487
22.0 0 .0 0 Sociological sciences
22.0 0 .0 0 Социологическиенауки
UDC 316
Th e P o te n tial o f W o m e n ’s Orga n iza tio n fo r Ru ra l D e ve lo p m e n t in S ie rra Le o n e
1 Theresa Tenneh Dick 2 J ianzhong Gao
1 Northwest A & F University, China College of Econom ics and Managem ent
3 Taicheng Road Yangling, Shaanxi 71210 0 PRC MSc. (Rural and Regional Developm ent), Student E-m ail:
2 Northwest A & F University, China College of Econom ics and Managem ent
3 Taicheng Road Yangling, Shaanxi 71210 0 PRC Dr. (Agriculture and Forestry Economics), Professor E-m ail:
Abs tra c t. Organizations are am ong the preferred outlets wom en use both to voice societal prejudices against them and to showcase their potential for rural/ com munity developm ent. There is an increasing advocacy for gender equality, wom en’s em powerm ent and the integration of wom en folks into the socio-econom ic, political and cultural fabrics of society. Girl-child education and wom en-based capacity building programs such as m icro-finance, entrepreneurship, political activism , etc. have surfaced prom inently on these wom en’s em powerm ent efforts. In this study, a questionnaire-driven survey is conducted in two districts in southern Sierra Leone. The survey covers 36 influential wom en in 36 town-level com m unities in the country. The study analyzes the personal and organization characteristics of the wom en in relation to social perceptions and rural/ com m unity developm ent. A large percent of the wom en surveyed are educated, m arried and belong to social organizations. In addition to other social/ developm ent organizations, wom en’s organizations are also present in each of the surveyed com m unities. Most of the wom en organizations are local in nature and operate entirely on funds raised from within the local com munities. This display of organizational ability of the surveyed rural wom en shows a significant perceptional shift towards recognizing wom en folks as productive counterparts in our societies. This trend also psychologically strengthens the wom en com m unity to take on tangible responsibilities that were ones m eant for m en only. The analysis also shows that rural wom en hold m anagerial and other adm inistrative positions in the organizations which are strongly oriented towards various form s of rural/ com m unity developm ent. This is a significant positive deviation from the traditional perception which has unduly confined the wom en folks to the backyard for centuries now. This trend not only has the potential of benefiting the m illions more wom en languishing in the developing world, but will also help affected countries to realize full national potentials of their God-given hum an resources.
Ke yw o rd s : Sierra Leone, rural developm ent, social perception, gender equality, wom en’s organization.
In tro d u ctio n
488
and the Arab world) where the education of a girl-child or a wom an is lim ited and som etim es even prohibited.
Significant portions of the populations of developing countries reside in rural comm unities where over seventy percent are wom en [Cartledge, 1995]. There is am ple evidence that developm ent policies in these countries overlook wom en’s issues, especially those related to the participation and empowerm ent of rural wom en [HP, 20 0 0 ]. Such gender prejudices have led to the discrim ination and suppression of rural wom en from participating in national developm ent processes [Meer, 1998 ]. Developm ent is a process of up-scale social transform ation from a low (despised) to high (respected) social class [Olopoenia, 198 3; Pradip, 198 4]. It is a process that awakens people to the opportunities provided within the services and functions of the society [Seer, 1981; Gwanya, 1989].
Developm ent opportunities begin with education and grow with training and which process in turn sets the basis for productive engagement (e.g., entrepreneurship) in nation building [Sathiabam a, 20 10 ]. According to [Kuratka & Richard 20 0 1], entrepreneurship is the dynam ic process of creating accum ulated wealth. Sm all-scale entrepreneurship utilizes the productive resources of society to create m eaningful em ploym ent and thereby im proving the livelihoods of especially the rural poor m en [Sigh, 20 0 9]. In essence, this is the desired benefit of education and gender equality in m odern society.
In addition to arduous loads of housework, wom en are engaged in other fields and on average work of 4– 6 hours more per day than m en [Buvinic et al., 1978 ; Sneyder & Tadesse, 1995; IFAD, 20 11]. Demographic attributes such as migration, divorces, wars, deaths, etc., favour not only fem ale population growth, but also the number of wom en’s headed households. Hence wom en are increasingly taking the responsibility of m anaging fam ilies such as raising, feeding and educating the children [FAO, 1998 ; HP, 20 0 0 ]. Irrespectively, wom en still rem ain am ongst the poorest, least educated and m ost underrepresented sector of the population in the developing world [WDR, 20 0 4]. Because wom en are bypassed in developm ent processes, per-capita incom e in Africa has generally rem ained low. The consequences of this include overall negative growth, unem ploym ent and im poverishm ent of over 40 % of the population, etc. [UNDP, 1997]. In fact pervasive gender biases have lim ited women’s contribution to Africa’s GDP (Gross Dom estic Product) to less than 20 % [UN, 1996].
? [UNDP, 1998 ] reported a near one-to-one m ale-fem ale ratio in China, the m ost populated country in the world with som e 1.4 billion people. This population is gradually skewing towards m ales due to pre-screened births [Croll, 1996]. In fact, pre-screened birth is worse in India (the second highest populated country) and the Arab world (a highest population density region) where socio-cultural practices favour the boy-child. Of the 1.3 billion people who live in absolute poverty around the globe, 70 % are wom en. For these wom en, poverty is not only about scarcity/ want but also the rights denied, opportunities curtailed and voices silenced [CARE, 20 0 5]. Biases of this m agnitude against the fem ale folks deter developm ent efforts in affected countries [UNDP, 1998]. Wom en’s em powerm ent is a developm ent sine-quo-non of m odern society [Sathiabam a, 20 10 ]. The need for higher incom e forces especially wom en who are household heads to participate in incom e generating activities and developm ent organizations [FAO, 1995]. Wom en’s organisations could be vital for capacity building, hum an resources developm ent, socio-econom ic employm ent and m ore importantly for rural/ com m unity developm ent [Sathiabam a, 20 10 ]. Despite this trem endous hum an potential, wom en are bonded by unproductive and discrim inatory traditions, cultures and beliefs especially in the developing world.
489
The research task of this study was to determine the role of wom en’s organizations in rural/ com m unity developm ent in the developing world. The study analyzed other relevant factors (e.g., personal characteristics and social perceptions) regarding wom en’s participation in rural organizations. It also suggested strategies for transforming comm unities into more wom en pro-active and developm ent oriented societies. Thus this study will add to the significant positive achievem ents in terms of em powering the m illions of wom en not only in Sierra Leone, but also the m illions more in the developing world.
2 . Me th o d
2 .1. S t u d y Ar e a
This study was conducted in the Southern Province of Sierra Leone, specifically in the rural com munities of Bo and Moyam ba Districts. Sierra Leone lies between latitudes 6.91‒10 .0 8 º N and longitudes 10 .21‒13.32 º W on the west coast of Africa, bordering the Atlantic Ocean on the north. It has an area of 71 740 km2, and from a total of 1360 km border extent, 40 2 km is coastline, 652 km is land border with Guinea and another 30 6 km is land border with Liberia [CIA, 20 11].
Sierra Leone has a population of som e 6 m illion people with an annual growth rate of 2.2% [UN, 20 11]. Som e 52% of the population is fem ale, less than 8 % is literate with university education, 41% is under 15 years old and 62% resides in rural comm unities and the urbanization rate is 3%. Despite its abundant natural wealth, over 70 % of the population of Sierra Leone lives in poverty and with per-capita annual incom e of less than US$ 366. Sierra Leone has among the least hum an developm ent index (0 .336) in the world, with only 4.3% of its US$ 2.2 billion GDP invested in education [CIA, 20 11; UNDP, 20 12].
The econom y of Sierra Leone is heavily driven by agriculture, accounting for 45% of its GDP and providing direct em ploym ent to over 70 % of the working population. The m ain cultivated crops include cocoa, coffee, oil palm , rice, m illet, cassava, yam and potato. Among the natural resources are diam ond, gold, bauxite, rutile, zircon, iron ore and petroleum . Several governm ental and non-governm ental organizations operate especially in the rural comm unities of the country in the areas of agriculture, wom en’s empowerm ent and com munity developm ent [UNDP, 20 12].
2 .2 . D a t a Co lle ct i o n & A n a ly s is
A questionnaire-based survey, aided with personal observation and inform al interaction, was the prim ary mode of data collection in this study. The questionnaire was adm inistered to a total of 36 wom en respondents, 50 % each in Bo and Moyam ba Districts. Only one influential wom an was interviewed per town-level com m unity (comm unity with at least 50 0 0 residents) in the two districts; implying that the survey covered a total of 36 town-level rural com m unities. As the targeted were located in every comm unity, the survey response rate was considered to be 10 0 %. According to Lindner et al. [20 0 1)], non-response error in the external validity of a study is insignificant when the response rate reaches 8 5%.
The questionnaire solicited pertinent inform ation relating to the interaction effects of personal, organizational and perceptional characteristics of wom en on rural/ comm unity developm ent. In other words, this study analyzed the socio-cultural influences of wom en and wom en’s organizations on rural/ comm unity developm ent. The data collection cam paign lasted for a period of two m onths, spanning from April through May in 20 12. The collected data were processed using simple descriptive and analytical statistics in the SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences) software environm ent.
3 . Re s u lts a n d An alys is
490
Ta ble . Sum m ary: statistics of wom en’s personal, organizational and perceptional traits in the Bo/ Moyamba Districts of Sierra Leone.
P e rs o n a l trait Orga n izatio n al tra it W o m e n ’s p e rc e p tio n
Main-variable Option
Perce nt
Main-variable Option
Perce nt
Main-variable Option
Perce nt
Age
<21 0 .0 0 Wom en's
organizatio n
Exist 8 0 .56
Wom an stays hom e
Agree 16.67
21-30 41.67
Non-exist 19.44
Strongly
agree 30 .56
31-40 44.44
Mem bersh ip
Mem be
r 55.56 Disagree 27.78
41-50 0 8 .33
Non-m eNon-m be r
44.44 Strongly
Disagree 25.0 0
>50 0 5.56
Status in organizatio n
Leader 10 .0 0
Wom an shares hom e-run cost
Agree 33.33
Marital Status
Married 55.56 Deputy 0 5.0 0 Strongly
agree 61.11
Engaged 22.22 Sec.
Gen 10 .0 0 Disagree 0 2.78
Separate
d 0 2.78 PRO 0 5.0 0
Strongly
Disagree 0 2.78
Divorced 0 2.78 Mem be
r 45.0 0
Wom an m anages incom e
Agree 30 .56
Others 16.67 Others 25.0 0 Strongly
agree 25.0 0
Religion
Muslim 44.44
External fund
Access 37.50 Disagree 25.0 0
Christian 55.56
Non-access 62.50
Strongly
Disagree 19.44
Buddhist 0 0 .0 0 Oth e r o rga n iza tio n a l trait
Wom an all-tim e subm issi ve
Agree 27.78
Hindu 0 0 .0 0 Total No. of
organization 79
Strongly
agree 33.33
others 0 0 .0 0 No. of wom en’s
organization 29 Disagree 30 .56
Occupatio n
Student 33.33 No of town-level
com munity 36
Strongly
Disagree 0 8 .33
Farm er 16.67 No. of wom en
respondent 36
Decision m aking
Husband 63.8 9
Business 19.44 Wife 13.8 9
Worker 19.44 Shared 19.44
Housewi
fe 11.11 Others 0 2.78
Others 0 0 .0 0
Econom i c activity
Supportive 76.39
Non-supportive 23.61
Own incom e control
Supportive 8 3.33
Non-supportive 16.67
Take own decision
Supportive 91.67
Non-supportive 0 8 .33
Extra-dom estic activity
Supportive 37.50
Non-supportive 62.50
491
Som e 44% of the wom en surveyed are in the age range of 31‒40 years and another 42% in the age range of 21‒30 years [Table]. As the focus is on the m ost influential wom en in town-level com munities, the age range suggests that wom en enter influential state at the age of 21 and hit popularity peak at the age of 40 . In other words, age 31‒40 is the m ost productive period of wom en in the study area. This is not entirely surprising because developm ent opportunities in third-world countries are lim ited and usually com e late in life. Even am ong the m ale folks, real-life achievem ent generally begins in the ages of thirty and becom e relatively accomplished in the forties to early fifties.
Also som e 56% of the wom en surveyed are m arried and another 22% engaged. About 17% of the wom en have either never m arried before, are widows or som ething else [Table]. The above personal traits suggest that m arriage is a critical requirem ent for building an influential status in the study area. The perception in Sierra Leone and other developing countries in general is that m arried wom en who are sufficiently secured and comm and considerable respect. In fact, this cultural factor is the key reason why especially rural wom en get into early m arriages in developing countries. The survey shows that som e 78 % of the wom en engaged, m arried, divorced or separated did so before the age of 25.
The population of Sierra Leone is about 60 % Muslim , 20‒30 % Christian and another 5‒10 % indigenous Anim ist [USDS, 20 0 7; PRC, 20 0 9]. However, som e 66% of the wom en surveyed are Christians and the other 44% are Muslims. This shows that in terms of religion, wom en som ehow defy the general trend in the country. In Sierra Leone, as in m any other developing countries, towns and cities generally lean toward Christianity while villages are more Islam ic. These trends generally reflect the type of work prevalent in these com m unities. While Christian populations favor white-collar jobs prevalent in towns/ cities, Muslim populations m ore or less favor the kind of jobs offered in the m ore rural com m unities.
About 33% of the respondents are students, 17% are farm ers, 19% are engaged in businesses and 11% are housewives [Table]. It is im portant to note that learning age in Sierra Leone (one of the least developed countries), as in the m ost developing countries, can be as high as 40 or above. Thus the high percent of the respondents engaged in som e form of learning is good for wom en’s em powerm ent. Education is an indispensable m eans to unlocking and protecting hum an rights. It ensures the right to good health, liberty, security, econom ic well-being, social and political participation, etc. and reduces the inequalities am ong m en and wom en [Sen, 1991; Hum an Rights, 1948; UN, 20 0 5]. Hence in realization of the fact that education is a fundam ental requirem ent for developm ent, the wom en could as well be m aking up for lost golden ages of childhood. There is therefore the need to strengthen this trend and continue to encourage wom en’s education to lift them from housewifery into som e other protective workforce.
3 .2 . O r g a n iz a t i o n a l Tr a i t s
There is at least a form of wom en’s organization in m ost of the com munities covered in this study. Out of a total of 79 identified organizations, 29 are purely women’s organizations. This im plies that 81% of the surveyed com m unities have wom en’s organizations [Table]. Another 56% of the wom en belong to one or m ore of these women’s organizations. Women’s organizations in the com munities show that rural wom en have the ability and are now cultivating the culture of com ing together to organize and discuss issues pertinent to rural/ com munity livelihoods. These capacity building processes possibly seek solutions to better rural life which in turn earn the wom en considerable influence in their respective com munities. Apart from m aterial and m oral benefits, organizations also provide inform al learning (one of the most resourceful hum an developm ent tools) for the m embers and comm unities in which they operate.
492
3 .3 . S o ci a l P e r ce p t i o n sPerception is an important indicator for social behavior, what people believe and pursue and are likely to accomplish in life. Wom en’s perceptions about their own place in the fam ily, in organization and in society determ ine what likely roles they will play in these social units. In this study, the respondents’ perceptions are varied and som etim es very m uch in contrast with popular debates on wom en’s em powerm ent. Whereas som e 47% of the respondents think the wom an’s place in the society is confined to the hom e, som e other 94% would like wom en to share the running costs of hom es with m en folks. Also 56% of the participants support the notion that wom en take the lead in m anaging hom e affairs and another 61% liken wom en to be all tim e subm issive to m en. Men are preferred in leading fam ily decisions (64%), only 14% wom en lead fam ily decisions and som e 19% share fam ily decisions [Table]. Wom en also engage in income generating activities (76%), control own incom e (8 3%), take independent decisions (92%) and pursue extra-dom estic activities (38 %).
Although the above perception shows a significant deviation from the typical cultural role of wom en especially in African societies, the com plete liberalization of the society regarding gender equality is to fully take root even among the wom en folks. While the m ore liberal m en folks advocate for greater or full gender equality, the wom en themselves are to be seen believing in such advocacies by taking the lead to enforce gender equality. This im plies that m ale dom inance, especially in the developing world, should be challenged and efficiently neutralized by the wom en folks.
4 . D is c u s s io n s
4 .1. P e r s o n a l Tr a i t s a n d R u r a l D e v e lo p m e n t
Personal traits such as good education and happy m arriage could contribute to rural/ com m unity developm ent. Education, the m ost critical tool for hum an resources developm ent, refines people’s perception of what is right, and therefore their obligations to the society [Om m ani, 20 11]. When combined with age, which is in m any ways an indicator for experience, education em powers especially the rural wom en to defend their rights. Education strengthens social and political participation by em boldening the wom en folks to air their voices in the corridors of decision-m aking bodies [Lahai, 20 0 6].
Over 33% of the wom en seek education with another 19% m ostly in white-collar jobs. Also som e 44% of the wom en are in the age group of 31‒40 , which, in term s of experience, is the critical range for setting out on clear visions in life. The experiences drawn form education and age could m ake people feel positive about the society. Such positive optimism encourages the establishm ent of organizations. This in turn stem s from the realization that individual efforts could not be as successful as collective efforts in term s of rural/ com m unity developm ent. This could be the reason why som e 56% of the wom en folks belong to various wom en’s organizations. The forms of these organizations along with the individual, collective and comm unity benefits are discussed in the next sections.
4 .2 . O r g a n i z a t i o n a l Tr a i t s a n d R u r a l Em p o w e r m e n t
Here, organization is the spontaneous or plane coalition of interests for a com m on purpose. In this context, organizations are am ongst the m ost favored m eans of rural/ com m unity developm ent [Pinto, 20 0 9]. The need for accomplishm ent drives the form ations of organizations. Needs such as universal rights, equal access to the resources, equal opportunities in societies, resisting m ale dominance, political inclusion, etc. have driven people into organizations [CARE, 20 0 5].
493
Based on the study, the stated objectives of the wom en’s organizations are varied and inclusive. Among others, the organizations aim to counsel disadvantaged wom en, help unem ployed wom en seek jobs, encourage wom en’s participation in politics, prepare wom en for decision -m aking, denounce wo-men’s -m arginalization, educate a girl-child and teach her self-reliance, prom ote m utual assistance and gender equality, teach wom en’s rights and responsibilities, encourage religious developm ent, advocate investm ent in a girl-child, sensitize m em bers/ com m unities about the gender and right-to-child acts, denounce violence and sexual exploitation, teach reproductive health, HIV and AIDS, promote agriculture and food security, create m icro-credit facilities, help the sick and care for the aged, and teach about peace corps-hood in fam ily and society.
With these diverse and inclusive objectives, the wom en’s organizations are uniquely redefining the courses of livelihoods in respective com munities. Through these organizations, rural wom en are helping a girl-child to understand the setbacks of early/ unplanned pregnancy, the consequences of illiteracy, the benefits of education, and the need for religious tolerance, and the responsibility to promote local cultures. These organizations are gradually building a stronger wom en’s voice in the society. This is in turn help to reshape the com m unities by ensuring more opportunities for individual and collective developm ent. Surely, rural wom en today are increasing shaking off m ale stereotypes that have for centuries dom inated our comm unities. These stereotypes have forced the wom en folks to take the backbench in com m unal decisions and developm ent efforts.
4 .3 . S o ci a l P e r ce p t i o n a n d R u r a l Em p o w e r m e n t
Perception is a surrogate for identifying and interpreting events, and thus the ability to understand circum stances and organize for beneficial outcom es. People perceptions about events and others significantly affect their approaches in society. In this study, the general perceptions of wom en only allowed for passive participation in critical developm ent efforts. For instance, wom en are not allowed to vie for paramount chiefship in som e com m unities. Som e other com m unity perceptions derogate the wom en folks to the backyards, the kitchens and m ere caretakers at hom es.
Regarding perceptional positivism and rural developm ent among the wom en folks, statistical analysis shows strong correlations among the elem ent and education (R = 0 .8 7), organizational role (R = 0 .8 3) and social status (R = 0 .8 9) in society. Wom en’s earning capacity and degree of freedom to work and participate in socio-political organizations, and the num ber of organizations in com m unities are interrelated (R ≥ 0.78) with perceived rural development. The fact that a good percent of the wom en have these attributes suggests lim itations to wom en’s em powerm ent, organizational participation and rural developm ent.
5 . Co n c lu s io n s
This study explores the organizational capacity of rural wom en and how it translates into rural developm ent in 36 town-level com m unities in rural Bo and Moyam ba Districts of Sierra Leone. The concept of rural developm ent hinges on the exploitation of land-intensive resources such as agriculture and forestry. However, the need for rural com m unities to approach developm ent from within now pushes decision-m akers to look beyond m erely dishing out incentives for agricultural production and to be all-inclusive regarding quality livelihood that is free of a priori prejudices. Prom otion of gender equity into the spheres of education, entrepreneurship, socio-physical infrastructure, social perception, etc. is critical for sustainable rural developm ent. Thus this study focuses on how the interactions of personal, organizational and perceptional attributes of wom en could foster the developm ent of rural comm unities in developing countries.
494
com munities of the developing world. If sustained, it has the tendency to firm ly put rural societies and the developing world on the superhighway to realizing their fullest potential.
Ac kn o w le d ge m e n ts
This study was funded by the Sino-Sierra Leone scholarship arrangem ent under the China Scholarship Council (CSC). I am grateful to the reviewers, the editors and the m any other people who contributed in diverse ways to the research design, data collection and analysis and write-up, and also by way of critical/ insightful suggestions in the m anuscript stage of the article.
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УДК 316
Потенциалженскихорганизацийдля развития сельской местности в Сьерра-Леоне
1ТерезаТеннехДик 2 ЖианджонгГао
1 Северо-западный университет A & F, Китай Факультет экономики и менеджмента
3 Taicheng Road Yangling, Shaanxi 71210 0 PRC
Магистрнаук (Развитие сельской местности и региональноеразвитие), студентка
E-m ail:
2 Северо-западный университет A & F, Китай Факультет экономики и менеджмента
3 Taicheng Road Yangling, Shaanxi 71210 0 PRC
Доктор (Экономикасельского и лесного хозяйства), Профессор
E-m ail:
496
сельской местности/общества. Пропаганда равенства полов, усиление влияния женщин и интеграция женских общественных групп в социально-экономические, политические и культурные слои общества возрастают. Образование девочек и программы по наращиванию потенциала для женщин, такие как микро-финансы, предпринимательство, политический активизм, т.д. сказались на усилиях этих женщин расширить свои права. Данное исследование, основанное на анкетировании, было проведено в двух районах южной Сьерра-Леоне. Исследование охватывает 36 влиятельных женщин в 36 городских сообществах в стране. В исследовании анализируются личностные и организационные характеристики женщин в отношении социальных восприятий и развития сельской местности/общества. Большой процент исследуемых женщин получили образование, замужем и являются членами социальных организаций. Вдополнение к другим социальным организациям/организациям по развитию, женские организации также присутствуют в каждом исследуемом сообществе. Большинство женских организаций являются местными по своему характеру и существуют на средства, собранные в местном сообществе. Данное проявление организационных способностей исследуемых деревенских жительниц характеризует значительный перцептивный сдвиг к признанию женских общественных групп продуктивными членами нашего общества. Это направление также психологически поощряет женские сообщества принять значительные обязательства, которые некогда предназначались только для мужчин. Анализ также показывает, что деревенские жительницы занимают управленческие и другие административные должности в организациях, целью которых является развития сельской местности/общества различными способами. Это существенное позитивное отклонение от традиционного восприятия, которое несправедливо оттеснило женские общественные группы на задворки на века. Данное направление способно не только помочь миллионам женщин, изнемогающим в развивающемся мире, но и способствовать осознанию национального потенциала ниспосланных свыше человеческих ресурсов соответствующимистранами.
