Introduction to Rhetoric

hetoric is an art that has been focused in matters of description and definition by various researchers, resulting in a lot of definitions of the concept in the literature. Among them, Gail and Eves (1999) present it as the art of argumentation, the art of persuasion, of speech and study of its figures while Dyer (1993) defines it as "The impressive or elaborate use of spoken and written discourse, which is used to clarify or add to the power and impact of convincing rhetoric".

R

“Rhetoric is the art of speaking or writing effectively. The function of rhetoric is the ability, in each particular case, to discover the available means of persuasion…these available means of persuasion are based on 3 kinds of proof, Logos, Pathos and Ethos.”

Aristotle, 1356:2-3

Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece Page 34

Most definitions seem to converge on the fact that rhetoric follows fixed instructions and aims both to attract and to persuade the audience, as regards to the views of the transmitter of the message.

The origin-traces of rhetorical art are placed in ancient Greece, in the works of Greek orators and sophists. In particular, rhetoric was born in Greek colonies in Southern Italy and Sicily and was directly connected with the abolition of tyranny in those cities. This first attempt has gradually begun to appear in the courts and has witnessed a rapid development as the citizens tried not only to cope with and survive in the social arena but also to restore their democratic conquests (Herrick, 2001).

“Rhetoric is a mode of altering reality by the creation of discourse which changes reality through the mediation of thought and action… rhetoric is always persuasive and it is a mode of action and not an instrument of reflection" Bitzer, 1995:60

"The use of words by human agents to form attitudes or induce actions in other human agents…the use of language as a symbolic means of inducing cooperation in beings that by nature respond to symbols."

Burke, 1945:41

Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece Page 35

Rhetoric acquired its professional character, owing to the sophists who made their appearance in the 5th century BC century, and are considered to be the first path- instructors with an ambition to shape young men so that they can handle the art of reasoning and arguments, and be able to engage actively with the public. Among the sophists, Gorgias tried to locate and exploit the various figures that offered the language register contrasts, brightness and sound relations, while at the same time began to mention the moral role of rhetoric, characterizing it as a tool which has dual utility for good and bad purpose (deRomilly, 1988).

Rhetoric, however, was expanded further in the 4th century BC century, through the philosopher Aristotle, who, according to his work "About Rhetoric", which is a milestone in the history and the study of this art, places it among the experience and the science. Aristotle in his Rhetoric considers that rhetoric is not a science with strictly defined limits, but an ability that is based on the invention and correct argumentation, but not depending on the subject in question (Batsakos, 2016). Its goal is not to persuade a person, but to study and offer evidence and to use it appropriately and effectively, and for that reason its subject does not focus on a defined area of the scientist but can be extended on any subject (Kyrkos, 1986). It is clear, therefore, that in the art of rhetoric, integral and particularly important pieces are not only the method and the way to effectively express an idea depending on the case and the subject, but also the way in which it can be transformed to be applied in other circumstances as the way in which an argument is expressed is more important than the content of the argument (McQuarrie & Mick, 1996).

The rhetorical discourse is influenced by three parameters: the orator, the subject of discourse and the target audience. According to Aristotle, who was based on the connection of the orator with the subject of discourse, as well as the attitude of the audience to the orator and the speech, he categorized the rhetorical discourse in (deRomilly, 1988):

- Counseling genus in which the subject of speech is placed in the future, while the role of the orator is to advise and guide towards the benefit or even to prevent the occurrence of a harmful event. Judge in this genre is the public.

Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece Page 36

- Forensic genus in which the subject of discourse is found in the past, while the orator aims to support the law or the wrongdoer. Judge in this kind is the court.

- Illustrative genus, in which the subject of speech is to praise or criticize, while the public retains a passive role, enjoying the beauty and sophisticated content of the speech (deRomilly, 1988).

Rhetoric continued to develop, with the result, during the classical period a significant number of rhetorical figures to appear, whereas during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, it began to be used in the fields of religion, politics and literature, and at the same time it was taught in educational institutions of Europe until the 19th century. In modern times, it went out of the limited contexts of oral eloquence and extended to include other forms of persuasive language, oral and written, but also non-verbal forms of communication and persuasion, such as music, images and television (Dorman, 1999).