Which sectors belong to cultural or creative industries?

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opportunities are communicated through exclusive networks and that ethnic minorities are underrepresented.

From the viewpoint of the research task at hand, the creative industries concept has one clear benefit over the cultural industries concept; there is no disagreement on whether the games industry is included or not. The games industry has been included since the first DCMS (1998) report. Thus, the debate on the cultural content of games is not relevant in the creative industries framework. For the sake of conceptual clarity the industries of interest here are defined through the high degree of non-utilitarian and a generally low but varying degree of utilitarian value of their products. This characteristic has an effect on the supply of and demand for them, the manner of innovation and competition and thus on their industry dynamics.

Table 9. Classifications of cultural and creative industries.

Film Books and press Music Performing arts TV Fine arts Radio Advertising Architecture Design New media Heritage Fashion Video games Crafts Photography Software Libraries Festivals Jewellery Furniture Pro sports Tourism Amusement parks Arts facilities Toys Agents and managers Graphics Perfume

Cultural industries

Hirsch (1972a; 2000) ● ● ● ● ●

Breton (1982) ● ● ● ● ●

Girard (1982) ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

Throsby (1994) ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

Scott (1999) ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

Cowen (2000) ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

Lampel et al. (2000) ● ● ● ● ●

Karttunen (2001) ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

Throsby (2001) ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

Hesmondhalgh (2002) ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

Power (2002) ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

Towse (2003) ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

Scott (2004) ● ● ● ● ● ●

DeFillippi et al. (2007) ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

The Work Foundation (2007) ● ● ● ● ● ●

European Commission (2008) ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

Creative industries

DCMS (1998) ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

Lindström (2005) ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

Dolfman (2007) ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

The Work Foundation (2007) ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

European Commission (2008) ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

United Nations (2008) ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

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In Table 9 the classifications are listed in chronological order. Hirsch‘s (1972a) paper is one of the first on the production of culture perspective. He sees film, theatre, books and music as cultural products in addition to the more unorthodox art prints and professional football games. As he is mainly interested in the organisation of the industries and the various stages that products need to pass through to reach the final mass audience, his classification logically omits sectors like fine arts and architecture as they are not targeted at a mass market of consumers. Radio and TV, on the other hand, are seen as channels to the audience and not as cultural sectors per se. Furthermore, the age of this classification explains the omission of video games. However, in a later paper Hirsch (2000) does not include video games, either. Lampel et al. (2000, p. 263) have also excluded video games from their list of cultural goods that includes film, television, music, theatre and visual arts. Girard‘s (1982, p. 34) classification also rests on the requirement of mass-reproduction. Indeed, he includes, for example, art reproductions but not fine arts per se. Breton (1982, p. 41) is the only author discussed here who does not include films as cultural products. This is perhaps not a purposeful omission as he includes television programmes.

Scott (1999, p. 807) includes crafts, fashion, media, jewellery, perfume, film, recorded music and tourist services under cultural industries as they ―cater to consumer demands for amusement, ornamentation, self-affirmation, social display and so on‖. Scott (2004, p. 462) also divides cultural industries into those that offer entertainment, edification and information and those that manufacture products that enable individuality, self-affirmation and social display. The former includes motion pictures, recorded music, print media and museums, whereas the latter includes fashion and jewellery. These classifications seem somewhat frivolous compared to Cowen‘s (2000, p. 5), according to which cultural products are those that ―move us and expand our awareness of the world and of ourselves‖. This classification includes painting, music, film, architecture, photography, theatre, literature and dance. For him ―culture stands above the concept of entertainment‖. Cowen sees many sectors to have an in-between status. He states that fashion and cuisine, for example, bring beauty and drama to our lives but are not cultural industries in his classification. Neither Scott (1999; 2004) nor Cowen (2000) includes video games even though their classifications are quite recent.

There are some classifications that follow the logic of core art fields and surrounding cultural fields.

Throsby (2001, p. 5) classifies music, literature, poetry, dance, drama and visual art into core arts and ―film-making, story-telling, festivals, journalism, publishing, television, radio and some aspects of design‖ into cultural industries. Later on in the monograph Throsby (2001, pp. 112-113) adds crafts, video art, performance art, computer and multimedia art to the core arts category.

Furthermore, he finds organised sports (p. 5), advertising, tourism and architecture to have some degree of cultural content and thus are borderline.

The borderline is drawn somewhat differently in the studies reviewed here. Hesmondhalgh (2002, pp. 11-12) includes television, radio, film, newspaper, magazine and book publishing, music recording and publishing industries, advertising, performing arts and video and computer games in cultural industries. He excludes fashion on the basis that clothing is more about functionality than

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symbolic values, which is debatable. Markusen et al. (2008, p. 39) argue that there is no logical basis for excluding sports, gambling, religion or education from cultural industries.

As the writers have continued to cast ever widening nets to catch all of the cultural industries, the classifications have become very similar to the creative industries classifications. Many classifications are also labelled with both definers, i.e. cultural and creative. Towse (2003b, p. 171) classifies ―advertising, architecture, the art market, crafts, design, fashion, film, the music industry, performing arts, publishing, software, toys and games, television and radio, and video‖ as a collection of industries that can be noted with any of the synonymous labels cultural, creative or copyright. DeFillippi et al. (2007, p. 513), on the other hand, gather one of the most extensive classifications of cultural industries in their introduction to the special issue of the Journal of Organizational Behavior on the cultural industries. In addition to the traditional art, theatre, publishing, music and film sectors they include video games, photography, crafts, design, clothing, furniture, jewellery, architecture, advertising, software and new media. This classification thus comes closer to the creative industries classifications as heritage is excluded while sectors like software and furniture are included. The same goes for Power (2002) who includes a wide array of activities under cultural industries. These are advertising, architecture, broadcast media, design, fashion-clothing, film, fine arts, furniture, crafts, jewellery, libraries, museums, heritage, music, photography, print media, software and new media. Video games are not specifically included, but perhaps lie behind software in the statistics that he uses.

In addition to the synonymy of cultural and creative industries, the approach of nested fields is used.

The Economy of Culture in Europe report by the European Commission (2008) starts with the classification of cultural industries as a subset of the creative industries. For them, in a similar fashion to Throsby (2001), visual arts, performing arts and heritage form the ‗core arts field‘. These are seen as non-industrial sectors as the products are not mass-produced. The cultural industries include film and video, television and radio, video games, music and books and press. These are industrial activities that aim at the mass-reproduction of copyrighted material. The cultural industries are a subset of creative industries that use culture as an input for the production of either cultural or non-cultural products. The European Commission defines design, architecture and advertising as such non-cultural industries that use cultural inputs. (European Commission 2008, p. 3)

A similar nested approach is followed by the Work Foundation (2007, p. 19), whose report commissioned by the DCMS classifies ―film, television, publishing, music, the performing arts and video games‖ as cultural industries that they see as a distinguishable subset of the creative industries. They find that the difference between the cultural and creative industries is that while cultural products have only cultural value, the creative products have both cultural and utilitarian value. Thus, creative products have to pass both the aesthetic as well as the workability, functionality or wearability tests. They include architecture, design, fashion, computer services and advertising in the creative industries.

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The United Nations (2008, p. 202) has solved the problem of the cultural and creative industries terminology by simply referring to ‗creative and cultural industries‘ without making a distinction between the two in their Creative Economy report. They include the following sectors under that title: cultural heritage, visual and performing arts, audiovisual industries, publishing and printed media, new media, design and creative services, including advertising and architecture. It is not made explicit whether video games are seen as one of the audiovisual industries.

The statistics paper by Dolfman et al. (2007) casts a wide net in the classification of creative industries as they also include agents and managers and fine art schools. Interestingly, they exclude books as well as video games.

In Finnish publications the cultural or creative industries have been examined in order to ascertain their economic contribution. Karttunen‘s (2001) study on cultural employment in Finland uses both occupational and industry-based classifications. As she works with statistics, the classifications have had to be drawn based on what the available data allow. The list of cultural occupations includes art, design and crafts, editing and journalistic work, photography, cinematography and technical work in radio and television, graphics, advertising, cultural administration, information and guidance as well as library, archive and museum work (p. 16). This list differs from others reviewed in this chapter as it excludes performing artists, musicians, film actors and architects, but at the same time includes public sector cultural administrators. The industry-based classification includes architectural and industrial design and art, arts facilities, art and antique shops and second- hand bookshops, libraries, archives and museums, production and distribution of books, production and distribution of newspapers and periodicals, advertising, photography, radio and television, production and distribution of motion pictures and videos, production and distribution of music and sound recordings as well as amusement parks, games and other entertainment and recreation. (p. 20) Again, performing artists are excluded, but musicians and film actors are included as far as they go under the production of music recordings or the production of motion pictures classes. The list, however, is quite extensive as it goes on to include even second-hand bookshops and ‗other entertainment and recreation‘.

Lindström‘s (2005) publication about the economic contribution of the creative industries in Finland first follows the DCMS classifications, but as no suitable data is available she resorts to a cultural industries classification that is very similar to the industry-based classification used by Karttunen (2001). Video games are not included in either one of the Finnish classifications. Alanen (2004) has replicated the DCMS creative industries classification with Finnish data and concludes that the economic contribution of such industries is significantly smaller in Finland than in the UK.

In addition to the particular industries to include or exclude, the definitions of cultural and creative industries vary in the degree to which activities beyond the creation of the cultural works is included. Markusen et al. (2008, p. 39) point out that there is no consensus over to what extent forward and backward linkages, such as distribution, retailing and suppliers of equipment, should be included under cultural industries. The production of culture perspective quite naturally includes all the stages from creative work to promotion, distribution and retail as the interest is in how the

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products pass through such a system. A similar all-embracing approach is often used in policy publications as the goal is to show to the widest possible extent the number of jobs or the revenue that these sectors generate. For example, he European Commission (2008, p. 70) includes both the production of cultural works as well as their distribution under their definition of cultural activities.

The terminology is somewhat imprecise as, for example, ‗events‘ listed under distribution activities can mean many things.

The wide array of sectors classified under the cultural or creative industries has, despite the common feature of non-utilitarian aesthetic and symbolic value, many differences. For the purposes of the research task at hand it is not vital to determine which industries go under the labels and which do not. However, it is important to decide on the sectors that offer research sites sufficiently similar to the games industry to be helpful in building a framework for the study at hand. Video games are entertainment products offered to a mass audience of consumers. They are generally not seen as high art deserving of subsidies. Taking these features into account, useful counterparts to the games industry are film, music, fashion, TV and radio as well as books and press industries. All these sectors offer everyday entertainment with high symbolic value for consumers who have varying tastes. Thus it is reasonable to assume that they are similar enough to the games industry for research on them to be useful in understanding the dynamics of the games industry. After all, the games industry has so far not been a very popular research site, whereas the film and music industries especially have been under industrious study since the 1970s.

However, a preliminary remark on the similarity of the games industry to these other industries must be made. In addition to the cultural or creative content, games entail technology as an important part of their creation (Tschang 2005; Autier and Picq 2005). Clearly, the production of films and music depends on technological developments, but in game production technology development is at the core of the creative process and performed by the people who are in charge of the creative content as well. Thus the games industry comprises a unique combination of business, artistic and technologically oriented professions. This feature specific to the games industry will be kept in mind as the framework is built.