The current thesis focused on "gender role", how much people conform to traditional traits of masculinity and femininity. Femininity was found to positively predict autistic traits in males but was independent of autistic traits in females. Furthermore, the predictive relationship between masculinity and femininity on autistic traits was observed in self-reported masculinity and femininity traits1, but not in self-rated masculinity and femininity2.
Previous studies have shown that autistic women camouflage autistic traits more than men (e.g., Schuck et al., 2019). In addition, the extreme male brain theory again failed to generalize to the role of gender in neurotypical Malaysians. The current thesis showed that masculinized brain activities can be observed for systematization and empathy in neurotypical individuals with relatively high autistic traits.
Furthermore, the findings provide some support that masculinity and femininity are associated with camouflage in non-autistic individuals with relatively high autistic traits. Certain personality traits and culture (eg, conscientiousness, individualism) were found to be associated with autistic traits and camouflaging among neurotypical Malaysians.
General Introduction
In addition to biological sex, the current thesis also focused on the role of gender and its relationship with characteristics of autism. Gender role is defined as how an individual presents their gender identity (their internal sense of their own gender) or role to the public, which can be presented through their behavior, traits, interests and physical appearance (APA, 2015). In the current thesis, the term "gender role" refers to the extent to which an individual aligns with traditionally male or female personality traits.
Gender role is categorized based on gender stereotypes and is strongly influenced by traditional societal values. Gender role may or may not reflect a person's gender identity, biological sex and sexual orientation (APA, 2015). They studied self-reported gender roles (explicit) and also examined the relationship between autistic traits and implicit gender role identification using the implicit association task in neurotypical individuals.
Regardless, ASC gender role research is relatively new and there are still many gaps to fill. The present studies aimed to discover more about gender role in autistic traits among neurotypical individuals from an Asian culture, ie.
Study 1 – The Influence of Systemizing-Empathizing and Masculinity- Femininity on Autistic Traits
The second aim was to investigate whether masculinity and femininity were differently related to autistic traits in women and men. It was hypothesized that low masculinity and high femininity indicated more autistic traits in males and vice versa in females, similar to Cooper et al.'s (2018) findings. To conclude, the relationship between masculinity, femininity and autistic traits was different for women and men.
Contrary to Baron-Cohen's extreme male brain theory, systematization was found to be unrelated to autistic traits in the current study. In addition, this predictive relationship between masculinity, femininity, and autistic traits was limited to masculinity and femininity traits (BSRI), and not to self-reported masculinity/femininity (TMF). The relationship between masculinity, femininity and autistic traits was limited to masculinity and femininity traits (BSRI).
Demasculinization was related to autistic traits in non-autistic Malaysians, consistent with the findings of Stauder et al. (2011). In addition, the relationship between masculinity, femininity, and autistic traits was limited to masculinity and femininity traits (BSRI), and not to self-reported masculinity/femininity (TMF).
Study 2 - Camouflaging and Autism: The Role of Femininity, Personality and Collectivism
Furthermore, high autistic traits were associated with more camouflage behavior in both autistic and non-autistic individuals (Hull et al., 2018), suggesting that individuals with relatively high autistic traits will mask more regardless of a clinical diagnosis. A recent meta-analysis concluded that high autistic traits were associated with high neuroticism and low openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, and agreeableness in autistic individuals (Lodi-Smith et al., 2018). Second, we explored whether gender role, personality traits, and culture were differently associated with autistic traits in females and males.
It was expected that low masculinity and high femininity would indicate more autistic traits in men and vice versa in women5. High neuroticism and low openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, and agreeableness were hypothesized to indicate more autistic traits regardless of gender (Lodi-Smith et al., 2018). Low individualism and high collectivism are expected to indicate more autistic traits for both genders (Freeth et al., 2013).
For the first purpose of studying sex, gender role (masculinity, femininity), personality traits (openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, emotional stability), culture (individualism, collectivism) and autistic traits were the IVs, camouflage behavior was the DV . The first aim was to study how sex, gender role, personality traits, culture and autistic traits influence camouflage. In the present neurotypical Malaysian sample, high femininity traits (GEPAQ), high self-reported masculinity (TMF), low conscientiousness, and high autistic traits predicted more camouflage.
In the current study, high autistic traits predicted more camouflaging, consistent with previous studies (Hull et al., 2018). A second aim of the current study was to determine whether gender role, personality traits, and culture are differentially associated with autistic traits in females and males. Hypotheses that low masculinity and high femininity would mean more autistic traits in men; and.
The current study suggests that masculinity and femininity are independent of autistic traits for non-autistic Malaysians. Thus, it was concluded that individuals with relatively high autistic traits would be similar, i.e., in personality traits, only low extraversion predicted high autistic traits in the current sample, partially consistent with previous findings (Austin, 2005; Robinson et al., 2020, Wakabayashi et al., 2006b).
For culture, only high individualism predicted high autistic traits in males, contrary to expectations. Malaysia, the current study shed light on how each factor predicted camouflage and autistic traits.
General Discussion Research Overview and Implications
However, the predictive relationship of masculinity and femininity in camouflage was only observed for one scale of each of the two gender role tests, i.e. the main focus of the current thesis lies on Baron-Cohen's extreme male brain theory of autism, where masculinization among autistic individuals was suggested. The direction of the relationship between masculinity, femininity, and autistic traits may be different in other non-Western cultures, as Westerners and Asians seem to view masculinity and femininity traits differently.
In both the BSRI and GEPAQ that measured characteristics of masculinity and femininity, the validity and reliability of the measures were questionable (see Chapter 2's main factor analysis of BSRI and Chapter 3's reliability test of GEPAQ). In terms of the relationship between biological sex, systemization, empathy and autistic traits, study 1 found partial support for Baron-Cohen's extreme male brain theory; The current thesis focused on finding how masculinity and femininity were related to autistic traits and camouflage in neurotypical Asians, i.e.
The present thesis was one of the first to examine their relationship outside Western cultures, i.e. In Study 2, the reliability of the GEPAQ, which also measured masculinity and femininity, like the BSRI, was found questionable, although the TMF and GEPAQ did show some simultaneous validity. The findings of the current thesis may be influenced by the validity and reliability of the measurements.
Samples from different age groups, ethnic groups, and educational and socioeconomic levels should also be included for better generalizability of the present findings. The validity of the BSRI and GEPAQ and the reliability of the GEPAQ were found to be questionable in our Malaysian samples. However, the validity and reliability of the other measures were not checked as this was not the main purpose of the current thesis.
More studies are needed to establish the generalizability of current ASC theories across cultures. Personality correlates with the broader autism phenotype as assessed by the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ). Experiences of late-diagnosed women with autism spectrum conditions: An investigation of the female autism phenotype.
The construction and validation of a shortened version of the autism spectrum quotient (AQ-Short). Japanese children: Psychometric properties of the child versions of the Empathy Quotient (EQ) and Systemizing Quotient (SQ).
