oJ'Power (co-edited with Sheila ]asanoff, 2015). Døøiel.

I*ese

is professor of rnodern Chinese history and politics at tl.re University

of

Freiburg.

He

is the

author

of

Møo

Cølt.

Rhøtotic ønd.

Ritwøl

in

Chinø's Cøltørøl

Røvoløtion

(201t)

and Die chinesische I(øltunepoløtion (2016).

Jie-Hyø

Lirn is

Professor

of

Transnational

History

and

founding director

of

the

Critical Global Studies Institute at Sogang University

in

Seoul, Most recendy he pub-lished five volumes of the Palgrave series of 'mass dictatorship in the 20th century'as the

XII

NOTESONCONTRIBUTORS

series editor. He is now the executive board r¡ernber of the CISH and the president elect

of

the

Nework

of

Global and World

History

Organizations îor 2015*2020.

He

held

visiting appointments at Cracow Pedagogical University, Warsaw University, Harvard-Yenching Institute, Nichibunken, EHESS, Paris

II

University and Wissenschaftskolleg zu Berlin. His present research topic is a transnational rne rnory of 'victimhood

national-ism' _{covering Post-\4TWI Korea, ]apan, Polancl, Israel and Gennany.}

Ioønø

Møcreø-Tomø

ís a

research

fellow

at the

Open

Society

fuchives

(Central European Universiry, Budapest). F{er research interests regard tìre history and sociology

of intellectuals during the Cold War, media theories and epistemology of archives. She has been âwarded fèllowships by New Europe College (in Bucharest), Woodrow Wilson

International Center for Scholars (Washington, DC) and Wissenschaftskolleg zu Berlin. FIer most recent monograph deals

with

the Romanian literary field under Communism

in

Romania (Privilighençia. Instituçü literare

în

comunismul românesc [Privilighentia.

Literary Institutions under Communism

in

Romania], 2009). She is currendy working

on a book on Radio Free Europe and inforrnation systerns during the Cold War. Elissø Møild.nd,er

is

an associate professor

in

contemporary

history

at the

Centre

d'Histoire

de Sciences Po

in

Paris.

Her

teaching and research focus on the history

of

Nazism, violence, gender and sexualiry. Aside

from

her recently published

book

of

Worhød.øy Violence: Fernølø Gøørd.s øt Løblin-Møjd.øneh (1942-1944) (2015), she pub-lished several articles on perpetr¿tor history and the structures) r¡echanisms and dynam-ics of violence in Nazi concentration and extermination carnps.

Jønis

Mimørø

is Associate Professor of

History

ât Stony Brook Universiry (SUNY). Much of her research has fbcused on wartirne Japan and its empire and the global

inter-action of ideology, politics, and econorny.

Her

recent publications includes Plønning

for

Empire: Reform Børeøøøøts ønd. the Jøpønøse Wørtime Støte

(201I).

Currendy she is working on a transnational study of Japan as an Axis power and its multifaceted rela-tionship with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy in the 1930s and 1940s.

Ryøichi

Nøri.tø

is Professor oflapanese History and Historiography at Japan Women's University.

His

expertise

is

the history

of

theory and historiography

in

modern and contemporary Japan, and transnational memory

with

a focus

on

Japan.

He

held the

visiting appointment at EHESS

in

1995. His major works include The Nøwøtive of the

Wør, Experience

in

Post-wø.r _Jøpøn

(20f0),

The Historiogrøphy of Mod.ern _Jøpønesø

History

in

Post-wør _Jøpøn

(2012) and the

co-edited

volume

of

Totøl Wør

ønd.

'M o d.ernizøtion' (199 8).

Køren Petrone is Professor of History at the University of Kentucky, and a specialist

in

Russian and Soviet Cultural and Gender History. She is author of Life Høs Become More Joyoøs, Cornrødes: Celebrøtions

in

thø Time of Stølin

(2000)

a¡d

Tbe Greøt Wør

in

Rwssiøn Mewory

(201I),

a

Choicø Outstanding Academic

Tide

for

2012. She is co-editor, with /ie-Hyun Lirn,

of

Gønd.er Politics ønd. Møs Dictøtorship: Globøl Perspectiaes (2010). She has also co-edited essay collections on Muscovite culture and on everyday

lifè

in

Russia, and is co-author

of

a history

of

the Soviet

Union

and Russia

in

docu-ments. Her current research is on war memory in Putin's Russia.

António

Costø

Piøto

is a

Research Professor

at th€

Institute

of

Social Sciences,

Unive rsity

oflisbon.

He has been a visiting professor at Stanfbrd University, George town

University, a senior associate member at St A.ntony's College, Oxford, and a senior

visit-ing

fellow at Princeton University and at the University

of

California, Berkeley. His

NorEs oN

coNrrusuroRs

xiii

research interests include fascisr¡ and authorit¿rianism, political elites, democratization

and trar.rsitional justice

in

new democracies.

He

published

recend¡

The Nøtøre oJ'

Føscisno Revisited (2012); Røthinhing Føscisw ønd. Dictøtorship

in

Eørope (201a)

(Co-ecl.)

and

The End.s oJ' Eøt'oþeøn Coloniøl Ewpires: Cøses øød' ConrQørisons (2015)

(Co-ed.)

Filipø

Røirnøød.o is a Research Fellow at the lnstitute of Social Sciences, University

of

Lisbon and Guest Assistant Professor at ISCTE-Lisbon University Institute, Portugal.

She holds a PhD in Political and Social Sciences frorn the European University Institute. previousl¡ she was Postdoctoral Fellow ancl Guest Lecturer at the Universiry of Utrecht

a¡cl visidng scholar at the University

of

California at Berkele¡ the University

of

São

Paulo, and

the ]uan

March

Institute

in

Madricl.

Her

work

has beeu published by journals such as Denoocrøtizøtion, Soøth Eøropeøn Society ønd. Politics, ar'd Joørøøl

of

'Bølkøn

øød. Neør Eøstern Stød.ies (brthcoraing) as well as by Palgrave/Macmillan and Columbia University Press. Her research interests include: democratization, transitional justice, authoritarian legacies and attitudes towards the past.

Eve Rosenhøft is Profèssor of Gennan Historical Studies at the University of Liverpool.

She has published on aspects of labour, gender ar.rd ethniciry

in

German history of the eighteenth

to

rwentieth centuries, including post-colonial and lfolocaust studies.

Her

rnost recent publications inciude Bløch Gørmøny: The Møhiøg øttd. Uøruøhing of ø

Di øsp orø corntnønity I 884-1 9ó0 ( 20 I

3-with

Robbie Aitken).

Kennetb Slepyøn

is

Professor

of

History

at

Transylvania

University

(Lexington,

Kentucky). He is the author of several publications on the N¿zi-Soviet conflict,

includ-ing Stølin's Guerrilløs: Sopiet Pørtisøtos

in

World. Wør

IL

Stew (5.

A,)

Srøi.tþ has written many books and articles on aspects of the Russian and Chinese Revolutions. They include Revoløtion ønd the People

in

Rassiø ønd' Chiøø:

A

C0/tNpø./ø.tite Hittory (2008) and the edited volume , The Oxford. Hønd'booþ. of the History of Corøtnunisrn (2014).

He

is Senior Research Fellow at

All

Souls College, Oxf-ord, a

Professor

of

History

in

the

University

of

Oxford, and

Profèssol Emeritus

at

the University of Essex.

Døvid.

R.

Stone is Profèssor

of

Strategy at the US Naval War College. Previously, he

was Pickett Professor of

Military History

at Kansas State University.

He

received his

Ph.D

in history from Yale Universiry. He is the audÌor of nur.nerous works on Russian/ Soviet rnilitary and diplomatic history including l.nost recently The Russiøn Army in the

Greøt Wøt: The Eøstern Front, 1914-1917 (2015).

Ahiho

Tøheøøkø

is Associate Profèssor at the Department

of Historl',

University

of

Kentucky. Her book Tøsøhøni Shrine: History, Mernory, ønd. _{Jøpøn's Unend.ing Postwør}

(University of Hawaii Press/Studies of the Weatherhead Institute, Colurnbia University, 2015) is the fìrst book-length work

in

English that critically examines the controversial war memorial.

CHAPTER

B

Introduction:

Repression

and

Cooptation in

Mass

Dictatorship

António

Costø

P'into

A

comparative analysis

of

the

institutions of political domination

and

control

of

masi dictatorships

highlights

some universals regardless

of

ideoiogical

dif-ferences

and

subtypes:

violence

toward

citizens,

political

repression and

insti-tutions

of

coercion

ancl

integration.

It

has

at

been

argued

several

times

(but

often

forgotten)

that

repression and

integration-cooptation

are

two

itrseparable

instruments of

domination in

mass

dictatorships.

In

fact,

as

it

has been argued

often,

two

basic

conflicts

shape

politics

in

dictatorships (Svolik

2012):

the first

is between

those

who rule

and

those

who

are

ruled: all

dictators

face threats

from the

masses

and

the political problem

of

balancing

against

the majority

excluded

from power is

central-the

problem

of

authoritarian

coercion

ancl

control; yet

dictators rarely

control

enough

resources

to

preclude such

chal-lenges

on

their

own-they

therefore typically rule

with

a number

of

allies.

Coóptation

of

elites

is

always

present

as

well.

Even so,

both at the elite

and

mass

level, "violence

is an ever-present

and the

ultimate

arbiter

of

conflicts

in

authoritarian

politics,"

shaping

the conduct

of politics in

dictatorships (Svolik

2012). Coercion

remains

the core feature

of

dictatorships, and

fear, violence,

intirnidation

and surveillance are at

the

core

of

political domination

and

of the

maintenance

of

authoritarianism.

In

this section we deal mainly

with

police forces as

instruments

of repression,

but

there is

a

myriad

of other institutions-militaries,

paramilitaries and

mili-tia,

clandestine

organizations and so

forth-that

comprise

the

coercive

appa-ratus

of

dictatorships. Police organizations played

of

course a

key

role in

the

running

and survival

of

dictatorships.

As

chapter

"Policing

and

Surveillance,"

A.C. Pinto

(ñ)

Institute of Social Sciences, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal e-mail: acpinto@ics.ul.pt

O The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 20ì'ó P. Corner, J.-H.

Lim

(eds.), Thø Pølgrøve Hønd'booh of thø Møss

Di ctøtorship,

DOI

I 0. I 057

_/

97 8 - I

-l

37 - 437 63 - I

-8

IO2

A.C. PINTO

INTRODUCTION: REPIìTSSION AND COoPTATION IN rMASS DICTATORSHIP

I03

The construction

of

internal and

external

enemies

is another

element

to

consider since

we

deal here

with

a

structural

dimepsion

of

mass

dictatorships

both at

mass

and

elite

level.

Inclusion

and exclusion

are

central instruments

of domination

and

they

are

both

ideological constructs and

political

devices

in

these regimes.

As Eve

Rosenhaft stresses

in

her

chapter)

'(the

'mass'

envis-ased

by

self-conscious (mass

dictatorships'

is never everybody,

but

commonly

,"rnythic 'us' that

always

implies

a

_'them'

and

calls

for 'them' to

be

identified

a¡d eliminated."

This

tendency

towards binary

thinking in

mass

dictatorships

is a facet

of their

radical

_"modernity"

and

its manifestation

in

transformational

oroiects. As

it

stressed

in

her chapter, the

revolutionary

dynamic

that produced

ih.m req,tit.s

such regimes

not only

to

constantly

generate enemies

but

also

to

harden

binary

divides

through

the imperative

to

self-reflection.

Another obvious

characteristic

of

mass

dictatorships

is a

specific

type

of

knowledge management

where information is

centralized

and

censorship

is

systematic.

Although

the

degree

of institutionalization of

censorship varies

in

the

different dictatorships,

the existence

of commonalities pinpoints

a systemic

logic of ideological

and

infrastructural reinforcements

in

the

world of

commu-niit

dictatorships: prescriptive propaganda

measures,

making

censorship

part

of

a larger artisanal enterprise, accompanied

the restrictive

ones; the press laws insured

the

control

of

the

Party over the

content

as

well

as over the

administra-tive

(the

access

to

profession), financial, technical and material

means

of

pub-lishing. Last

but not

least)

central

news agencies acted as

filters

for

all

printed

or

broadcast

information,

despite

periods of liberalization.

More

complex

and diverse is

the way

these

political

regimes framed interest

groups

and

especially

labour.

Mass

dictatorships required

not

only the

healy

handof

the state,

but

also the consent and cooperation of the masses.

In

order

to

achieve

their ambitious production

targets, these dictatorships called

upon their

citizens

to

produce more

and sometimes

to

consume less.

In

Europe

and

Latin

Á,merica

corporatism

did offer

autocrats a

formalized

system

of

interest

repre-sentation

to

manage

labour

relations,

legitimizing

the

repression

of

free

labour

Llnionism

by the

cooptation

of

some

of its

segments

through

state-controlled

unions often

with

compulsory membership.

Last

but not

least,

corporatism

arrangements were also mechanisms

ofintegration,

tryrng to "allow for

the state,

labour, and business

to

express

their

interests and arrive at outcomes that are

first

and foremost, satisfactory

to

the

regime"

(Kim

and Gandhi

2010,

p'

648).

Even

without

using this ideological and

institutional

device, all mass dictatorships need

to promote

visions

of

an

"organic,"

classless,

functionalist

society and

corporat-ist

ideals such as

labour-management harmony and the

dignity of

the worker,

as _Janis

Minimura

explores

in

her chapter clealing

with

the Japanese experience.

This

section concludes

with

the

legacies

of

mass

dictatorships

and

the

mem-ory

management

of

the authoritarian

past

in

successor democracies. Research

into

regime

change, and

particularly

on

transitions

to

democrac5

has

increas-ingly

used

the

concept

of

"authoritarian

legaciesr"

especially

in

the

case

of

the

transition

from

communist dictâtorships

to

democracy

(Pinto

and

Morlino

2011). Although

it

is

very

difficult to

rneasure

the impact

of

a legacy, and

few

scholars use

explicit definitions

of

what constitutes

a

_"legac5"

some emphasize underlines,

_this

_typically

_i'volved

_{the application of}

physical

coercion

_{and the}

?p:i":i?"

of

sysrems

of surveillan.. to

.åntrol

socieiies

and

suppress

political

drssent

in

rhe

co'text of

enhanced por.vers

_(political,

_legal

_or

_{peisonal)ìnd}

_the

extensive

_{collaboration of}

_segments

_of

_society.

_{In facl}

dictâtorships

enableJ

more

_{systematic and widespread}

_emproyment

_of

_citizens

_as

informirs for

the

police

and

other

repressive

institutions.

In their

assessrnent

of authoritarian

_{coercive behaviour,}

_{most st*dies}

_{do not}

differentiate

betr.veen types

of

dictatorship

and

their

impact

on different

levels

(and

_rypes-)

of.repression.

Repression

_{is therefore taken}

_for

_granted.

_They

_dã

not

consider

divergent. rrypotheses

regarding

which

type

oidictatorships

a.e

the most repressive,

a'd

they do

_{not consideid¡fferent'types ofrefressive}

_{activ_}

ity

at the

same

rime

(Davenport

_{2007). For}

_example,

_*iit

_in

_{one thesis repres_}

sive behaviour_ emerges

when autocraiic

leaders are isolated and have

involved

a smaller

number

of

actors

in

the poritical

process

(more

personalist

_ryrr.-rj.

By contrast,

in

dictatorships

_with

a sizable

_{network of}

_{political institutions}

_the

likelihood

of

coercive behaviour

would

be

lower,

for

thãse

in power

are able

to

use

alternative mecha'isms

of domination

and

_{control to}

_{influence the}

_masses by

_{"channelling"}

_rhem

_through

_estabrished

_political

_instrtutions

(

Linz

2000).

This might

explain

both

rhe exrension

and

älso

the

type

or

r.pàrrron,

since

the highly

bureaucraric

_{orienrarion and}

_capacity

_for

_inålusion

_åigh,

_p-du..

more

"consensus" than_other

_{dictatorshipi. Another}

_argument

_{is'that within}

political

sysrems _{where the} a.gents of

repreision (i.e.

the,ilriorf¡ãirectly

wield

power)

there is a

higher.likelihood^that

_repressivè

_{behaviour-especially viole,rt}

activity-would

be

applied

_{out of habit,ànd the}

,,usual

suspecis,,' liËe

politi_

cal

polices,

use

_{of "political court"}

_{systems and}

_other

_{devicËs, are}

_,epla..d

by

simple

_{clandestine state}

_{rerror. Italian}

_Fascism

_from

_one

_{side and}

Aigentina,s

military

dictatorship

from

the other courd

be examples

_{of this}

diversiry.

some

students

of

authoritarianism

_base

_their

_typologies

_of

_{dictatorships on}

this

repression-loyalty

_{binomium. For}

_Ronald

_wi"t

_oË'.

_for

_instance

the

fact

that

dictatorships _{use these}

_two

_instruments

_to

_stay

_{in power}

suggests a

classifi-cation

of regimes:

tinpots (low

repression and

royaity),

_{tyrant, 1ñi!n}

,.pression,

low loyalty),

roralirarians

(high

làvels

of

both) än¿"íi'*t.rutr'1toïrepression,

high

_{loyalty). Thus, tot¿litarian}

_regimes

_{combíne high repressià,}

_*i,r,

a

capac-ity to

generate

_{loyalty' un-der}

_tyranny,

_{the regime}

_,tays

_i"

_power

through high

repression alone, and

loyalty

is

low

(WintroUé

tf8¡.

It

is

important

to

stress as

well that

levels

of

repression are

obviously

not

constanr over

time.

By ideological,

institutional

anà

international

factors

dic_

tatorships

change

their

methoãs

and modes

of

repression.

That

is

certainly

the

case

_{with the soviet lJnion, communist china}

_ãr

_Franco,s

spain, where

we clearly derect

different

phases associated

_with

_the

_{,ole of}

_ideoiågv

_lr¿

_{institu_}

tionalization in

these regimes.

_{Technological innovarion}

_and

_{inJtitutional}

effi_

ciency

in

repressive and_

police

systems

aie

other

elemenrs

"r.*fi"n"tion)

nor

to mention

changes

in

the

international

arena, and

international

_ïorms

such as

human rights,

which do

influence,

in certainlunctures,

_r.".rr

_{ort.pression in}

mass dictarorships.

IO4

A,C. PINTO

the

institutional

and

structural

features and

others

stress behavioural patterns, Nevertheless, Pop-Eleches

introduced

a

definition

oflegacies ,.as the

structural,

cultural,

and

institutional

starting points

of

ex-communist

_for-we

can

add--any]

clictatorships

at

rhe ourser

of

a rransitio

n,

(2007,

p.

910).

A

major

prob_

lem

here is

how

to

disentangle

specific legacies

of

the

previous dictatoiships

from

lristorical

legacies

tløt

c0ur4

since

what

is

in

the

closetwhen

transitions

open the doors of

previous

dictatorships

is

much more than authoritaria¡ism.

The concluding

chapter

of

this

section

deals

with the construction by

the

new

democracies

of

a

clominant collective memory

of

a

rupture with

the

past.

In

fact,

_"it

is a

common assumption among transitional

actors, and

one often

repeated

in the

democratisation

literature, that

cliscrediting

the rule of

dicta-tors

is

important"

(Pridham 2000,

p.47).

By establishing a

moral

and

political

break

with

a repressive

non-democratic

past-the

key

mark of which

is

to

shift

the

boundaries,

and patterns)

of

social and

political

inclusion

and

exclusion-the voice

of

the victims is legitimated,

repression

is

condemned,

democrats become

the

new winners and

old

repressors pariahs.

Democratic

legitimation

takes

time,

and

this "inverted legitimation"

may

help

establish

a clear

break

with

the

past

_{(valenztela 1992, p. 48). Inrernarional}

_factors

_{like the}

_encl

_of

the

cold war

and the emergence

of

an

international community

that was

more

active

in

the export

of

clemocratic

values

_{and institutions, conditionality in}

accession

to regional polities

such as the

European

Union (EU),

also

provoked

significant strides towards

the

trans-nationalization

of political

justice

associ-ated

with

the

legacy

of

dictatorships.

RErSRENcss

Davenporr,

c.

(2007).

state repression and

the

tyrannical _{peace, Jowrøøl} oJ'pøøce Reseørch, 44\4), 485-504.

Kim,

w.' &

Gandhi,

/.

(2010).

co-opting

workers nnder dictatorship. The _Joørnøl

of

Politics, 72(3), 646-658.

Linz, J . (2000), Aøthoritøriøn ønd totølitøriøn regimes. Boulder: Lynn Rienner.

Pinto,A.c.,&Morlino,L.(Eds.).(20Ir).

Deøtiøgwiththøløgøcyoføøthorirøriønìsrn.

The "politics of tlte pøst"

in

Soøthern Eøropø. London: Routledge.

Pop-Eleches,

c.

(2007).

Historical

legacies

and

post-communist regime change. Joørn øl of Po liti n, 69(4), 9

08-926.

Pridham, G, (2000). Thø d1nørnìø of d.en+ocrøtizøtion: A compørøtive ø.þþr¡d.ch. London: Continuum.

svolik,

M.

w.

(20L2).

The politics

_of

_{øøthoritøriøn}

_røre,

_{New york:}

_cambridge

University Press.

Valenzuela,

_J'

S. (1992).

Democratic consolidations

in

post-rransitio¡al settings:

Notion,

process, and fàcilitating conditions.

In s.

Mainwaring,

G. o,Donnell,

&

,I. S. Valenzuela (Eds.), Isøes

in

d'ernocrøtic consolid.øtion: The new Soøth Amøricøø

d.eruocrøcies

in

corøpørøtitte perspective

(pp.

sz-rOa),

Notre

Dame:

university

of

Notre Dame Press.

winrrobe, R. (Ì998).

The

politicøl

aconlrny

of

d.ictøtorship.

New

york:

cambridge