Original
Article
Challenges
of
space
and
place
for
corporate
‘citizens’
and
healthy
mining
communities:
The
case
of
Logan
Lake,
BC
and
Highland
Valley
Copper
Mary
Louise
McAllister
a,*
,
Patricia
Fitzpatrick
b,
Alberto
Fonseca
caEnvironmentandResourceStudiesDepartment,UniversityofWaterloo,Waterloo,ONN2L3G1,Canada b
DepartmentofGeography,UniversityofWinnipeg,Winnipeg,MBR3B2E0,Canada
c
DepartmentofEnvironmentalEngineering,SchoolofMines,FederalUniversityofOuroPreto,MorrodoCruzeiro,OuroPreto,MG35400-000,Brazil
1. Introduction:exploringtheterrain
LoganLake,aCanadianminingtownintheinteriorofBritish Columbia, belies ‘frontier’ town stereotypes even though the municipalitycontainsoneoftheworld’slargestopenpitcopper mines: Highland Valley Copper (HVC). The well-planned town containstidyhomes, astrong senseofcommunity, picturesque viewsandmoderninfrastructure.Inmanyways,itcanbeviewed as a contemporary ‘model’ community adjoining a progressive ‘model’miningoperation.
Despitesuchimpressions,LoganLakeissubjectedtomanyof thesameexternalchallengesthatconfrontedminingcommunities a century ago. Located on the peripheries of the nation’s consciousness,miningtownscontinuetobebuffetedby‘cyclonic’ internationalforces—aprocessfirstnotedbyeconomichistorian HaroldInnisintheearly1900sashepaddledhiswaythroughthe
remoteregionsofCanada(LowerandInnis,1936). Notwithstand-ingtheseenduringchallenges,theCanadianminingindustryisno longerahand-wielded‘pick-and-shovel’enterpriseofthekindthat Innis wouldbemostfamiliarin histravels.Today,theindustry relies heavily on advanced information and transportation technologies forbothoperationsanddecision-makingprocesses expanding both the scale and scope of its activities. Mining operationscanbemassiveintermsofvolumeoforeextractedand theeconomicreturnsaccrued.
Thisis certainly thecase inBritish Columbiaandin Canada moregenerallygiventhatthecountryisaworldleaderinmineral production.Primaryresourcedevelopmenthasbeenfacilitatedby arichmineralendowment,technologicalinnovation,and cooper-ative governments in their pursuit of revenues. Transnational corporations continue to grow in scale with each successive merger and acquisition. Over the decades, head offices have relocatedfromtheresourcecommunitytoprovincialcapitalsor evenoffshorelocations.Thismobilityofcapitalandseniormining executivesrepresentsadeepeningandextendingofaninexorable processthatdistancesthephysicallocationofcorporate decision-makingfromthosecommunitiesmostdirectlyaffected.Inmarked
ARTICLE INFO
Articlehistory:
Received3December2013 Receivedinrevisedform13April2014 Availableonlinexxx
Keywords:
Corporatesocialresponsibility(CSR) Corporatecitizenship
LoganLakeBC
HighlandValleyCopper(HVC)Mine Place-basedgovernance
ABSTRACT
Considerableresourceshavebeeninvestedbyglobalminingcompaniesincorporatesocialresponsibility (CSR)activitieswithoutaclearunderstandingofwhethertheyaremeetingtheirgoalsofsustaining affectedcommunitieslongafteraminecloses.Itisarguedherethateffective‘corporatecitizenship’ (whichisonewayofviewingCSR)requiresadeeperandextendedunderstandingofwhatisimpliedby ‘citizenship’inthecontextofissuesoftransparency, accountability,responsibilityandcommunity engagement.ThisreframingofCSRisexploredthroughthecasestudyofLoganLake,BritishColumbia, Canada.ThetownissituatedadjacenttotheHighlandValleyCopper(HVC)Mine.Casestudyresearch andanalysisofthistownsuggeststhatthecompany’sapproachtoCSRhasgeneratedameasureofgood willwithinthecommunity.Findingsalsoreveal,however,thatthetownfacesnotablechallengeswith respecttotheprovisionofhealthandsocialservicesdespiteastrongsenseofcommunityandattractive physicalattributes.Thispapersuggeststhateffective‘corporatecitizenship’practicesmightbebetter realizedthroughparticipationinaregional ‘place-basedgovernance’strategyalong withruraland remotecommunitiesthathaveoftenbeenmarginalizedbydominantpoliticalandeconomicinterests. ß2014ElsevierLtd.Allrightsreserved.
* Correspondingauthor.Tel.:+15198884567x35614. E-mailaddresses:mlmcalli@uwaterloo.ca(M.L.McAllister),
p.fitzpatrick@uwinnipeg.ca(P.Fitzpatrick),albertof@em.ufop.br(A.Fonseca).
ContentslistsavailableatScienceDirect
The
Extractive
Industries
and
Society
j o urna l hom e pa ge : ww w. e l s e v i e r. c om/ l o ca t e / e x i s
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.exis.2014.04.005
contrast to investment capital, established base metal mining-dependentcommunitiessuchasLoganLakearefixedinplaceand invariablylocatedinremotelocations.Theabilityofthesetownsto sustainthemselvesis compromisedgivengovernments’growing relianceon globalcorporations for the provision of community assistancethroughvoluntarymeasures.Inshort,miningtownsare fixedinplaceinaneraofmobilelabourandminingcapital,anda globaltightening of social-economic andpolitical interdepen-dencies. In this rapidly-shifting environment, corporations, governmentsandcommunitiesareoftenuncertainofboththeir rights and responsibilities when it comes to determining the scope and scale of corporate social responsibility (CSR). It is important,therefore,toexplorewhatthetermactuallymeansin practiceandwhetheritcanmeetitsstatedgoals,specificallythose related to one intended outcome—that is, helping to sustain affected communities. The following analysis considers the effectiveness of CSR in the context of a mine operation and community:namely,TeckResources’HVCMineandtheTownof LoganLake. Before its effectivenesscan be assessed,it is first importanttoexplorewhatconstitutes‘goodcorporate citizen-ship’.Todate,theminingcorporationhasadvancedCSRthrough variouscommunitydevelopmentinitiativesandby developing indicatorstoassessitsprogress.Itisarguedhere,however,that corporatecitizenshipcouldfostercommunitysustainabilitymore effectivelyifthiscompany(andotherslikeit)adoptedadeeper understandingofwhatisimpliedbytheterm‘citizenship’with respecttoquestions ofresponsibility,accountability, transpar-encyandcommunity engagement.Inaddition,thecorporation andseniorlevelsofgovernmentscouldparticipateinaregional place-basedgovernancestrategytherebyhelpingtoreinforcethe resilienceoflocalcommunitiesthathaveoftenbeenmarginalized by dominant economic and political interests. A place-based governingstrategyemphasizestheimportanceofsenseofplaceto localcommunitiesandthepartitplaysinbuildingsocialcapital and local capacity. Such an approach capitalizes on local knowledge, networks and collaborative approaches between affectedinterestsandactors(Bradford,2005).
2. Diverseresponsibilitiesanduncertainfutures:companies andminetowns
Inthe21stcentury,governmentsincreasinglyrelyoncorporate voluntary initiatives to ensure the continued well-being of communities affected by mineral operations. This has been a subjectaboutwhichmuchhasbeenwritten;(somerecentexamples includeBebbington,2008, 2012;Fitzpatricketal.,2011;Fonseca etal.,2013;Hilson,2006;HilsonandHaselip,2004;McAllisteretal., 2014).Eachstrategyemployed,aswellasitsperceivedeffectiveness, willdifferasaresultofmanyfactorsincludingthecompany’soverall corporatephilosophyandCSRstrategy;thenatureandtypeofthe operation(e.g.open-pitvs.underground or long-distance, fly-in operationsvs.minesoperatingproximatetotowns);the relation-shipbetweenthecompanyandperceivedaffectedcommunities; andthedurationoftheminelife-cycle.Eachsituationisverycontext specific. Nonetheless, there are some overarching questions surroundingthis approach. If a corporation is to act as a good ‘corporatecitizen’,towhatcommunityofinterestisitresponsible? Woulditbetotheresidentsofthenearestandfirstminingtown associatedwiththemine,suchasLoganLake?Shoulda temporally-basedprinciple offirstoccupancybeappliedinsteadinorderto recognizetherightsoftheindigenouspeoplewhoinhabitedtheland longbeforeaminehadeverbeenconsidered?Whatbenefitsshould beprovidedtothosecommunitieswheremineemployeesandtheir families reside and where mine-related business activities take place?Whatclaimscanbemadebyallthoseinterestsaffectedbythe socio-economicand bio-physical ‘shadow’impact of the mining
activity—animpactthatgoesfarbeyondtheimmediateeffectsof operationsattheminesite?
Theabilityofminingcommunitiestosustainthemselvesinto thefutureiscompromisedbycompetinginterestsofagrowing multiplicity ofactorsthat canlegitimatelystakea claim tothe social-economicbenefitsaccruedfromminingoperations.Despite, orperhapsbecauseof,theuncertaintiesand harshrealitiesofa ‘boom and bust’ industry, the culture and tradition of mining communities can be surprisingly strong and enduring with inhabitants’ possessing a strong sense of place (Markey et al., 2006). Over the years, miningcommunities have attempted to achievesomeautonomybydiversifyingawayfromsingle-industry dependence inorder todevelop buffers againstthe vagaries of externalvariablesbeyondtheircontrol.Thisprocess—onethathas been encouraged by both corporate and State actors—may be viewedbysomeproponentsasanexerciseinpromotinglocal self-governance,autonomyandsubsidiarity.Thereissomevalidityin thatperspective.Analternativeview,however,wouldsuggestthat responsibilitieshavebeenoff-loadedontocommunitiesthathave neithersufficientresourcesnorauthoritytocarrythemout.
Modernminingcompaniesaremotivatedbythesamesetof economicdrivers thathave historicallybeenthecase, although thosegoalsmaynowbepresentedthroughanenlightened self-interested model of CSRwhich considers the perspectives of a wider rangeof stakeholdersindecision-making processes.Asa resultofsuchefforts,acompanymayachievesomemeasureofa ‘social licensetooperate’(PrnoandScottSlocombe,2012). Itis debatable,however,whetherornotacompanyshould,orwould wantto,alsolayclaimtothetitleofcorporate‘citizen’giventhat thetermimplies considerationnotonlyof rightsbutalsosome weighty responsibilities that they may see as beyond their corporate mandates (Ne´ron and Norman, 2008). Nevertheless, companies, international organizations, and industrial associa-tions frequently use the term to justify their activities in a community (e.g. Teck Resources Ltd, 2009; World Economic Forum,2013).Asnotedabove,onesuchcompany,TeckResources Ltd.,runsthemassiveopenpitHVCoperationandhasbeencitedas setting an industry standard for global sustainabilitypractices (CanadianMiningJournal,2012).Theoperationandtheaffected miningTownofLoganLake,therefore,offeranexcellentcasestudy toinvestigatehowthetownisaffectedbytheoperationitselfand thecompany’simplementationofCSR.
3. Corporatesocialresponsibilityandcitizenship:
responsibility,accountability,transparencyandcommunity engagement
Corporatesocialresponsibilityfirstemergedinvariousforums inthe1960sinordertocombatgrowingpublicconcernsabout industrialbio-physicalenvironmentalimpactsandaddresspower imbalances between corporate and general public rights and interests(Carroll, 1999; Logsdon and Wood, 2002:157).Over a decade ago, Logsdon and Wood (2002) noted that the term ‘‘corporatecitizenship’’wasintroducedintothepopularlexicon under the rubric of CSR and used as a ‘‘narrow, voluntaristic conceptofcommunityrelationsandphilanthropy’’(Logsdonand Wood,2002:158).Citizenshipasa term,however,impliesmore thananarrowfocusonphilanthropy;itincludesexpectationsof both rights and responsibilities on the partof the citizen that wouldcontributetothecollectivewell-beingofthecommunity (LogsdonandWood,2002:163).
What is the nature of a company’s responsibility to the communityandhowfarshouldthat responsibilityextend?One distinction betweentheterms corporatesocialresponsibilityand corporatecitizenshipisthattheformerrefersmoretoavoluntaryor discretionaryactivity,whilecorporatecitizenshipisobligatoryand
isviewed asan‘integral’partofcorporateoperations(Hamann etal.,2003).Corporatecitizenship‘‘Identifiestheimportantroleof locallivelihoods,therighttopriorinformedconsentto develop-ments,accesstoinformationandaccesstojustice’’(Hamannetal., 2003:41).Asignificantbodyofliteraturediscussesthelegalrights ofcorporationsascitizensbut,forourpurposeshere,wefocuson howcompaniesactingas‘corporatecitizens’mightinterprettheir responsibilities towards mining-affected communities. Some analystssuggestthatcorporationsarenotformallycitizenswith respecttopoliticalrightsassuchatermof‘corporatecitizen’may implybutthey,nonetheless,shouldbehavein‘‘meaningfulways similartothatofcitizens’’(Moonetal.,2005:432).Asnotedearlier, citizenship, metaphorical orotherwise, implies both rights and responsibilities.Corporationsactivelyassumetherighttolobby andparticipateintheshapingofgovernmentregulatoryactivities. The Mining Association of British Columbia, for example, was established through a provincial act of legislation in 1901 to representtheprovincial industry’sinterestsand to ‘‘liaisewith government legislators, lobby for regulatory advancement and publicly promote the economic and social value of mining’’ (MiningAssociationofBritishColumbia,2013).Similarly, compa-niessuchasTeckResourcesalsoparticipateinpublicpolicyand regulatory initiatives (Teck Resources Ltd, 2013a:27). Corpora-tions, therefore,have shaped thefabric of theCanadian social, politicaland biophysicalenvironment;thisis certainlythecase withHVC with its huge open pit operationsslated for further expansion.TheTownofLoganLakewasbuilttoservethemine,and theminingcompaniesaregenerallyviewedashaving responsibil-ity for their impactand legacy on a community (International Councilon Mining and Metals, 2003;2013). Mining operations reshapeexistingsocio-ecologicalsystemsatvariousscalesoften creating novel ecosystems in the process. Given that reality, meaningfulengagementasacorporatecitizenwouldsuggestthat thesecompaniesarealsoobligedtoassumeashareof responsi-bilities commensurate with the rights they assume when undertaking their political, economic and industrial activities. Moreover,theyarepoliticalactorsofsomesignificanceandassuch areobligedtobetransparentandaccountablewithrespecttotheir activities.Itisthis‘extendedperspective’ofcorporatecitizenship thatisbeingappliedhereinthisarticle(Craneetal.,2008).Beyond thosebroadobligationsaboutwhatshouldaccompanyaclaimto corporatecitizenship,therearemany contestableaspects about whatthismightentailinpractice.
First,shouldtheseobligationsbesubjecttoaminimalistoran expansionistinterpretation ofcorporationasresponsiblecitizen (Ne´ronandNorman,2008:3)?Isitamatterofjustdoing‘enough’ toachievewhatisdeemedtobeasociallicensetooperatewithina community?The problemhere isthat there isno agreed-upon criteria that determines when or how a social license is to be granted (Prno and Scott Slocombe, 2012). Nevertheless, it is a widely-acceptedprinciple throughout themining industry that companieshaveanobligationtomaintainandpromotethesocial andbiophysicalhealthoftheregionaffectedbytheiroperations (Shandroetal.,2011).
Second,towhomisthecorporationresponsible?Thisquestion raisesconsiderationsofspaceandplace.Areglobalcorporations ‘‘citizensoftheworld’’wheretheiractivitiesaretobecarriedoutin aconsistentandequitablemannerthroughoutalltheiroperations atallscales?Whilethatmightbeideal,ithasalsobeennotedthat ‘‘thisviewismorecompatiblewiththe universalethical principles perspectiveoncitizenship,butitdoesnotgofarenoughinrecognizing complex responsibilitiesthat may legitimatelydiffer fromplace to place’’ (Logsdon and Wood, 2002:172 italics added). To be meaningful,thoseinitiatives mustrespondtotheuniqueneeds oftheaffectedregion.Yet,thediversityoftheseregionsalsomakes itdifficulttoholdcorporationstothesamestandardsthroughout
their global operations. Most, if not all, large corporations do acknowledge thattheyare responsibletomultipleconstituents rangingfromlocaltonationalinterests.
Third,tobeaccountable,voluntaryinitiativesmustbe transpar-ent.Membersoftheindustrysupporttheconceptoftransparency throughtheiradoptionofPrinciple10oftheInternationalCouncilon MiningandMetals(ICMM).Specifically,companiesareexpectedto ‘‘Implementeffectiveandtransparentengagement,communication and independently verified reporting arrangements with our stakeholders’’(InternationalCouncilonMiningandMetals,2003). ItisalsoatenetoftheExtractiveIndustriesTransparencyInitiative (EITI)aimedathavingcompaniespubliclyrevealhowmuchoftheir revenuesiscontributedtoagovernment—aprocesswhichcanalso serve to enhance the company’s reputation as an important economiccontributor(EITIInternationalSecretariat,2013). Theo-retically, it could also helpa community tohold a national or provincialgovernmentaccountableforthedistributionofresource revenues.Thatwouldbethecase,however,onlyifthecommunity hadtheleveragetodoso.Giventheneedtotailorprogrammesto specificcommunities,however,detailedreportingforcomparative purposescanbetrickylogistically.Corporationsprefertoundertake voluntaryinitiatives directedat theneeds ofthe localregionas opposedtobeingsubjected toblanket,wide-sweeping province-wideregulationsthatmaybecostlyforthecompany,inappropriate to the mine site, and ineffective in fostering social-ecological sustainabilityintheaffectedregion.
Fourth, use of the termcorporate citizenship would imply a company’s pro-active engagement in active partnership with communities, not simply as a philanthropic donor to various causeswhenthecommunitycomesknockingatthedoor.CSRor corporatecitizenshipdoesnotjustcallforaccountabilitytothe provincialandfederalgovernmentsbuttothelocalgovernment anditscitizensaswell.Communityleaderswouldbeincludedin decision-makingprocessesrespectingthemineandtohaveinput intotheinevitabletrade-offsthatcomewhenmakingdecisions aboutanoperationthathashugesocialandbiophysicalimpacts. Thisiswheretheprincipleofsubsidiarityincreasinglycomesinto play.Thisprinciplesuggeststhatauthorityandresponsibilityshould behandeddowntothesmallestunitofgovernmentthatcandeal withthetaskmosteffectively.Althoughmostfrequentlyassociated withtheEuropeanUnion(Panizza,2008),itisaprinciplethatis gainingsaliencemoreuniversallywherecommunitiesareincluded indecision-makingprocesses.Theyareseenashavingastakeinthe outcomesofresourcedevelopment,aswellashavingarighttohelp determine how that development takes place. This approach representsasignificantdeparturefromthepoliticsthat character-izedtheearlycompany-ownedtownsacenturyago.Atthattime,a community’saffairswerelargelygovernedbythemineownersand managers who lived on site and had a personal stake in the communityand itswell-being(Lucas, 1971). Today theprimary actors in the mineral resource sector have expanded in both numbersandgeographiclocations.Corporateheadofficesarenowa long distancefromthe mine site.Even the mine managers,the minersandthelabourunionrepresentativesmaynotliveinthelocal community.Affectedpartiesthatclaimtohaveavestedinterestin the mine include various industrial groups, the federal and provincial governments, environmental non-governmental orga-nizations, Aboriginal peoples, unions, and nearby communities. Recognitionoftherightofadiversityofplayerstoparticipatein decision-makingprocessesfromthelocaltotheglobalhasservedto bothenhanceanddiminishtheleverageandtheauthorityofthe directlyaffectedminingcommunity.Moreover,localgovernments1
1
Local governments referred to here should be distinguished from local IndigenousorAboriginalcommunitieswhicharetypicallygovernedthrougha distinctivesetofconstitutionalarrangementswiththeState.
typically fall under the constitutional jurisdiction of a state or province, which leaves them in weak negotiating positions. Subsidiarityas a principle, however,does reinforce the right of localgovernmentstoholdapositionatthetablewhenitcomesto developinganeffectiveCSRstrategy.
In sum,thenatureoftheresponsibilitiesimpliedinCSRand citizenship continues to be highly contested. If the corporate initiativesaretobeseenas legitimatetheymustbeviewed as beingeven-handedintermsoftheirglobalactivities,whileatthe same time able to respond effectively to site-specific local demands and needs where mining operations take place. Moreover,theyneedtoundertaketheseactivitiesinawaythat isnotonlytransparentinpractice,butwidelyperceivedby the interestedpublicasbeingtransparent.Corporationsmustalsobe seen to actively engage with communities in order to foster capacity-building.Philanthropicactivities(e.g.making contribu-tionstoalocalevent)maybuysomeshort-termgoodwill,butdo littletosupportsustainablecommunity development. TheHVC minehasa fairlysophisticated strategy inplace thataddresses thesepoints.ForLoganLake,however,themostdirectlyaffected townbyitsoperations,thereisstillameasureofuncertaintywhich couldbemitigatedwithamorecoherentandintegratedapproach tolocal-levelsustainability.
4. Localperspectives:impactsofHighlandValleyCopperonthe townofLoganLake
The methodologyis based on a single case study approach frequentlyused in community-oriented research (Evans, 2011; Yin,2003).Thetheoreticalpropositionsregardingtheeffectiveness ofcorporatecitizenshipandCSRinitiativesdiscussedinthefirst partof paperare exploredthroughaninductiveanalysisof the perspectivesofcommunitymembers.Asiscommonlypracticedin community-basedcasestudyresearch,theresearchersundertook some community-transect walks to get to know the spatial, physical and social elements of the community. Research participants were initially recruited through publicly available lists of government, private and community organizations followedbysnowballsampling.Inevitably,thesamepeoplewere oftenidentifiedbyvariousresidentsasbeingleadersinLoganLake representing different communities of interest including local government,labour,civilsociety,citizensandindustry.Intermsof representation,we interviewed people who interacted with, or represented, the major demographic groups comprising the communityinordertoensurethatweincludedadiversesample of the population. They included social, youth, health care, volunteer,andcommunityoutreachworkersandrepresentatives, among others, withtheir ages ranging from retirees to young adults. One limitation was that no research participants were included that would be considered economically or socially marginalizedsotheir viewswerenotdirectlyrepresented. That said,concerns abouttheir challenges and limited opportunities were raised by others during the course of the field work. Participantswerespecificallyquestionedaboutif,andhow, the corporationacted in a socially-responsible manner particularly withrespecttoensuring thewell-being of theaffectedmining community,namelytheTownofLoganLake.
Asmentioned above, thestudy adopted a singlecase study methodologicalapproachin ordertounderstand thecontextual local conditions in which corporate voluntary measures were taking place (Yin, 2003:13). Investigator triangulation (Evans, 2011)was ensured withthe useof a diversity of sources; the researcherscollectednational,provincialandlocaldatathrough extensive literatureand documentreviews,undertook 13 semi-structuredinterviewswerecollected, informallyand conducted one focus group meeting held with community leaders. The quantityofparticipantsandtheirprofilesarepresentedinTable1. Participantswereassignedacodename,andunlessgivenspecific direction,wekeptresponsesconfidential.Theindustry represen-tatives in Vancouver and at mine site, a union representative located in nearby City of Kamloops, and community leaders (working in the public or private sector as well as a retired communityvolunteer)wereallopentoquestions.Furthermore, afterseveralindividualmeetings,communityleadersfromLogan Lakeinvitedtheresearcherstofollowupingroupdiscussions,one inaformal,andanotherinaninformal,setting.In addition,the researcherstookadvantageofawell-designed,publicly-available touroftheminesite’soperations.Giventhesmallsizeofthetown, we’ve limited the descriptions of individual positions and associatedcodestoensureanonymityoftheresearchparticipants withtheexceptionofacoupleofcaseswheretheindividualgave permissiontohavethepositionrevealed.
Specificquestionsaboutoperationsposedtotheparticipants variedaccordingtowhethertheyweremembersofcommunity, mine representatives or government. Some of the questions, however,wereposedtoallparticipants,specificallythoserelating to the main animating research questions and sub-questions: namelytheroleofCSRandcorporatecitizenshipwithrespectto questions of responsibility, accountability, transparency and communityengagement.Inparticular,wewantedtoinvestigate how researchparticipants interpretedthe role of thecompany (HVC)ascorporatecitizenintermsofsustaininglocal communi-ties, aswellthe mainchallenges and/orsuccessesand impedi-mentstofulfillingthatfunction.
4.1. ThetownofLoganLake
November1971sawtheofficialinaugurationofLoganLake,a towndesignedtoprovideaworkforceforthenewlyopenedLornex copper mine in the Highland valley of south-central British Columbia.Since thattime, theminehasgrownintoone ofthe largest copper operations in the world. The current mining operationknownasHVCownedbyTeckResourcesLtd.islocated 15kmwestofLoganLake.Thistown,whichhad2073residentsin 2011, is still heavily dependent economically on the mining companywith250mineworkersandtheirfamilieslivinginLogan Lake.Thecompany’sregionalprocurementofgoodsandservicesis alsoimportanttoLoganLakeand othernearbycommunities. A numberofretiredmineworkersalsoliveinthetown.Themajority oftherestofits1230mineworkersliveinnearbycommunities suchasAshcroft,Kamloops,andMerritt,aswellassomeothers (DistrictofLoganLake,2013).Thelocalmineworkersunion(USW 7619) is also located in Kamloops. Limited social, health and recreationalservicesinLoganLakeencouragesresidentstogoto
Table1
researchparticipantprofiles.
Group Intervieweeprofile No.
Miningindustry Seniorcompanyandindustryassociationrepresentatives 3 Unionrepresentative Long-termlocalrepresentative(locatedinKamloops) 1 Localcommunitymembersandleaders Diverserepresentativesoflocalcommunitiesofinterest 6 Economicdevelopmentrepresentatives Individualswhoworkineconomicdevelopmentbothpublicandprivatesector 3
thelargercentressuchastheCityofKamloopssothatpeoplecan participateinsportsleaguesandmakeuseofthepublicservices.At thetime of writing,mine closure wasscheduledfor 2025.The community is working at diversification in anticipation of the closureandisfocusingonbeingseenasadestinationforoutdoors tourism and retirement living. As one interviewee noted, the sloganforthetownwas‘‘LoganLake,whererecreationandnature meet’’(Participant3).
WhentheHVCminewasinitiallyslatedforclosurein2009,the townmarketeditselfasaretirementcommunity.Atthattime,the company,incooperationwiththecommunity,setupacommittee todealwiththeimplicationsoftheclosure.Subsequently,itwas announcedthattheminelifewouldbeextendeduntil2025and almost½billiondollarswouldbeinvestedintoa five-yearmill expansion.Themillexpansionandmineextensionalsostimulated employmentandgrowthinatownthatwasrapidlydecliningin terms of population. According to one research participant, a communitydevelopmentfundwasalsoestablishedwhichallowed theDistricttodevelopanewhousingcomplex(Participant1).
The large number of retirees and seniors in Logan Lakeare increasingly dependent on the provision of social and health services.Wheninterviewedforthisstudy,communitymembers werealmostunanimousinstatingthattherewereconcernsrelated toinsufficienthealthservicesandaccessiblesenior’shousing.The healthcentreservicesareverylimited,subjecttoperiodsofclosure throughouttheweek,andprovidedwithonlypart-timestaffing. 4.2. Teckresources’HighlandValleyCoppermine
TheHVCmine isoneof theworld’slargestcopperminesin termsofbiophysicalscaleandsocialimplications.Givenitssize,it dwarfsanyothereconomicenterpriseinthearea,particularlywith respecttotheTownofLoganLake.Asof2013,Teckowned97.5% interestinHVC,locatedinsouth-centralB.C.Thethreegiantopen pitoperations(Valley,LornexandHighmont)produced116,300t ofcopperinconcentrateand10.0millionpoundsofmolybdenum in 2012. Planned expansion of open-pit operations and a mill modernizationprogrammetoimproverecoverywillsee consider-ablegrowthinoutputthroughtheanticipatedminelifeof2027 (Teck Resources Ltd, 2013b). In 2012,the HVCmine generated $390millionafterdepreciationandamortizationof$123million (TeckResourcesLtd,2013a)ForallofitsCanadianoperations,Teck paid$264millioninincomeandresourcetaxesin2012excluding othertaxessuchasproperty,payroll,royalty,etc.(TeckResources Ltd,2013a).Thecompanyalsopaysmunicipaltaxes.Thecompany statesthatitaimstodonate1%ofitsannualpre-taxearningsto community investments (on a five-year rolling average basis). Worldwide,thisfiguredreached atotalof$23,192,000in 2012, $16,481,000distributedthroughcorporateoffices.(TeckResources Ltd,2013a:35).InHVC,thisamountedto$716,000in2012(Teck ResourcesLtd,2013a)excludingbusiness-relateddonationssuch assponsoredeventsorscholarships.
TheopenpitoperationsofHVCimpactedseverallakeswiththe constructionoftailingponds.Overtheyears,notableeffortshave been made to rehabilitate the areas affected by the open pit operations and the Corporation has invested in ecological restorationfocusing on suchthingsthis fish spawninggrounds and development of wetlands. Money for rehabilitation comes fromtheHighlandValleyEnhancementfund.Donationsfromthe minefundedavarietyofrecreationalopportunitiessuchasaski hilloperationandarehabilitatedtailingspondthatisnowstocked forfishing—allofwhichenhancestourism(Participant2).
From a health perspective, a number of residents when interviewednoted that theonly air quality problems theyhad observedwascomingfromforestfiresinSiberia,notthenearby minebecauseofthenatureoftheprevailingwindpatterns.They
alsopointed outthat therehad previouslybeenproblemswith dustfromtheminingoperationbut,asaresultofpressurefrom variousconstituencies,themineinvestedindustcoversfortheir stockpilesatthemill.Thatinitiativeappearstohaveresultedina largeimprovementintheairquality(Participants1,2,3).Beyond thosecomments,thecommunitymembersdidnotvoiceconcerns aboutbiophysicalimpacts.Whilethetopicdidcomeupduringthe interviews, participants favourably mentioned the mitigation initiativesthecompanyhadtakentowardsecologicalrestoration. Onelong-termresidentstated,‘‘Ithinkthey’redoingaheckofajob withtheirreclamationand whateverandenvironmental issues. Miningisdirty.There’snoise,blastingdisturbsthingsbutthat’sthe nature ofthe beast. ButI think they’redoing a good jobon it myself’’ (Participant 2).Allinterviewees residing inLogan Lake madesimilarcomments,someofwhomhadexperiencewithother mining companies, and thought that HVC compared very favourablyinthisrespect.
4.3. CompanyandcommunityperspectivesonCSRandtheHVC operation
UnderprinciplesagreedtothroughICMMandother interna-tionally-established practices, companies increasingly are ac-knowledging theimportanceoftheir responsibilitytowardsthe long-termsustainabilityofaffectedminingtowns.Considerations include the nature of company-communityengagement, trans-parency,andsocial,economicandecologicalimpacts.Companies alsoacknowledgetheimportanceoftransparentcommunication of its impacts, activities and contributions which are often transmitted through company reports. The degree to which transparency is achieved through these reports, however, is a matterof continuingconcernparticularlygiventhediversity of reportingmethodsandlackofclarityatthelevelofeachfacility (Fonsecaetal.,2013).
Asnotedabove,inordertoberesponsivetothespecificneeds and requirements of mining-related communities, companies needtobeawareofthecontextinwhichminingtakesplace.Thisis thecasewhereverCSRispracticedincludingattheHVCoperations. Wheninterviewed,theHVCminemanageragreedthatthereisno clear-cutideaforhowtodeterminethespecificmannerinwhich CSRshouldbepracticedinanygivencommunity.Muchdepends on the social political, economic and biophysical context. A paternal,benevolentapproach tocommunitydevelopmentdoes not benefit the company nor the community in the long run. Donationsareonly‘‘amomentaryfix’’andtheycreate dependen-cies.Thecompanywouldratherseethemoneygotocommunity capacity-building. Fromthemine management perspective,the companyis lookingforopportunitiesthat canmostbenefitthe peopleandthecommunityandthemine.‘‘Abigpartofourfocusis around that–developingopportunitiesthat maystart off linked withthemine but are externaltothe mineoperations’’. Those companyinitiativesarenotconfinedtoLoganLake:
Whereverwecanpromotethoseopportunitiesinnearbycentres, wewill.KamloopsandMerrittisagrowingareaofinteresttous. Wedon’thaveasmanyofournewemployeestakingupresidence inLoganLakeasweoncedidinthepast.Someemployeesstilldo andcertainlyothersaremovingintoLoganLakeasaretirement location.PeoplealsomovetoKamloopsandMerritt–wewantto supportthoseplaceswhereourworkforceis(HVCminemanager). Oneoftheexamplesofcapacity-buildingofferedbythemine managerwasafocusonthesocialandeconomicdisparitiesinthe area,suchasthoseexperiencedbyFirstNationswho‘‘havebeen impactedbytheoperationsbuthavemorelimiteddirectbenefit fromthem’’.ThecompanyundertookthenegotiationofanImpact Benefits Agreement withthe nearby Nlaka’pamux First Nation
(TeckResourcesLtd,2013a).Theminerepresentativestatedthat Teck looked for opportunities where it can make the biggest difference in the community. Although it does apply a social responsibilityframeworkwithkeyobjectivesdevelopedbyTeckat thecorporatelevel,thereisroomforcreativitylocally.
Teck’scommitmenttoCSRstartswiththeleadershipattheCEO level(Participant 10).In part,Teck’sCSRapproach maybeone associatedwiththehistoryoftheCanadianminingindustryandit isoneofthelastCanadiangiantsleftinthiscountry.Canadahad thefirstminingenvironmentalpolicyintheworldinthe1980s followedupbytheuniquemulti-stakeholderWhitehorseMining Accordinthe1990s.TeckisacknowledgedforitsleadershipinCSR policyandhasbeenlistedonthe2013DowJonesSustainability WorldIndex(DJSI),forthefourthyearinarow,signifyingthatit ranks in the10 per centof thelargest 2500public companies worldwide(TECKResourcesLtd,2013c).
Withacoupleofexceptions,researchparticipantsintheTown of Logan Lake appeared to be generally supportive of the CSR effortsofHVC(Participants,1,2,3,4and8)eventhoughtheywere recruitedfromdifferentcommunitiesofinterest.Themajorityof them,however,acknowledgedthatLoganLake,likemanyother isolatedresourcecommunities,faceschallengesasitplansforthe future. The town suffers from the lack of regular health care provision given its isolated position, and has concerns about youth-at-risk(Participant4).Manyparticipantswereawarethat healthcareisaprovincialresponsibility;negativecommentsabout theprovisionofhealth serviceswerefrequentlydirectedat the InteriorHealthAuthority(IHA)andtheprovincialgovernment— entitieswhichwereperceivedtobefailingatprovidingadequate services. That said, some community members who generally expressedserious concerns aboutthe lack ofhealth and social services were also aware that these problems are of direct relevancetotheminingcompany,notjusttothelocalcommunity. Onecommunitymembersuggestedthatifmoreserviceswerein place in Logan Lake, more mine employees and their families would stayin thevicinity instead of living away in Kamloops (Participant8).Anumberofthetown’sretirees,includingformer mineworkers,didnothavelocalaccesstopalliativecareorany number of otherservices for seniors. This sentiment was also relayedinnewsarticlesthatpointedoutthat withonlylimited emergencyservices availablein Logan Lake, ‘‘residents have to scheduleemergenciesbetween8a.m.andnoon.And,shouldthere beaserious/life-threateningindustrialaccidentatHighlandValley Copper,employees andcontractors musttake care toensureit happensbeforenoon’’(Ogden,2011). Emergencycasesmustbe dealtwithinthehospitalinnearbyKamloops(60kmaway)or Merritt (48km away). Weather conditions for driving in the interiorofB.C.canbetreacherous,andminingcanbeadangerous occupation. Moreover, one union representative argued that if workersareexpectedbythecompanytoensuresafepracticesas individuals,thencompaniesandgovernmentsareresponsiblefor thecollectivesafetyandwell-beingofmineworkers(Participant 5).Hefeltthatthecorporatehealthandsafetypolicyputtheonus ofresponsibilityonitsworkerswherebyfinescouldbemetedout whenahealthandsafetyincidentoccurred.Assuch,hesaysthatit is difficult to encourage employees to come forward with informationthatwouldhelpensureanaccidentwouldnothappen again. He also worried that government reliance on corporate voluntaryinitiativesoftenledtoarelianceoncorporationsto self-police which has its obvious limitations as a policy approach (Participant5).
Beyond health care, most community membersinterviewed alsoexpressedanoverallpositiveimpressionoftheirrelationship withHVCandhowitdealtwiththeirconcernsandrespondedto requestsforsupportforcommunityfundraisinginitiatives.Itwas suggestedbytheunionrepresentative,however,thatitsmembers
werealso involvedin participatingin many of those volunteer activities—a point also made by other research participants (Participants1,2,3,4,5and11).Itwasnotcleartotheresearchers wherethesetypesofvoluntaryeffortsoftheminingcorporation leftoffandthoseoftheUnitedSteelworkers(USW)—theminers— began.Severalparticipantssuggestedthatthecorporationtended tostayoutofcommunityaffairsandassociations,servinginstead moreasacorporatesponsorthanparticipant.
AsforhowmuchcorporatefundingshouldgotoLoganLakeand how much should be distributed elsewhere, one community memberobservedthatmineemployeeswerelivingin communi-ties outsideLoganLake andthat thecompanywasexpectedto contributeresourcestothosecommunitiesaswell(Participant11). Community leaders generally thought that HVC was very responsive when it came todealingwith anyadverse environ-mentalimpactsassociatedwiththelargeoperations,particularly compared to other mining companies. When asked why they thoughtthatwasthecase,anumberofintervieweesofferedthatit mayhavesomethingtodowiththetraditionsthatwerepassed downinCanadian-runmines,andofthesocialcommitmentofthe minemanagementtothewelfareofthelocalcommunity:
I think it has a lot to do with the people they have in their management.Theyrealizethat...well,theyliveinthe communi-ties,too!AgoodbigpercentageofthemliveinKamloops,they’rein Merritt,they’reinLoganLakehere,Ashcroft,allover.Thesepeople liveintheactualcommunity.Whataffectsthem,affectsme,too.I don’tknow!Youknow,everything’snotpeachesandcreambutit’s anawfullotbetterthanalotofotherplaces(Participant2). Asomewhatalternativeviewaboutthecompany’scommunity engagement was offered by one resident who felt that the company representatives should engage more actively in the affairsofthecommunityratherthanreactivelyoperatingmoreas ‘‘adonorratherthanacitizen’’.Reflectingonpastpractices,this participantsuggestedthatwhenmembersofminemanagement usedtolivedirectlyinthecommunity,thecompanywasmuch morepersonallyengagedwiththeoverallwell-beingofthetown (Participant 8). Along similar lines, a union representative suggested that Teck, as a global corporation, takes a ‘cookie-cutter’approachtopolicieswhendealingwitheachofitsmining operations throughout the world. It was also noted that the amount of money donated to the community was dwarfed in perspectivewhenonethinksabouttheprofitsthattheminewas generating(Participant5).
Insum,theinterviewsrevealedthatcommunitymemberswere generallywell-disposedtowardsthecompanyandits responsive-nesstotheirspecificrequestsandconcerns.Thatsaid,therewere alsosomeopinions expressedthat theminecouldtake a more directinterestinhelpingthecommunitydealwiththeprovisionof socialandhealthservices.Mostofthemalsofeltthatitwasquite transparentwithrespecttoitsoperationsand communications; themajorityofparticipantsnotedasexamples,company’sregular freely-available tours of its operations and lots of publicly-availableinformation.Notablylacking,however,wasthefeeling thatthecompanywasaccountableorresponsibletothem,orwas expected to act as a corporate citizen with a concomitant responsibility for the overall health and well-being of the community; rather it wasseen more as a somewhat removed andbenevolentsourceoffundingformorespecificprojects.
5. Miningthefindings
The fieldwork didprovide insights into whether or not the company’s CSR represented ‘meaningful engagement’ with the community with respect to its long-term sustainability. In
responsetothefirstquestionposedathebeginningofthepiece, namely, whether Teck Resources Ltd. takes an expansionist or minimalistviewsofitsCSRrole,itisclearthatthecompanysees itselfasacorporatecitizenalthoughitdoeskeepanarm’slength distancefromcommunitydecision-making.Whilesomemaysee thatdecisionasrespectingtherightofthecommunitytogovern itselfwithoutcorporateinterference,othersmightviewitasnot beingassociallyorpersonallyinvestedincommunitywell-being asitcouldbe(asoneresearchparticipantnoted).
Withrespectto thesecondquestion dealingwithcorporate communityresponsibility, Teck’scorporatesustainabilityreport supported by interviews with company representatives clearly acknowledgeda responsibility for promotingcommunity well-being and to invest a portion of their profits back into the community. Beyond that, however, lines of accountability and responsibilityofthecorporationtothecommunity(ies)remained unclear, and possibility necessarily so. Recognizing that each miningregionhasitsownneeds,culturesandrequirements,the companytakes a flexible approach in order toaddress specific communityneeds.InthecaseofHVC,rapidchangeandthegrowth of the mining enterprise were accompanied by an increasing mobilityoflabour,capitalandservices,aswellasrisingclaimsto compensation by a plurality of communities and groups that reachedbeyondtheboundariesoftheTownofLoganLake.
Third,regardingthequestionoftransparencyinitsoperations, TeckResources hassignedon totheICMMframeworkand has reporteditssustainabilitycontributionsaccordingtotheGlobal Reporting Initiative (GRI) guidelines (for a discussion of this initiative, see Fonseca et al., 2012). In itssustainability report, initiativesatthelocalcommunitylevelareoftenaggregatedona regionalbasis.Thisapproachisconsistentwithacompanystrategy aimedatassistingthosecommunitieswhereitsoperationshavean impactanditsemployeesreside,andinbothcases,thatstretches beyondtheboundariesoftheTownofLoganLake.Thecorporate sustainabilityreport,however,doesnotprovidethekindof sub-regionalnumbersthatwouldallowforaninformedcomparative assessment of howvoluntary funds fromthecorporation were distributedwithinaregion.Individualcommunitymembersalso didnotappeartohaveinformationaboutthenatureofcorporate donationscontributedtoothertownsoutsideofLoganLake.
The fourth question posed concerned the degree towhich communitieswereabletoparticipatein decision-makingwith respect to the nature of corporate voluntary initiatives and allocationoffunds.Theprimaryresearchseemedtosuggestthat thecompanywasfrequentlysupportivewhenthecommunityhad arequestforassistancewithaparticulareventordevelopment. Communitymembers, however,could not becharacterized as partnersinthedecision-makingregardingtheoverallallocation ordistributionofthecorporatevoluntaryfunds.Boththeprimary and secondary research supported the conclusion that Teck Resourceshasinvestedanotableamountoftimeandresources towardsachievingbest practices in CSR. Acertain measureof transparency of its operations has been achieved through its participationgloballyintheExtractiveIndustriesTransparency Initiative(EITI),domesticallybyrevealingitsCSRexpenditures andits useof indicators to assessprogress, andlocally by its responsivenesstocommunityrequestsandconcerns,andthrough regularlyoffered publicinformation andtoursof itsminesite operations.
Despitetheseefforts,whatdoesnotappeartobehappeningisthe effective empowerment of local communities by either the provincialgovernmentorthe miningcorporationwhenitcomes tomakingdecisions about issuesthatmost directly affectthese towns.Senior governments have acknowledged the presence of health,economicandsocialchallengesspecifictoremoteresource communities.Assistancepackagesareofferedbyagenciessuchas
theCommunityAdjustmentFund,WesternEconomicDiversification Canada andthe Northern DevelopmentInitiativeTrust (Shandro etal.,2011)orthroughtheprovincialgovernment(BritishColumbia Ministry of CommunitySport and Cultural Development, 2013). Nevertheless,the‘boomandbust’natureofminingactivitiesaffectsa town’sfluctuatingpopulationnumberswhich,inturn,affectsthe type and extent of service provision offered by the provincial government, often falling far short of the requirements of the communities. This has been the case for Logan Lake and other resourcecommunities(Shandroetal.,2011).
6. Fromthegroundup:applyingtheprinciplesofsubsidiarity andplace-basedgovernance
Corporationsarerealmembersofsomekindofourcommunities, thepowertocontributetoortodiminishthecommongood,and therighttoinfluencepoliticalandlegalprocesses.Asanydecent comic book superhero knows, with great power comes great responsibility(Ne´ronandNorman,2008:16).
Acommitmenttotransparencysuggeststhatmembersofthe public should have information about a mine site’s social and environmentalimpactsmuchthewaycitizenscangainaccessto city hall minutes and council meetings and to government informationunderthefederalandprovincialaccesstoinformation laws.Thereisobviouslyadistinctionbetweenpublicandprivate sectorinformationbuttheargumenthere isnotthatthepublic haveaccesstoacompany’sproprietaryinformation.Rather,itis suggestedthatthepublicshouldhavereadyaccesstoinformation abouttheminethatgoesbeyondwhatisrequiredfor‘socialrisk’ management.Ifcorporationswishtolayclaimtothetermgood corporatecitizenwhichincludestransparency,thenreadyaccessto information about the company’s activities should serve to reinforce, and not undermine, that claim. At times, as with government watchdogs, such scrutiny can be painful if the corporationfails toliveuptoitspromises.However, claimsto corporatecitizenshipinevitablyringhollowandcanbemetwith widespreadscepticismwithoutopenpublic accessto informa-tion aboutdailyoperatingprocedures andpractices.Asyet,in eventhebestpracticesofCSRdemonstratedattheHVCmodel mine,whatappearstobemissingisaconcertedandtransparent regionalcommunicationsstrategythatincludesthecommunitiesof interestdirectlyaffectedbyacompany’soperations.Theresearch participants from Logan Lake did not appear to have major complaintsabout HVCwithrespecttoitsapproachtocorporate socialresponsibility,whichwasgenerallyinterpretednarrowly:i.e. thecompanywillinglyprovidedsupporttolocalinitiativeswhen requested. It was equally clear that town members had little knowledgeofhowthecorporationimplementeditsCSRstrategy withothernearbycommunitiesorataregionallevel.Assuch,they werenotabletoparticipateinadiscussionabouthowfundsmight bemoreeffectivelydeployedonaregion-widebasis.
Research of government documents and other secondary literature suggests that a different approach to CSR could be employed:onethatwouldstrengthenaccountabilityofcorporate, governmentand otherinfluential actorsin thedecision-making processesaswellasfacilitatecommunityengagement.Although there aregovernment-led regionaleconomic growthinitiatives, communityservices,andregionalhealthstrategies,manyofthese initiatives are compartmentalized into policy categories, e.g. economicdevelopment,healthcareorsomeother‘silo’.Weare suggestingadifferentapproachhere;thatofplace-based gover-nance which recognizestheimportance ofsocial infrastructure and ‘networks for democratic participation’ (Bradford, 2005). Amongotherthings,aplace-basedapproachincludesdrawingon localknowledge,engagingincollaborativegovernance(between
communitiesofinterestsandgovernments)andrecognizingthe keyrolethatcanbeplayedbylocalgovernments(Bradford,2005). InthecourseofconductingtheLoganLakefieldwork,itbecame apparentthatalltheaffectedcommunitiesofinterestandtowns werenotworkingcloselytogethertowardsamutual understand-ingoftheircollectiveneedsandchallengesaswellasopportunities posedbythelargeminingoperation.Giventheshared resource-basedhistoryandgeography,communitiescouldbenefit consid-erablybydevelopingacollaborativeplace-basedregionalstrategy. ThisapproachdrawsontheworkofMarkeyetal.Theysuggestthat successfulruralplace-baseddevelopmentisa‘‘collaborativeand co-constructedapproach’’neededto‘‘createviablecommunities thatareeconomicallyrobust,sociallyresilient,and environmen-tallysustainable’’(Markeyetal.,2012:4–5).Thiskindofstrategy wouldbeconsistentwithaphilosophicalview‘‘[as] ifwe were buildingcommunitiesandregionaleconomiesofpermanenceand notsimplytreatingtheregionasaresourcefrontier’’(Markeyetal., 2012:4–5).
Suchastrategycouldfosterregionalcapacity-buildingallowing theareatobecomemoreresilientandlessbuffetedbythe boom-bustcharacteristics ofa resource-based economy.Atransparent region-basedcommunicationsstrategywouldfirstberequiredin ordertodevelopa shared understandingabouthow Teck’s CSR initiativesaredistributedamongstthe variouscommunitiesand groupswithintheregion.ThiswouldincludethetownsofKamloops, Merritt,LoganLake,Ashcroft,thesmallcommunitieswithinthat area,aswellasFirstNations.Affectedcommunitiesofinterestcould thenusethatinformationtoparticipateinadiscussionabouthow theycouldworkcollaborativelytousethesefunds(aswellaspublic funds)toaddressquestionsofoverallregionalhealthandsocial well-being.
Contemporarylargeminingcorporationsarenotinthebusiness ofcommunitydevelopment,nordotheywanttheresponsibility for runningminingcommunities; theyappropriately viewthat responsibilityasbelongingtocitizensandtheir elected govern-ments.Theproposedrecommendationabove,therefore,wouldbe consistentwithTeck Resources’ (andother similarcompanies’) aspirations of fostering transparency with respect to mine operationsandcommunitycapacity-building.Underaplace-based governanceapproach,it wouldbecommunities,notcompanies, determiningthemosteffectiveandsustainablewayforwardfor thecollectivewhole.
7. Conclusion
Aswithanycollectivegood,temptationsexistforactorstoshirkor holdbackinhopesthatotheractorswillincurthecostsofachieving the collectivegood,whichthen benefitsall actors(Olson,1965 citedinLogsdonandWood,2002:181)
AsnotedinSection1,itisarguedinthispaperthatcorporate citizenshipcouldmoreeffectivelyfostercommunitysustainability ifTeckResourcesInc.(andothersuchcompanies)adoptedadeeper understandingofwhatisimpliedbytheterm‘citizenship’ with respecttoquestionsofaccountability,responsibilityand transpar-encyandcommunity engagement.Ratherthan thegovernment impositionofblanketregulationsthatmaynotbeveryeffectiveor efficientfromasite-specificperspective,CSRallowsfortargeted approaches to the social and biophysical requirements of the affectedregions.Butthetrade-offsshouldnotcomeattheexpense oflocalcommunitieswholoseagency,capacityandcontrolover resourcesto make decisions that would allow them to thrive. Neithercorporationsnorgovernmentswanttoberesponsiblefor therisingsocial,healthorinfrastructuralcostsofaremotemining community.Insuchascenario,thesecommunitiesinevitablyfall throughthecracks.
With respect tothe case study area, evidence supports the findingthatTeckResources,withitsHVCoperation,hasworkedto establish an effective CSR strategy. Company goals include fostering community sustainability, economic diversification, and transparent decision-making (Teck Resources Ltd, 2013a). ThisisasituationconfirmedbytheresearchparticipantsinLogan Lake. While the community itself didnot lobby for a different strategic approach fromthe company,its membersstill voiced concern about thefuture of its town and the lack of services, particularly for its ageing population. Achievement of the company’s goals through the deployment of funds allocated through voluntary initiatives, however, will not be realized withoutafullcollectivepartnershipwiththeaffected communi-ties. Collaborative effortsare required at aninter-jurisdictional regional level to effectively address those issues common to resource-basedcommunities.Thedirectimpactsoflargemining operationssuchasHVChaveexpandedfarbeyondthe jurisdic-tional territory of a single community. Yet, many individual corporatevoluntaryinitiativesstillappeartobeorientedtowardsa specificcommunityorthroughtargetedefforts.
Amoresystemic,regionalplace-basedgovernanceapproachto corporate citizenship would see the distribution of corporate voluntaryfundsandinitiativesdisbursedthrougha community-determined process. Tangible results of such an effort could includeeffectiveinter-communitytransportationsystems,anda collectiveapproachtothedeliveryofemergency,healthandsocial services.Lessimmediatebenefitswouldbethestrengtheningof corporate and government accountability, community develop-mentandplace-basedgovernancesupportingthestatedgoalsof governments,corporationsandotheraffectedactors.Atpresent, smallresource-dependentcommunitieshavelittleleveragewith respecttothoseforcesthatmostdirectlyaffectthem.Cooperation between communitiessupportedby corporatefundsearmarked for voluntary initiatives will strengthen their longer term resilienceandsurvival.
Acknowledgements
Theauthorswould liketothank thepeer reviewersand the editorfortheirveryhelpfulandintelligentsuggestions.Wewould alsoliketoacknowledgefundingprovidedforthisresearchfrom theSocialSciences andHumanitiesResearchCouncilof Canada 410-2010-0258. Finally, we very much appreciate the warm welcomewereceivedbytheresidentsofLoganLake(particularly thosewhogenerouslysharedtheirtimefortheinterviewprocess), aswellastheopenandhelpfulresponsesthatwereceivedfromthe representativesofTeckResourcesInc.andUSWLocal7619.Any possibleerrorsofmisinterpretationaretheauthors’own. References
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