Education Reform and Equal Opportunity in Japan

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Correspondence can be directed to: [email protected]

116 Journal of International and Comparative Education, 2012, Volume 1, Issue 2

ISSN 2232-1802

OPPORTUNITY IN JAPAN

1 Akito Okada

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Tok o U i e sit of Fo eig “tudies

ABSTRACT: ‘e e tl , the e ha e ee o e s that e ualit of edu atio al oppo tu it has ee lost a d that this is leadi g to the st atifi atio of Japa ese so iet th ough the ide i g of i o e diffe e tials, i a gap so iet . I su h a dispa it so iet , se u e full -ti e jo s a e i easi gl e o i g li ited to those ho g aduate f o p es-tigious u i e sities, a d e t i to those i stitutio s is e o i g o e ted o e lea l ith fa il i o e a d i est e ts. Pa e tal attitudes to a ds thei hild e taki g e t a lesso s afte s hool, goi g to a s hools, getti g i to u i e sit , a d getti g i to a elati el highl -a ked u i e sit ha e i flue ed edu atio al osts. This a ti le e a i es the histo i al fo atio of the o ept of e ualit of oppo tu it , hi h has ee applied to the edu atio al poli i Japa , pa ti ula l f o the e d of Wo ld Wa II to the e ille iu . This pape also e pa ds o the e isti g lite atu e o edu atio al poli ies i o te po a Japa e a i i g ho the u e t edu atio al efo effo ts ha e affe ted e ualit of edu atio al oppo tu it a o g hild e f o diffe e t fa il a kg ou ds.

I t odu tio

I a so ieties toda , it is i tuall i possi le to ead a do u e ts o edu atio al ai s o goals ithout e ou te i g ph ases a d te s su h as e ualit , e ual oppo tu it , e ual a ess , e ual ights a d so fo th. The u de l i g assu ptio see s to e that e ualit i so e fo is a i telligi le a d se si le edu atio al ideal, et the e a e diffe e t ie s a out hat so t of e ualit should e pu sued. The issue of e ualit i edu atio has ee g eatl de ated, espe iall that of e ualit of oppo tu it se ed as a justifi atio fo u h of the post- a est u tu i g of edu atio al s ste s a ou d the

o ld.

I the s a d s, e ualit of edu atio al oppo tu it e a e a i po ta t

su je t i a i dust ialised Weste ou t ies. A u e of defi itio s of the o ept

e e de eloped so ial s ie tists Cole a et. al, ; Halse , ; Je ks et. al, .

Co pa ed ith E gla d a d the U ited “tates, the e as less esea h a out ha ges i the u de sta di g a d use of the o ept i Japa . Mo eo e , the p e ious esea hes dealt pa ti ula l ith the shift of the o ept du i g the A e i a O upatio pe iod,

fo usi g o the p o ess of eatio of the e Co stitutio a d the Fu da e tal La of

Edu atio FLE “uzuki, ; Duke, ; Ho io & Ya azu i, ; Ku o, ;

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Journal of International and Comparative Education, 2012, Volume 1, Issue 2

It is the efo e e essa to update the o k of p e ious s hola s o e i g e ualit of oppo tu it . To do so, this a ti le a al ses the ki ds of e ualit of edu atio al oppo tu it Japa ai s to a hie e, espe iall si e the “e o d Wo ld Wa a d ho de isio ake s a d i te est g oups appl e ualit of oppo tu it to edu atio al poli ies. This a ti le also e pa ds upo the e isti g lite atu es o edu atio issues i Japa e a i i g ho the u e t edu atio poli ies affe t e ualit of edu atio al oppo tu it a o g hild e f o diffe e t so ial a kg ou d.

A gui g o e E uality of Oppo tu ity

I o de to t a e the e olutio a shifts i i te p etatio of the o ept of e ual oppo tu it a d to e plo e the easo s fo ha ges i poli , e should o side a

histo i al app oa h. I this pe spe ti e, the studies of Passi , Ko a ashi ,

Beau ha p a d Va da a , a d Ma shall p o ide useful e pla atio s of the

ge e al histo of o te po a Japa ese s hooli g i te s of its o t i utio to ode isatio a d e o o i de elop e t. Also, i sele ti g histo i al do u e ts, it is i po ta t to fo us upo pu li state e ts, pa ti ula l those hi h use the te e ualit o e ualit of oppo tu it , a d hi h e e ade ai l the e t al ad i ist ati e Mi ist of Edu atio : MOE a d ad iso odies fo e a ple, Ce t al Cou il fo Edu atio : CCE . It is also sig ifi a t to t a e the ajo politi al pa ties i te p etatio s of e ualit of oppo tu it as efle ted i thei pu li atio s a d i pa lia e ta de ates, a d

o pa e the ith o e a othe .

To a al se the poli fo ulatio p o ess, the e a e se e al i po ta t studies. Fo

e a ple, “ hoppa p o ided detailed a al sis of the edu atio al poli - aki g

p o ess usi g the odels of the a a to s i.e. ajo politi al pa ties, u eau a ,

a d i dust ial g oups du i g the Ad-Ho Cou il s edu atio efo of the s. “ hoppa

des i ed ho the Japa ese poli - aki g p o ess i edu atio ould e o e pa al sed

he the e as disag ee e t et ee o se ati es the Li e al De o ati Pa t : LDP, i dust ial g oups a d the o se ati e u eau ats a d p og essi es the Japa Tea he s

U io : JTU a d Japa “o ialist Pa t a d a gued that this i o ilis ould e o e a

ele e t to dela the p og ess of edu atio al a gu e ts at the atio al le el. Duke ,

Thu sto , a d Aspi all a al sed the histo of the Japa Tea he U io

ithi the o te po a Japa ese politi al s ste a d i t odu ed the a ious theo eti al odels hi h a ou ted fo the oles of the JTU i the ide o te t of Japa ese u io is a d pa t politi s.

I additio , of the a ious le ses to ie e ualit of edu atio al oppo tu it i Japa , this a ti le is pa ti ula l o e ed ith the follo i g t o pa adig s: e ito a a d egalita ia is . I deed, th oughout this stud , e ill see i te pla et ee e ito a a d egalita ia is , hi h e e tuall aused a t a sfo atio i the o ept of e ualit of oppo tu it o e the pe iod Okada, . It ould also e said that the Japa ese edu atio al poli ies fo ulated to p o ote e ualit of oppo tu it efle ted the attitudes of t o disti t g oups to edu atio – the o se ati es a d the p og essi es, as

atego ised “ hoppa . The o ept s shifti g ea i g as al a s i sepa a l

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hild e a o di g to thei diffe e t a ilities ithi a di e sified s hool s ste Ho io, . O the othe ha d, the p og essi es, pa ti ula l the JTU, de a ded a o o se o da s hooli g fo all hild e ega dless of fa il a kg ou d a d hild e s diffe e t

a ilit Duke, ; Thu sto , ; Aspi all, . Thei de a d as ge e all

ha a te ised as idealisti a d i p a ti al o se ati es. Also, thei ideologi al e phasis upo the egalita ia is of edu atio al oppo tu it a d thei suggested poli ies e e fu da e tall di e ge t f o those of o se ati es du i g that pe iod.

The fi di gs of so ial s ie tifi esea h p o ided a g o i g olu e of e ide e that the e pa sio of the fo al a d legal ea i g of e ual oppo tu it i Japa ese edu atio had a li ited effe t i i gi g a out e ualit fo hild e i thei adult life i

te s of so ial o ilit a d i o e Ishida, ; Ta hi a aki, ; Yo e a a, ;

Miu a, . It as also suggested that e ualit i edu atio should e defi ed ot o l

i te s of e ual a ess, ut i te s of e ual a hie e e t a o g hild e Fujita, ;

Ku osaki et. al, . These a gu e ts a d fi di gs ha e fa -ea hi g i pli atio s fo the

effi a of edu atio al poli ies. ‘e e tl , the e ha e e e ee o e s that e ualit of edu atio al oppo tu it is lost a d that this is leadi g to the st atifi atio of Japa ese so iet th ough the ide i g of i o e diffe e tials i the gap so iet kakusa shakai. I the gap so iet se u ed full-ti e jo s a e e o i g i easi gl li ited to those ho g aduate f o p estigious u i e sities a d e t to those i stitutio s is e o i g o e ted o e lea l ith fa il i o e a d i est e ts. The CCE s edu atio efo s

si e the s, hi h e e e e uted to gi e stude ts o e f ee ti e to e plo e thei o

i te ests so-alled uto i k ōiku, i ealit , possi l led to the eatio of hild e ho ould o lo ge see the poi t of o ki g ha d i s hool, a d ho the e ded up u e plo ed o i asual o k e ause edu atio al su ess as so isi l elated to fa il a kg ou d; d oppi g out of the s ste altogethe , o e o i g dis upti e ithi it

Ge da & K oku u a, .

So ial Class Issues i the De ate o e E ual Oppo tu ity i Edu atio

A ke ele e t i the de ate o e e ualit of oppo tu it o e s the i e ualit et ee diffe e t so ial g oups i edu atio . Te s su h as lass i e ualit o so ial g oup ias a e idel used i i dust ial Weste ou t ies. I those ou t ies, the e is also a g o i g olu e of e ide e that the ua titati e e pa sio of edu atio al oppo tu it does ot i g ualitati e e ualit to hild e f o the lo e so ial g oups, a d so ial a d edu atio al efo s a e i t odu ed to ta kle this p o le .

Ho e e , i Japa the so ial a kg ou d issue does ot att a t u h atte tio i the offi ial de ates o edu atio , although so e edu atio al so iologists e ealed the e iste e of so ial ias i oth hild e s a ade i a hie e e t a d i the p opo tio of

g aduates e te i g highe edu atio . The Japa ese go e e t ai tai s a poli ased

o the e ito ati p i iple. I deed, the issue of i e ualit et ee so ial g oups fades f o the edu atio al de ate, a d i stead o e i eases a out othe issues su h as

e a i atio hell o iji e ull i g .

Thus, although so ial i e ualit i edu atio al oppo tu it e ists i Japa as ell

as i Weste ou t ies, go e e ts ha e take diffe e t oads to efo the st u tu e of

thei atio al edu atio s ste s espe iall i the pe iod et ee the s a d s.

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f o the ge e al populatio of Japa ese people i the offi ial edu atio al de ate? Ka i a att i uted this phe o e o to people s se se of egalita ia is , hi h as p o a l the ost sig ifi a t a ia le that disti guished Japa f o Weste atio s i the post- a pe iod. It as fu the a gued that Japa ese tea he s te ded to t eat all s hool hild e e uall ega dless of so ioe o o i diffe e es that ight e ist p io to s hooli g i id, . I su h a so iet , it as a ta oo to t eat the diffe e tl , a d i that se se Japa ese egalita ia is as the a tithesis of the u de l i g o pe sato edu atio i E gla d o so- alled head-sta t p og a s i the U ited “tates.

Ideologi al Shift of the Co ept of E ual Oppo tu ity i Japa ’s Edu atio al

Poli ies

P e-Wa Pe iod

E ualit of oppo tu it as o e of the ideals hi h Japa de eloped i its edu atio al poli ies du i g the last e tu . “i e the latte half of the th_{e tu , he} the Meiji go e e t as a le to t a sfo feudal Japa i to a fast-g o i g ode atio state, e ualit of oppo tu it as the u de pi i g atio ale fo o ilisi g the tale ts of the hole atio as applied to al ost all do ai s of atio al poli , i ludi g

edu atio Hu te , ; Li i o e, ; Ma shall, . The eed to at h up ith

este ou t ies i pelled the atio to o e to a ds ealisi g this ideal foste i g a atio al elite. Like ise the g o th of li e alis , ith its all fo dist i uti e justi e, helped to i g e ualit of oppo tu it to the fo ef o t as a atio al ideal. Ho e e , despite the

fa t that ele e ta / asi edu atio as al ead u i e sal , the p i iple had

a el – if e e – ee applied e o d the post-p i a edu atio le el u til the A e i a

O upatio autho ities s apped the p e- a Japa ese edu atio s ste . I fa t,

oppo tu ities i se o da edu atio a d a o e i pa t e e depe de t upo , a d ge e all o espo di g ith, the o te po a patte s of so ial st atifi atio , egio al dispa it , a d diffe e t t eat e ts of o s a d gi ls. P e- a se o da edu atio as a

o ple a d hie a hi al s ste o p isi g iddle s hools fo a ale elite, a d

o atio al, highe ele e ta a d outh s hools fo the ajo it .

Edu atio ‘efo u de A e i a O upatio

The post- a edu atio s ste as i t odu ed the A e i a O upatio

ai i g at the de o atisatio , de ilita isatio , a d de e t alisatio of Japa ese so iet

Duke, ; Ku o, ; Tsu hi o hi, . The e s ste as the A e i a odel:

the fi st i e ea s e e o pulso edu atio , o posed of si ea s of ele e ta s hool a d th ee ea s of lo e se o da s hool, afte hi h a e th ee ea s of uppe se o da s hool. All highe edu atio al i stitutio s e e i teg ated i to eithe fou ea s i u i e sities o t o ea s i ju io olleges. The e s ste as thus alled the -s -ste . Thi-s -s -ste a-s -si ple tha the p e- a s ste a d as ai ed at p o idi g g eate oppo tu ities to ad a e to se o da a d highe edu atio .

The ge e al t e d of the post- a O upatio efo s i Japa as o igi all to

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self-ealisatio , athe tha as a justifi atio fo diffe e tiatio et ee hild e . This ideal of e ual oppo tu it as i o po ated i to A ti le of the post- a Co stitutio a d A ti le III of the Fu da e tal La of Edu atio FLE . I the ge e al i u sta es of the

post- a pe iod, the ideologi al e phasis as pla ed upo e ualit athe tha

e ito a o effi ie , a d the FLE s ai s e e fu da e tall di e ge t f o those

suppo ted the state efo e the a – allo atio of atio al hild e i to diffe e t t pes of se o da s hools i te s of thei so ial fu tio fo atio al p ospe it .

F o

s to

s

The pe iod of the s ould e des i ed as esse tiall o e of o solidatio , ut

also a ti e he the i ple e tatio of the FLE ega to e halle ged. To a ds the e d

of the s, iti is of the e s ste s ega to e e ge, alo g ith p essu e to

edefi e the o ept of e ualit of oppo tu it de la ed i the FLE. O e the A e i a

O upatio i Japa e ded i , the Japa ese go e e t ega to u de take a

e isio of a ious legislati e lega ies of the O upatio a d to odif the a o di g to the do esti o se ati e ideolog of the da . This p o ess as k o as the e e se

ou se “ hoppa, . I edu atio , the o se ati e go e e t, togethe ith the

MOE a d i dust ial i te est g oups, atta ked so e aspe ts of the O upatio efo s. Behi d these iti is s, the philosophi al asis of the o ept of e ualit of oppo tu it i

the O upatio s edu atio al efo ega to e e oded a st o g e phasis o

effi ie a d e ito a . I this o te t, o se ati es i sisted that e ualit of

edu atio al oppo tu it should ea e ual ulti atio of diffe e t a ilit i o de to

foste a atio al elite “ei ei “hi o Ii kai, ; Ya azaki, . The fie est oppo e t of

these o se ati e g oups as the JTU. The JTU had e e ged as a ajo fo e defe di g the - - - s ste , ai tai i g the s ste s e phasis o e ualit of edu atio al oppo tu it as stipulated i the FLE. “t o g o st u tio f o the JTU p e e ted a ha ge

taki g pla e u til the late s he it split i to t o u io s Aspi all, . Thus, f o

the s to the e d of the ea l s, se e e disputes f e ue tl u folded et ee

o se ati es a d the JTU o e the p i iple of e ualit of edu atio al oppo tu it .

The e as o dou t that post- a Japa ade e o ous st ides i p o idi g the

atio s hild e ith e pa ded edu atio al oppo tu ities o e i g the hole a ge of p e

-s hool to highe edu atio , pa ti ula l -si e the pe iod of high-speed e o o i g o th i

the s. The idesp ead popula it of the idea of e ualit of oppo tu it esulted f o

the elief that e pa sio of edu atio ould i g a out g eate so ial e ualit a d at the sa e ti e a st o ge atio al e o o . The a po e poli a d hu a apital poli p o ided a theo eti al asis fo this e pa sio Keizai “hi gikai, .

Ne e theless, e ualit of oppo tu it as o ei ed i a spe ifi all Japa ese

a at the egi i g of the s. Du i g the lo g e o o i oo , Japa e pe ie ed

apid ha ges i its e o o a d e a e a leadi g i dust ial so iet . It as o f o ted ith the task of adjusti g the atio s i dust ial st u tu e to e phasise i dust ies o the

utti g edge of s ie tifi a d te h ologi al ha ge. I additio , the Japa ese go e e t

as o e agai fo ed to look i to its edu atio al s ste . E e though it as su essful i te s of past pe fo a e, it had ee desig ed to e phasise e a i atio s a d to eate

a la ge u e of ualit o ke s fo the at h-up phase of Japa s de elop e t. With the

Japa ese e o o e o i g i easi gl depe de t o i te atio al usi ess,

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fast- ha gi g s ie e, a d te h ologi al i dust ies, the go e e t as fa ed ith

de a ds f o a ua te s, espe iall i dust ial i les, alli g o it to efo its edu atio al s ste i o de to i g it i to li e ith the g o i g eed fo o e di e sel tale ted a d eati e o ke s. Agai st this a kg ou d, the o ept of e ualit of edu atio al oppo tu it e a e i te p eted as the sa e possi ilit of a ess fo ea h pupil

to di e sified s hools, u i ulu , tea hi g ethods, a d t eat e t o espo di g to

a ilit .

F o

s O a d

A o di gl , the esta lished - - - s ste ega to e see as faili g i foste i g tale t at a atio al le el, a d also faili g to p o ide a ious edu atio al oppo tu ities, hi h suited ea h i di idual s a ilities a d aptitudes. T i e i the t e t

-ea pe iod et ee a d , the Japa ese go e e t e a ked o ajo

edu atio al efo s. The fi st as the CCE o p ehe si e efo p og a e i ,

hi h sought to i t odu e a g eate deg ee of di e sit i to the edu atio al s ste apa le of p odu i g the t pe of o ke s e ui ed fo the e t stage i Japa s e o o i ad a e

CCE, . The se o d, the Ad-Ho Cou il o Edu atio AHEC set up i , si ila l

t ied to a hie e o e fle i ilit i t odu i g a ket o petitio i to the edu atio al s ste i o de to esto e the high sta da ds of attai e t that e isted i the p e- a iddle s hools, effe ti el sele t atio al elites, a d t iu ph i i te atio al i dust ial

o petitio Good a , ; “ hoppa, ; Hood, ; Oka o & Tsu hi a, . The

AHEC also ad o ated the adoptio of the otio of f eedo of hoi e , hi h ea t o e hoi e fo pa e ts, a d o e e phasis o a hild s i di idualit to a hie e these goals

AHEC, . The CCE s efo p oposal of the late s to di e sif the - - - s ste

ould e see as esse tiall o ti uous ith the ai s of oth p e ious i itiati es of the

go e e t f o the s.

The li e alisatio p o ess fi st ad o ated the AHEC de eloped g aduall the

CCE epo ts du i g the s i t o ai phases: fi st i di idualisatio a d se o dl

di e sifi atio CCE, . This p o ess as ased o a ket ules a d the assu ptio

that ette ualit ould e a hie ed th ough f eedo of hoi e, auto o , a d e t ep e eu ship, a d that state s hools should ot e pe t to el a lo ge solel o go e e t i itiati es, ut also o thei self-o e ti g a d self-espo si ilit . I eased

f eedo i the u i ulu , the -da s hool eek, - ea state se o da s hools , g ade

-skippi g, a d ela atio of the s hool at h e t a ea e e justified u de the sloga kosei jūshi i di idualit . Fo t a i g the shift i the ajo o epts of e ualit i edu atio , the o ept of i di idualit ould o tai sig ifi a t ele e ts, o the o e ha d, the epudiatio of the popula logi e ual oppo tu ities of e ei i g edu atio a o di g to hild e s a ilit , o the othe , the ei te p etatio of the ea i g of e ual oppo tu it , p oposi g a e o ept, oppo tu ities fo i di idualisatio of ea h hild, a el usi g

the te of e ualit of f ee hoi e Okada, .

The CCE s se ies of epo ts i the s ould o lude a e a of al ost fou

de ades of atte pts Co se ati es to eate a elite t a k i the p ese t - - - s ste

i t odu i g the - ea state se o da s hool s ste as a step to a ds a e o de

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uestio of hethe eal e ual oppo tu it i edu atio ould e a hie ed. I fa t, the - ea state se o da s hool ould e u likel to i g a out the e te ded f eedo of hoi e, hi h the CCE desi ed to a hie e, a d ould e el fu the p o ote so ial i e ualities i edu atio al oppo tu ities hi h e e al ead e t e hed i the e isti g

edu atio s ste Okada, .

Thus, the gloss o e ualit i sisted o su essi e go e e ts of the post

-a pe iod – Nō okushugi di e sifi atio ased o hild e s diffe e t a ilities – as eapp aised as the ost i po ta t a dsti k i e aluati g e ualit i edu atio fo the o i g e e tu . I othe o ds, the di e sifi atio of the s ste togethe ith the otio of f eedo of hoi e as de a ded a d justified i the a e of e ualit of edu atio al oppo tu it . This ep ese ted the e isti g t e d i offi ial edu atio al state e ts.

Cu e t Disputes o Edu atio al I e ualities

“i e the id- s i Japa , the e has ee e te si e o e age i oth the ass edia a d a ade i ooks a d a ti les des i i g ho lo i th ate esults i pa e ts e essi e illi g ess to i est i thei hild e s edu atio , pa i g the a fo e t a i st u tio at a s hools outside fo al s hooli g. “o e o se e s ha e go e so fa as to p o lai that this de og aphi shift ould ea the e d of Japa s e a i atio hell o shike jigoku. The so-alled C isis as so a ed e ause it as thought that ea ould e the fi st he the e ould o lo ge e a o petitio to get i to u i e sit si e the pla es a aila le at highe edu atio i stitutio s ould e ual the

u e of pote tial appli a ts. Ho e e , this did ot ea , as so e ha e i ti ated, that

the o petitio to get i to highe edu atio ould disappea .

U e ual Co petitio f o the “ta t

I stead so e edu atio alists a d so iologists ha e suggested that e a i atio hell ould o ti ue i a alte ed fo a d ould e oupled ith u e ual o petitio

f o the sta t of hild e s li es Ka i a, ; Okada, . Most t ou li g to a iti s

e e the e e gi g fi ed i e ualities i edu atio al oppo tu ities a o g the diffe e t

so ial st ata th ough all stages of s hooli g Ka i a, . Fa ous p i ate iddle s hools,

offe i g gua a teed a ess to a p estigious p i ate high s hool a d a high p o a ilit of

getti g i to a top u i e sit , had ee att a ti g i easi g u e s of stude ts. “tude ts

ho ega this p o ess ea l o e ed thei p epa atio s i ele e ta s hool. I deed,

i he pa e ts had al a s ee a le to supple e t thei hild e s edu atio ith ostl e t a tuitio a d, to a e te t, the edu atio s ste the efo e ep odu ed the lass p ofile of Japa ese people.

A edito ial i the Asahi “hi u o Ma u de the headli e

Edu atio al Oppo tu it Depe ds o Pa e ts I o e epo ted this te de i the

follo i g te s: illio [Japa ese] e a out , U“ Dolla s pe hild as

eeded to se d the to a p i ate ki de ga te , iddle s hool, high s hool, a d u i e sit a d o luded that [i]t is e t e el diffi ult fo a a e age fa il to se d t o hild e to p i ate iddle s hools. The Asahi a ti le additio all uotes the iti al o e ts of Mi izuka Hi oaki, a p ofesso at O ha o izu U i e sit , o e i g u e ual o petitio

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f o the sta t, as he e p essed app ehe sio a out ge e ati g i e ualities of edu atio al oppo tu ities a o di g to ea i g diffe e tials of fa ilies:

No ada s, the diffe e e et ee ea h fa il s e o o i situatio a d ultu e is g eatl i flue i g hild e s a ade i a ilit . It is a u fai o petitio f o the sta t. Data f o a su e of ele e ta s hool hild e aged ea s i a su u a it of Tok o ith a populatio of

, sho ed that pe e t go to a s hools. pe e t of the

hild e ho atte d a s hools s o ed o e poi ts s ale of o a

sta da d athe ati al e a . O the othe ha d, i the ase of hild e ho do ot go to a s hool, o l pe e t s o ed o e poi ts o the sa e e a . The diffe e e of a ade i a ilit et ee hild e ho go to a s hool a d those ho do ot has ee e pa di g e e i the p o i es, fo e a ple i the ities ith the seat of the p efe tu al go e e t he e p i ate ju io high a d high s hools a d p estigious a s hools a e ofte

fou d. Asahi “hi u , Ma , p.

Ma so ial s ie tists poi t out that u de the LDP, edu atio poli ies fo the u de p i ileged e e ei g ou te a ted poli ies to p o ide o e edu atio al hoi e

Fujita, ; Ca e, ; Okada, . This state e t efe ed to the LDP go e e t s

poli ies hi h e e ai ed at p ote ti g the edu atio al i te ests of the least edu atio all ad a taged a d the ost ul e a le to failu e, o the o e ha d. O the othe ha d, the e e e poli ies fo those al ead ell pla ed i the a ket, ai ed at oade i g thei edu atio al optio s.

Fo i sta e, edu atio al so iologists de ou ed the edu atio al efo a ied

out the MOE, i ludi g the e ised Cou se of “tud du i g the s, o the asis of

data a out the u e of hou s hild e e e stud i g outside of s hool Ka i a, ;

Mi izuka, . A o di g to a ade i esea h data, the MOE s ela atio of edu atio al

sta da ds, the i t odu tio of so- alled uto i k ōiku, had di i ished hild e s i te est i lea i g. I deed, esea h fou d that the e fee le e t of the alue of stud i g as espe iall p o ou ed i the lo e so ial st ata. The diffusio of the idea that o petitio

ased o e a i atio shike jigoku as a i e that had ade it ha de fo those i the

lo e st ata to ai tai a i te est i lea i g. U de the LDP go e e t s edu atio al

poli ies, the ide i g gap et ee the uppe a d lo e st ata i te s of hild e s

eage ess to lea a d ad a e a ade i all ould ause Japa to tu i to a full -fledged

lass so iet .

Edu atio al Poli ies of the De o ati Pa ty of Japa

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legislatu e , ith the t a sfo atio of a u eau at-do i ated go e e t i to o e led

politi ia s as its o e, as also ote o th .

At the top of the DPJ ad i ist atio s poli p io ities as the p oposed hild

e efit. The DPJ s a paig a ifesto of the August ge e al ele tio i luded a hild

e efit that ould p o ide a o thl allo a e of , e fo e e hild of iddle

s hool age ea s of age o ou ge i the atio . “u h a allo a e e ui ed . t illio e to e udgeted a uall . I the i itial ea of the DPJ s pledged p og a , i

hi h the allo a es ould e o l , e pe hild, the ost ould ea h . t illio

e ith o i o e eili g o households to e ei e the e efits. This outla of fu ds as i additio to the e isti g hild e efit s ste , he e the atio al go e e t, p efe tu al

go e e ts, a d u i ipal go e e ts fu ded a thi d of the , e o , e

o thl allo a es pe hild of p i a s hool age o ou ge . Fo a o e detailed

e pla atio ega di g the edu atio al udget i Japa , see Yoto i a a .

With o household i o e li it fo the su sid , the DPJ s e isio ed pla

p o ided fa ilies ith a a ual su sid of , e , hi h as e ual to the sta da d

ost of a hild s a ual tuitio at a pu li high s hool. This su ould dou le fo lo e i o e fa ilies ith a ual i o e ot e eedi g illio e . The DPJ s hild allo a e fu the g a ted at hi g a ou ts to fa ilies hose hild e e e i atte da e at o e

e pe si e p i ate high s hools. The DPJ e isio ed this hild su sid p og a e o e i g

. illio stude ts at a ost of . illio e fo the fis al ea of , ea i g the

go e e t ould e suppl i g the esse tial su sid fu di g e ui ed high s hool

ope ato s su h as the p efe tu al oa ds of edu atio .

A othe i itiati e o the DPJ s age da as a ta edu tio fo fa ilies ith depe de t high s hool stude ts— hild e to ea s old. The DPJ p oposed to e plo the sa i gs esulti g f o these uts i fi a i g the f ee high s hool edu atio pla . This

ta e efit edu ed the ta a le i o e of eligi le households , e pe hild,

utti g the total ta u de o households ith high s hool stude ts o e tha illio e . The e efit as g eate fo highe-i o e fa ilies su je t to highe ta ates. The i itiati e s pi otal i o atio ested i adi all edu i g the ta dedu tio hile e ui ale tl e do i g tuitio su sidies a d the e effi ie tl o t i uti g supe io

fi a ial suppo t to lo e-i o e fa ilies. Though the e o o i u de o o e

p ospe ous fa ilies ould i ease so e hat, the DPJ elie ed this e i o atio se ed

to suppl e ual edu atio p ospe ts to hild e ega dless of thei pa e ts i o e.

Yet the e e e high s hool edu atio e pe ses othe tha tuitio that e ui ed add essi g. These i luded e t a e fees, osts fo tea hi g ate ials, a d e pe ses fo s hool e u sio s, e o d those the su sid o e ed. Fo su h additio al e pe ses a

lo e i o e fa ilies still eeded fi a ial aid. To add ess these o eta eeds of lo

-i o e fa -il-ies st uggl-i g to eet the osts of edu at-i g the-i h-ild e , p efe tu al

go e e ts offe ed high s hool tuitio edu tio s o e e ptio s. Whe e e possi le, the

Mi ist of Edu atio , Cultu e, “po t, “ ie e a d Te h olog MEXT a d lo al

go e e ts eeded to oope ate to figu e out effe ti e ethods of e plo i g the sa i gs

f o the e DPJ hild su sid to aug e t fi a ial suppo t fo these o e disad a taged households.

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Diffi ulties to I ple e tatio

Ho e e , iti s poi ted out that it ould e diffi ult fo the DPJ ad i ist atio to i ple e t its ele tio p o ise o e i g edu atio i the o i g fis al ea . Gi e the

se ious fi a ial s ueeze, a ut i the dedu tio as e essa il o side ed Okada, ;

Ou hi, . Fo this easo , the Go e e t ‘e italisatio U it as esta lished as a e

o ga isatio to o k o eli i ati g f o JFY Japa ese Fis al Yea : Ap il –

Ma h asteful o u e essa udget e uests, to total o e tha t illio e

a out illio U“ Dolla s .

Mo eo e , edia o e age of the DPJ s ha dli g of the edu atio issue ought to light p o le ati issues. Fi st, though the DPJ p oposed o eta assista e th ough its hild su sid p og a e that allo ed fo f ee pu li high s hool tuitio , the edia s uestio i g e posed the la k of a pla o e e a outli e fo attai i g its goal of e pa di g

pu li assista e fo hild e s elfa e. Though the ad i ist atio had o itted to

es alati g easu es to assist pa e ts i hild-ea i g, the did ot et ha e a o ki g odel to atte pt hild a e assista e, hi h should ha e ee the e t al fo us of its

hild poli . As a o se ue e, the e e e di ided ie s ithi the go e e t o e

hethe e t al o lo al go e e t had p i a espo si ilit fo ad i iste i g hild a e

se i es.

“e o d, although the DPJ stated its o je ti e of a ge e al shift to a e o o fo the people a d a ajo poli ha ge ith its fou datio s i the hild su sid , it had thus fa ee u su essful i e e p odu i g the oo di ato post i ha ge of esol i g

o fli ti g hild poli ie s. With the DPJ go e e t edi ilit at issue, o e a i et

e a ass e ts a d i oglios e e lia le to e sue he hild allo a e deli e atio s

o e ed, u less this situatio as e tified i ad a e of the Diet sessio .

Yet, a ajo poli shift as likel to i du e di e ge t a gu e ts. La ki g a effe tual st u tu e ith hi h to i ple e t e poli , o su essfull effi ie t p o edu es ould e fashio ed. U aided, the e ha ed de elop e t of hild su sidies ould p o e i effe tual agai st the i easi gl se e e sho tage of da a e e t es. Mo eo e , the itigatio of issues su h as hild a use a d pa e tal dep essio f o hild

-ea i g diffi ulties e ai ed i possi le, agai st hi h solel i p o i g hild allo a es as i effe tual.

O De e e , the DPJ app o ed a poli pa kage, hi h the depi ted as

offe i g e e ge e o o i p o edu es to i ease the Japa ese people s se se of

e o o i g o th a d pe so al se u it . I ludi g easu es to aug e t hild a e se i es,

this pa kage i teg ated the fo atio of a go e e t pa el to stud p o edu es to assist

the e t ge e atio of itize s. Ho e e , ith the fo atio of su h a go e e t pa el,

the ad i ist atio had to o side the u ge t e essit of gua a teei g that the pa el ould effe ti el p o eed to de elop a ge e al app oa h that i luded detailed ethods to so ialise hild a e tasks as ell as e ge de s ope fo e pa sio of ethods fo pote tial futu e e ui e e ts.

Re e t Sig s of a G o i g Se se of U fai ess i Japa

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deg eeo a do i ated the la k of atte tio gi e to the issue of so ial lass i the

de ate o e ualit of edu atio al oppo tu it i Japa Ka i a, ; Okada, .

Despite this popula i age of deg eeo a , oss- atio al o pa iso s so iologists

sho o e ide e that edu atio al oppo tu ities e e o e ope i Japa tha i E gla d a d the U ited “tates.

Ce tai l , afte Wo ld Wa II, Japa e pe ie ed a e pa sio of its edu atio s ste s. Ho e e , e pa sio of the s ste did ot eake the effe t of so ial o igi o

edu atio al attai e t. The esults of a ious studies suggested that edu atio al

oppo tu ities e e li ited the a ious esou es ith hi h a i di idual g e up;

edu atio al attai e t as la gel dete i ed the a ou t of the fa il s e o o i

a d ultu al apital, ot o l i the othe i dust ialised ou t ies, ut also i Japa .

I e e t ea s, elia le atio ide su e s ha e i di ated that a sig ifi a t p opo tio of Japa ese people ega d i e ualit as the att i ute that est ha a te ized

o te po a Japa ese so iet efe to ““M, fo details .

Japa ese people ha e e o e a a e that oppo tu ities fo edu atio al ad a e e t a e ot ope to all i di iduals a d that a ious so ial a kg ou d

ha a te isti s i flue e the attai e t of edu atio . Co side atio tu ed to the

i e ualit of edu atio al oppo tu it at a i di idual le el. People e e ot e ti el satisfied ith thei edu atio s ste , he e deg eeo a as i posed as a p io it upo the a d the i te se o petitio as the o se ue e of agai gi i g ad a tages to those ho e e p i ileged to sta t ith the .

I fa t, so ial s ie tists ha e dis o e ed sig s of g o i g edu atio al i e ualit

i e e t ea s. “o e esea h fi di gs sho a i easi gl la ge p opo tio of e t a ts to

Japa s ost p estigious u i e sities o i g f o p i ate s hool a kg ou ds. I pa ti ula ,

the e phasise the g o i g u e of p i ileged stude ts ho ha e atte ded p i ate

-ea se o da s hool as opposed to th ee -ea s of lo e se o da s hool follo ed th ee ea s of uppe se o da s hool. These p i ate s hools, si ila to the Pu li “ hools i E gla d, hi h ha ged o side a le fees a d ate ed to the uppe - iddle lass, ot o l offe ed a heighte ed possi ilit of edu atio al su ess, ut also passed o hat Bou dieu alls the ultu al apital of the elite to thei stude ts Bou dieu a d Passe o , . Pa e ts ho ould affo d to se d thei hild e to o e e pe si e i stitutio s

g eatl i p o ed those hild e s edu atio al ha es. This te de si e the s has

ee i easi g i a age he the i th ate is i de li e.

Co lusio s

This a ti le has e a i ed the histo i al fo atio of the o ept of e ualit of oppo tu it , hi h has ee applied to the edu atio al poli i Japa , pa ti ula l f o the e d of Wo ld Wa II to the e ille iu . E a i i g the ase of Japa has gi e us the oppo tu it to a i e at a fulle u de sta di g of pe ulia ities i the p o ess of the t a sfo atio of the o ept. I deed, th oughout this stud e ha e see i te pla et ee egalita ia is a d e ito a hi h e e tuall aused a t a sfo atio i the o ept of e ualit of oppo tu it o e the pe iod. The futu e e ai s u e tai , ut the fi di gs of this stud suggest that this diale ti al st ess et ee egalita ia is a d

e ito a ill o ti ue to plague poli - ake s i Japa .

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This pape also e pa ded e isti g lite atu e o edu atio al poli ies i

o te po a Japa e a i i g ho the u e t edu atio al efo effo ts ha e

affe ted e ualit of edu atio al oppo tu it a o g hild e f o diffe e t fa il a kg ou ds. Japa had ea hed a iti al poi t, fa i g i eases i oth i e ualit of out o e a d i e ualit of oppo tu it due to po e t . It has o e o e e essa to halt the o se i g t e d a d e ise the app oa h to the issue. It as u ge t fo the u e t

go e e t to e su e that the pla ededu atio al poli ies a e effe ti e, ot o l i thei

o e all app oa h, ut also i the spe ifi easu es take to edu e edu atio al i e ualities a d so ialise hild a e.

O e all, the esults of this stud suggest that Japa ese people eed to e o side , a d e plo e o e deepl the a ious possi le ea i gs of te s su h as e ualit of oppo tu it , e ualit , a ilit , so ial lass, a d e ito a a d see ho these ha e ee t eated a d de ated o e i diffe e t pe iods i othe i dust ialised ou t ies. The issue of so ial lass i e ualities has disappea ed f o the offi ial edu atio al de ate i

Japa si e the id- s. It has ot et eappea ed a d/o ee e o side ed u de

e e t o ditio s. It ight e said that Japa ese people a gai a i sights that ould help to sol e o te po a lass issues f o ases i othe i dust ialised atio s.

Notes

This pape is de eloped to uildi g o the ook: Akito OKADA , Edu atio a d E ual Oppo tu it i Japa , Be ghah Books, Ne Yo k.

The -ea se o da s hool est. AY is a e t pe of s hool, a o i atio of t aditio al

ea ju io high s hool a d ea se io high s hool edu atio . The e a e a ious t pes of s hool, state a d p i ate. The u e is g o i g ut still a ou ts fo a s all po tio of the e ti e se to .

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