7. POLICY CONTEXT OF THE HOTSPOT
7.3 International environmental agreements
(political instability, lack of support from local governments, instability of national regulations, complexity and corruption in bureaucratic procedures, absence of guarantees). NGOs have noted a lack of transparency in the process used to select country investment plans on
‘nationally appropriate mitigation actions’ (NAMAs), and have called for greater involvement from civil society in the development of investment plans (Osornio et al. 2011). Of special importance are the policy issues regarding transboundary water-sharing that could affect regional conflicts because although corruption does not lead competition for water to escalate into conflict, it can precipitate the collapse or block the establishment of water-sharing arrangements (Solarte et al. 2008).
Table 7.2 Corruption Perceptions Index scores for the countries covered by the profile update
Country CPI score 2015 (0 = highly
corrupt, 100 = very clean)
Rank (position among 168 countries globally)
Cabo Verde 55 40
Jordan 53 45
Montenegro 44 61
The FYR of Macedonia 42 66
Turkey 42 66
Bosnia and Herzegovina 38 76
Tunisia 38 76
Albania 36 88
Algeria 36 88
Egypt 36 88
Morocco 36 88
Kosovo 33 103
Lebanon 28 123
Syria 18 154
Libya 16 161
Palestine [no data] [no data]
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
The CBD is concerned with the conservation of biodiversity, its sustainable use, and fair and equitable sharing of benefits from use of genetic resources. It has subsidiary agreements on biosafety (the Cartagena Protocol) and access and benefit sharing (the Nagoya Protocol). The convention has adopted a 2011-2020 Strategic Plan which has five strategic goals implemented thought the achievement of the 20 ‘aichi targets’, which include (Target 11) that 17% of terrestrial/inland waters and 10% of coastal and marine areas should be managed for conservation. Parties to the convention prepare five-yearly National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP) documents, and submit annual reports to the convention. Under the CBD, 15 Ecologically or Biologically Significant Marine Areas (EBSAs) have been defined for the Mediterranean.
Table 7.3 Status of the biodiversity conventions in the countries covered by the profile update
Country
CBD (inc. Nagoya protocol) Ramsar2 CMS AEWA (CMS) Raptor MOU (CMS) CITES UNESCO WHC4 IT PGRFA IPPC
Albania X* 4 X X - X 0 X* X
Algeria X1 39 X X - X 0 X* X
Bosnia and Herzegovina X*1 2 - - - X 0 - X
Cabo Verde X1 4 X - - X 0 X* X
Egypt X 2 X X X X 0 X X
Jordan X 0 X X - X 1 X X
Kosovo - - - - - - - - -
Lebanon X1 4 -3 X X X 0 X X
Libya X1 2 X X X X 0 X X
Montenegro X1 2 X X - X 0 X* X
Morocco X1 21 X X X X* 0 X X
Palestine X* - - - - - 05 - -
Syrian AR X 1 X X X X 0 X X
FYR Macedonia X*1 2 X X - X 1 X* X
Tunisia X1 38 X X X X* 1 X X
Turkey X1 10 - - - X 1 X X
Notes: CBD = Convention on Biological Diversity; Ramsar = Convention on Wetlands of International Importance;
CMS = Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals; AEWA = Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (under the CMS); Raptor MOU = Memorandum of Understanding on the Conservation of Migratory Birds of Prey in Africa and Eurasia (under the CMS); CITES = Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora; UNESCO WHC = World Heritage Convention; IT PGRFA = International Treaty on Plant Genetic resources for Food and Agriculture;
IPPC = International Plant Protection Convention; X, or a number = contracting party/signatory;X* = acceded but not ratified the convention; - = not a contracting party/signatory; 1 = these states are not parties to the Nagoya protocol on access and benefit sharing; 2 = figures are the number of Ramsar sites within the hotspot in each country, for parties to the convention; 3 = Lebanon is not a Party to the main CMS agreement but is a signatory of the Raptors MOU and AEWA; 4 = figures are the number of natural or mixed natural and cultural world heritage sites within the hotspot, for parties to the convention; 5 = the UNESCO WHC is the only biodiversity convention to include Palestine.
Ramsar Convention
The Ramsar Convention provides a framework for national action and international cooperation on the conservation and wise use of wetlands. All the countries in the hotspot except Kosovo and Palestine are contracting parties to the convention. 131 wetlands of
international importance have been listed under the convention by the hotspot countries covered by the ecosystem profile update, three-quarters of them in three North African countries: Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. The convention has been less widely used in the other countries, with Jordan having no Ramsar sites in the hotspot (and only one in the country), Turkey having 10, and the other countries having two or four sites each.
Three of the sites are listed on Ramsar’s Montreux record of sites where a detrimental change in ecological character has or is likely to take place. These are Ichkeul, Tunisia, threatened by dam construction, and the two Ramsar sites in Egypt, Lake Burullus and Lake Bardawil, threatened by pollution and siltation.
Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS, or the Bonn Convention)
Eleven of the 16 countries covered by the ecosystem profile update are parties to the CMS, non-party countries and territories are Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo, Palestine, Lebanon and Turkey. Lebanon is, however, a Party to the AEWA and has signed Raptors MOU.
Under the CMS, two mechanisms are of particular importance for the Mediterranean region, the AWEA, and the Raptors MOU.
The Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) is an intergovernmental agreement for the conservation of migratory waterbirds and their habitats. Eleven of the 16 hotspot countries covered by the ecosystem profile update are contracting parties. Parties are legally bound by the AEWA Action Plans, which outline the species and habitat protection measures, management of human activities, and supporting activities such as research and monitoring. Action Plans of particular relevance to the Mediterranean Basin Hotspot are:
The AEWA Plan of Action for Africa (2012-2017), which contains actions and targets for the delivery of the five objectives of the AEWA Strategic Plan in Africa.
The plan applies to North Africa countries in the hotspot - Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, and Egypt - and requires contracting parties to undertake a series of practical and management actions to improve the conservation status of water birds, ensure any use of water birds is sustainable, and improve knowledge, communication, and capacity.
The Plan of Action to Address Bird Trapping Along the Mediterranean Coasts of Egypt and Libya16, finalized in 2014, with implementation facilitated by an International Task Force, aims to address an apparent upsurge in the trapping of migrants birds as they arrive at the Mediterranean cost having crossed the Sahara or the Mediterranean Sea.
The Memorandum of Understanding on the Conservation of Migratory Birds of Prey in Africa and Eurasia (‘Raptors MoU’) has been signed by seven of the 16 hotspot countries covered by the ecosystem profile update (among 56 range states globally), all of them in North Africa and the Middle East: Egypt, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Syria and Tunisia. Signatories of the MOU agree to work together to maintain or improve the conservation status of migratory birds of prey.
16 See illegalbirdkilling.aewa.info/, and Emile, W., Noor, N. and Dereliev, S. (compilers) 2014. Plan of Action to Address Bird Trapping along the Mediterranean Coasts of Egypt and Libya. Bonn, Germany.
Also under the CMS is the Agreement on the Conservation of Populations of European Bats (Eurobats), which has been signed by 36 states including Albania, Montenegro and FYR Macedonia. Other hotspot countries covered by the ecosystem profile update are range states but have not signed. Parties commit to the protection of 53 species of bat which occur in Europe, through legislation, education and conservation measures.
In addition, the CMS has several working groups relevant to biodiversity in the Mediterranean Basin Hotspot:
Migratory Land birds in the African-Eurasian Region (CMS COP Resolution 10.27)
Minimizing the Risk of Poisoning to Migratory Birds (CMS COP Resolution 10.26)
Working Group on Climate Change (CMS COP Recommendation 5.5, developed by subsequent Resolutions 8.13, 9.7 and 10.19).
Working Group on Flyways (CMS COP Resolution 9.2, reinforced by Resolution 10.10 and 11.14).
Other agreements under CMS concern one or few species or they are relevant for only a part of the hotspot.
Slender-billed Curlew MoU, aims the conservation and recovery of slender-billed curlew. Albania, Croatia, Cyprus, Egypt, Greece, Italy, Morocco and Spain are signatories of the MoU, while Algeria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Malta, Tunisia and Turkey are in the range of the species.
Atlantic Turtles MoU, concerns Atlantic African countries and both Cabo Verde and Morocco are signatories, while Portugal and Spain are range states.
Aquatic Warbler MoU. It aims to safeguard aquatic warbler (Acrocephalus paludicola), the rarest migratory songbird in Europe. France and Spain are signatories, and Portugal and Morocco are range states.
MoU concerning Conservation Measures for the Eastern Atlantic Populations of Mediterranean monk seal. Morocco, Portugal and Spain, together with Mauritania, are the only countries concerned by this agreement and all the three are signatories.
Western African Aquatic Mammals MoU aims to achieve and maintain a favorable conservation status for manatees and small cetaceans of Western Africa and Macaronesia. Cabo Verde and Portugal are signatories, and Morocco and Spain are range states.
MoU on the Conservation of Migratory Sharks is the first global instrument for the conservation of migratory species of sharks. All the coastal countries are concerned by this treaty, although only Egypt, the EU, Jordan, Libya, Monaco, Portugal and Syria have signed.
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)
All the countries covered by the ecosystem profile update have acceded to CITES, although only Morocco and Tunisia have ratified the convention. CITES aims to ensure that trade does not threatened the survival of species, and is the principal global forum for negotiating limits on the international trade in wild species. 655 species from the hotspot countries covered by the profile update are currently listed in the appendices of CITES, the vast majority on Appendix II (species where trade is controlled to avoid unsustainable utilization), but with 50 on Appendix I (trade prohibited).
Table 7.4 Number of species recorded from hotspot countries covered by the profile update listed in each of the CITES appendices
Taxon Appendix
Total
I II* III
Plants 0 126 0 126
Vertebrates 50 164 12 226
Invertebrates 0 303 0 303
TOTAL 50 593 12 655
Notes: * = includes six species listed as Appendix I/II.
World Heritage Convention
All the countries in the hotspot, except Kosovo, are parties to the World Heritage Convention.
They have declared 14 natural World Heritage Sites within the borders of the hotspot, but only four of these are in countries covered by the ecosystem profile update, in Jordan, FYR Macedonia, Tunisia and Turkey. There are large numbers of cultural World Heritage sites in North Africa and the Middle East, but the WHS mechanism has not been widely used for conservation of natural sites.
International Treaty on Plant Genetic resources for Food and Agriculture (IT PGRFA)
This treaty aims to enable farmers to access plant genetic resources, and to ensure that the countries of origin of these resources benefit from their use, anywhere in the world. The treaty explicitly recognizes and supports the importance of maintaining the diversity of local agricultural crops and varieties. Eight of the countries covered by the ecosystem profile update have ratified the convention, and another five have acceded or signed but not yet ratified.
International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC)
The IPPC aims to prevent the introduction and control the spread of pests of plants and plant products, and promotes sharing of information and collaboration between states to achieve this.
Recognizing the importance of wild species, one of the four objectives of the convention’s 2012-2019 strategy is ‘to protect the environment, forests and biodiversity from plant pests’
(i.e., invasive alien species which are plants). Fourteen of the 16 countries covered by the ecosystem profile update have ratified the convention.
7.3.2 Other relevant global conventions and programs UN Convention on Combating Desertification (UNCCD)
UNCCD is a legally binding international agreement addresses social and environmental challenges in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas (‘drylands’), with the aim of preventing desertification and mitigating the impacts of drought in support of poverty reduction and environmental sustainability. As the issues addressed by the convention are strongly linked to climate change and biodiversity, the convention collaborates with the UNFCCC, and the CBD.
All of the countries covered by the ecosystem profile update are parties to the convention except Kosovo and Palestine.
Table 7.5 Status of environmental conventions in the countries covered by the profile update
Country
UNCCD UNFCCC (Inc. Kyoto and Paris agreements) UNCLOS UNESCO MAB1
Albania X X X 12
Algeria X X X 7
Bosnia and Herzegovina X X4 X 0
Cabo Verde X X4 X 0
Egypt X X4 X 0
Jordan X X X 2
Kosovo - - - 0
Lebanon X X4 X 3
Libya X X4 - 0
Montenegro X X4 X 1
Morocco X X X 33
Palestine - X X 0
Syrian AR X X - 0
FYR Macedonia X X4 X 12
Tunisia X X4 X 2
Turkey X X4 - 0
Key: UNCCD = UN Convention on Combating Desertification; UNFCCC = UN Framework Convention on Climate Change; UNCLOS= UN Convention on the Law of the Sea; UNESCO MAB = UNESCO Man and Biosphere Program; X = contracting party/signatory; X* = acceded but not ratified the convention; - = not a contracting party/signatory; 1 = figures indicate the number of biosphere reserves declared in each country within the hotspot, including transboundary reserves. Figures in brackets indicate the number of transboundary reserves; 2 = Albania and FYR share a single transboundary biosphere reserve; 3 = Morocco shares one transboundary reserve with Spain; 4 = these countries have signed but not yet ratified the Paris agreement.
UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
The UNFCCC is the main international instrument for tackling climate change, including negotiating targets for emissions reductions. Important subsidiary agreements are the Kyoto Protocol, which establishes emissions reduction targets and guides emissions trading, and the 2016 Paris agreement, which forms a basis for current national level commitments to emissions reductions. Further information, including on the National Determined Contributions, are in Chapter 10 on climate change.
The UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)
UNCLOS has been ratified by 12 of the 16 countries covered by the ecosystem profile update, with Kosovo, Libya, Syria and Turkey not represented. The convention provides guidelines on a wide range of issues concerning national territorial rights over coastal waters, rights of passage for shipping, and the management of ocean resources. Importantly in an environmental context, the convention has sub-agreements which require that states cooperate in the management of fish stocks found in open oceans and those which straddle Open Ocean and exclusive economic zone regions, through the operation of regional fisheries organization. One of these is the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tuna (ICCAT), which is focused on conservation of tuna and related species in the Atlantic and adjacent seas,
including the Mediterranean. The 51 contracting parties include nine of the hotspot countries covered by the ecosystem profile update.
UNESCO Man and Biosphere program (MAB)
Governments of hotspot countries have declared 70 Biosphere reserves under the MAB within the hotspot, 19 of them in the countries covered by the ecosystem profile update, with the largest numbers in Algeria (seven) and Morocco (three). There are two transboundary biosphere reserves, in Albania/FYR Macedonia (Ohrid-Prespa), and Morocco-Spain (Inter- continental biosphere reserve of the Mediterranean).
The International Centre on Mediterranean Biosphere Reserves, established in 2014 in Spain (UNESCO 2016), aims to promote exchange and research cooperation across the Mediterranean.
7.3.3 Regional environmental agreements
Several regional environmental agreements and conventions provide a shared platform for cooperation on environmental issues in the region (Table 7.6).
Table 7.6 Parties to regional conventions in the Mediterranean Basin Hotspot
Country
Barcelona convention Bern convention ACCOBAMS agreement
Albania X X X
Algeria X X
Bosnia and Herzegovina X X -
Cabo Verde - -
Egypt X X
Jordan - -
Kosovo - -
Lebanon X X
Libya X X
Montenegro X X X
Morocco X X* X
Palestine - -
Syrian AR X X
FYR Macedonia - X -
Tunisia X X* X
Turkey X X -
Notes: X = contracting parties/ratified; X* = acceded to the convention, not yet ratified.
The Barcelona Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment and the Coastal Region of the Mediterranean has nine protocols addressing specific aspects of Mediterranean environmental conservation. In particular, the Specially Protected Areas (SPA) and Biodiversity Protocol (1995) encourage the creation of SPA of Mediterranean Importance (SPAMI). In 2007 a Joint Management Action of the EC with the UNEP/Mediterranean Action
Plan (UNEP/MAP) started to promote the establishment of a representative network of marine protected areas in the Mediterranean open seas, through the SPAMI system. The proposals were incorporated into the definition of EBSAs under the CBD (see above), and are part of a strategy to reach the Aichi 2020 target for marine protected areas.
In February 2012, the signatories of Barcelona convention met to validate the “Paris Declaration” aiming in particular the reinforcement of the network of MPAs with the 10%
objective in the Mediterranean by 2020 (Gabrié et al.2012).
The Bern Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats aims to conserve wild flora and fauna and their natural habitats, as well as to promote European co-operation in this field. The Convention covers European and some North African countries.
Among the countries covered by the ecosystem profile update, the Balkan states (except Kosovo), Turkey, Tunisia and Morocco are parties. Algeria and Cabo Verde have observer status at meetings. The Bern Convention launched the Emerald Network of Areas of Special Conservation Interest in states outside the EU (CoE 2016). In December 2015 there were sites nominated from: Albania (25), Bosnia and Herzegovina (29), Macedonia (35), Montenegro (32) and Morocco (11) (CoE 2015).
The Agreement on the Conservation of Cetaceans in the Black Sea Mediterranean Sea and Contiguous Atlantic Area (ACCOBAMS) is a binding agreement signed by nine of the hotspot countries covered by the ecosystem profile update, which requires contracting parties to take legislative and practical action to reduce deliberate persecution and bycatch of cetaceans.
Other regional institutions that have some impact on environmental affairs (Tabit-Aoul, 2011) include the Arab Maghreb Union (AMU), a platform for economic and political cooperation between the members, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya, in the hotspot, and Mauritania.
The union has promoted studies on underground water bodies in the Sahara, and the elaboration of a Maghreb charter on environmental protection and sustainable development.