Az 1. tanulmányban azt vizsgáltuk, hogy a fonológia hogyan járul hozzá a nyomtatott és betűazonosság kódolásához szükséges vizuális szakértelem fejlesztéséhez. Korábbi tanulmányok kimutatták, hogy a fonológiai feldolgozás szerepet játszhat a betűsor specializáció, a betű- és betűrend azonosítás, valamint az ortográfiai reprezentációk közötti lexikális versengés kialakulásában. A vizsgálat során arra voltunk kíváncsiak, hogy a súlyos fonológiai depriváció, például a süketség befolyásolja-e az ortográfiai feldolgozást.
Eredményeink összességében arra utalnak, hogy a fonológiának közvetlen szerepe van az ortográfiai feldolgozás kialakulásában, legalábbis a tipikusan fejlődő gyermekeknél. A diszlexiás felnőttekre vonatkozó eredményeink azt mutatják, hogy az ortográfiai folyamatok megfelelően fejlődnek a fonológiai feldolgozás károsodása ellenére, bár az audiovizuális megjelenítés kevésbé hatékony ortográfiai feldolgozáshoz vezet diszlexiás olvasókban. Ezért a dolgozat eredményei azt mutatják, hogy a fonológiai feldolgozás támogatja az ortográfiai folyamatokat, de nem szükséges az ortográfiai ábrázolások kialakításához.
Introduction
If phonology does indeed play a role in tuning orthographic representations, deaf readers are expected to have impairments in both phonological and orthographic processing. I then focus on how phonological processing is involved in visual word recognition and to what extent these skills are deficient in atypical readers. I then review the literature on orthographic processing in proficient reading and whether, in addition to phonological deficits, orthographic deficits are characteristic of atypical readers.
The unresolved issue regarding the relationship between phonology and orthographic processing motivated our research to elaborate on the role of phonology in tuning orthographic representations in typical and atypical readers. Second, we explored whether orthographic processing in adult dyslexic readers is inefficient per se. Furthermore, to test whether orthographic-phonological processing is more deficient than orthographic processing in dyslexia, we investigated the extent to which audiovisual presentation of orthographic stimuli enhances reading.
Theoretical background
Visual word recognition in typical readers
Therefore, visual word recognition primarily involves accessing the phonological not the orthographic lexicon. For example, when the unit representing the letter "a" in the first letter position receives activation from the feature level, it feeds activation to all word-level units in which. At the same time, it inhibits all word-level units in which there is no "a" in the first letter position (e.g.
More specifically, the DRC model (Coltheart et al., 2001) assumes that there are two main pathways for visual word recognition: the phonological pathway and the lexical pathway. In the model, printed words activate visual features that lead to the activation of the sublexical orthographic code (i.e., letters, graphemes) and the orthographic representation of the whole word that enables sight-word recognition. The dual-route model of orthographic processing (Grainger & Ziegler, 2011) assumes that the phonological and orthographic routes used during visual word recognition differ in the calculation of the orthographic code.
Visual word recognition in atypical readers
- Developmental dyslexia
- Deafness
In fact, visual attention difficulties can manifest in poor letter position encoding (Cornelissen et al., 1998). The theory is based on the result that some individuals with dyslexia showed poor performance in the discrimination of rapid auditory information (Ahissar et al., 2000). For example, several studies demonstrated speech processing deficits in dyslexia (Cunningham et al., 2001; Maurer et al., 2003; Moisescu-Yiflach & Pratt, 2005).
In addition, phonological skills training improves reading, suggesting that phonological skills are indeed related to reading development (Hulme et al., 2012). In particular, most deaf students who graduate from high school read at or below the 4th grade level (Qi & Mitchell, 2012; Wauters et al., 2006). Furthermore, the achievement gap between deaf and hard of hearing children has remained despite advances in technology and intervention (Margaret Harris et al., 2017).
The role of phonology in visual word recognition
- Phonological processing in typical readers
- Phonological processing in atypical readers
- Developmental dyslexia
- Deafness
Second, illiterates perform poorly in phoneme awareness tasks (Castro-Caldas et al., 1998; K. Lukatela et al., 1995). Research on beginning readers suggests that the rate of LSS acquisition depends on the transparency of the orthography (Seymour et al., 2003; Ziegler & Goswami, 2005). The MMN (Naatanen et al., 1997; . Näätänen & Alho, 1995) is an event-related potential (ERP) component that is elicited between 100 and 250 ms after stimulus onset and is sensitive to infrequently presented stimuli (the deviant stimuli ) compared to regularly presented stimuli (the standard).
In the cross-modal MMN paradigm (Froyen et al., 2008), participants are presented with a speech sound (e.g., “/a/”) simultaneously with its corresponding letter (“a”). One of the main indices of automatic phonological recoding is the so-called pseudohomophone (PH) effect (Van Orden et al., 1988). Nevertheless, Gutierrez-Sigut et al., (2017) failed to find any difference between the PH effect shown by deaf and hearing participants.
Orthographic processing in visual word recognition
- Orthographic processing in typical readers
- Orthographic processing in atypical readers
- Developmental dyslexia
- Deafness
- Visual expertise for print
- Typical readers
- Atypical readers
- Letter identity and letter order processing
- Typical readers
- Atypical readers
- Prime lexicality effect
- Typical readers
- Atypical readers
Second, word-specific orthographic knowledge appears to be poorly developed in developmental dyslexia (Rothe et al., 2015). Regarding sensitivity to orthographic patterns, most studies have reported that deaf readers are sensitive to orthographic regularities (Daigle et al., 2009; Miller, 2010). Nevertheless, other studies have failed to confirm pressure sensitivity deficits in children (Hasko et al., 2012) or adults with dyslexia (Araújo et al., 2015).
The Lexical Tuning Hypothesis (Castles et al., 2007) suggests that as reading skills develop, the encoding of letter identity and letter position becomes more accurate. Orthographic representations in typically developing children become increasingly fine-tuned during reading development (Castles et al., 2007). Indeed, as already discussed in connection with the visual expertise for print, readers with dyslexia sometimes do not show a lexicality effect (Mahé et al., 2012).
The role of phonology in orthographic processing
- Phonological influence on visual expertise for print
- Phonological influence on letter identity and letter position coding
- Phonological influence on prime lexicality effect
While no studies examined N170 fine-tuning of the PLE for TL primes, a recent ERP study (Meade, Grainger, Midgley, et al., 2019) investigated the PLE for orthographic neighbors in deaf readers. According to his theory, proficient readers have many high-quality lexical representations for which all components (orthographic, phonological, and semantic components as defined in the lexical constituency model, Perfetti et al., 2005) are well defined. Numerous studies reported attenuated N170 to letter strings in developmental dyslexia (Araújo et al., 2012; Helenius et al., 1999; Kast et al., 2010; Mahé et al., 2012; Maurer et al., 2007), suggesting that phonological deficits may impede the development of visual print expertise.
In a series of experiments, Maurer and colleagues (Maurer et al., 2010; Yoncheva et al.) trained participants to read an artificial orthography in two groups. Moreover, the lexicality effect is usually present in deep orthographic readers (Maurer, Brem, et al., 2005) and beginning readers (Maurer et al., 2006). As noted previously, dyslexic readers are less efficient at processing letter identity, although some results suggest that processing letter order may not be deficient, at least for words. (Ogawa et al., 2016; Reilhac et al., 2012).
Aims and thesis points
We hypothesized that audiovisual presentation would increase the difference in the N170 lexical effect between readers with and without dyslexia. We hypothesized that if phonology exhibits an influence on letter identity and letter order processing, dyslexic readers would show a different pair type effect than non-dyslexic readers. Dyslexic readers will show less left-lateralized N170 lexical effect than non-dyslexic readers (Thesis 1).
Audiovisual presentation will enhance the difference in the N170 lexicality effect between readers with and without dyslexia (Thesis 2). Readers with dyslexia will show deficits in letter identity and letter order processing, especially for pseudoword pairs (Thesis 3). Audiovisual presentation will increase the difference between readers with and without dyslexia in letter identity and letter sequence encoding (Thesis 4).
Visual expertise for print is not but its lateralization is impacted by
Print tuning is enhanced by audiovisual integration in typical readers but not
Orthographic-phonological mapping and the emergence of visual expertise for print: A developmental event-related potential study.
Letter identity coding develops slowly; however, letter identity and letter
Letter identity and letter order processing is modulated by audiovisual
Phonology contributes to lexical competition; however, lexical competition
Studies
General discussion
Furthermore, we hypothesized that if phonology plays a role in the emergence of visual expertise for print, audiovisual presentation of stimuli increases the N170 effect compared to visual presentation. Our results in Study 2 suggest that developmental dyslexia is not necessarily characterized by a lack of accurate visual knowledge of print. Although dyslexic readers showed a tendency for larger responses to words compared to pseudowords in the N170 time window; this difference did not reach significance.
Although the fine-tuning of visual expertise to print did not differ between adults with and without dyslexia, subtle differences emerged in the lateralization of the N170 response. Next, we hypothesized that audiovisual presentation will increase the difference in the N170 lexicality effect between readers with and without dyslexia. In contrast, presenting targets audiovisually did not enhance the lexicality effect for dyslexic readers.
In contrast, dyslexic readers did not show the improvement described above in the audiovisual presentation condition. In Study 2, we hypothesized that if phonology influences letter identity and letter order processing, dyslexic readers would show a different pair-type effect compared to non-dyslexic readers. In addition, we hypothesized that audiovisual presentation should increase the difference between readers with and without dyslexia in letter identity and letter order.
In contrast, in dyslexic readers, the orthographic discrepancy (same vs. different pairs) between the reference and target stimuli was enhanced by the audiovisual presentation. Thus, our results could be explained by slow audiovisual integration in the case of developmental dyslexia. Namely, we expected that in the presence of a grapheme-phoneme, we would notice deficiencies in letter identity and letter order processing.
However, dyslexic readers in our study did not differ from proficient readers in terms of letter identity and order processing.
Acquisition of the alphabetic principle in deaf and hard of hearing preschool children: the role of phonology in letter-sound learning. Speech reading and learning to read: A comparison of 8-year-old profoundly deaf children with good and poor reading ability. The time course of reading processes in children with and without dyslexia: An ERP study.
Efficacy of word-prompt training in facilitating the acquisition of reading skills by children with reading difficulties - A longitudinal study. Print, sublexical, and lexical processing in children with reading and/or spelling deficits: An ERP study. Concurrent correlates and predictors of reading and spelling achievement in deaf and hearing school children.
Unraveling the mystery of dyslexia - insights from the jyväskylä prospective longitudinal study of dyslexia. Sensitivity to distributional properties of orthography in the spelling of Italian children with dyslexia. Orthographic effects of neighborhood size on the reading aloud of Italian children with and without dyslexia.
Development of print tuning in children with dyslexia: Evidence from fMRI-supported longitudinal ERP data. Nusbaum (Eds.), The development of speech perception: Moving from speech sounds to words (pp. 57–90). Emergent phonological awareness differentiates children with and without familial risk for Dyslexia after controlling for general language skills.
A comparison of orthographic processing in children with and without reading and spelling disorder in a normal orthography. An event-related potential study of the relationship between N170 lateralization and phonological awareness in developing readers. Impaired visual search in dyslexia relates to the role of the magnocellular pathway in attention.
