J. Pediatr. (Rio J.) vol.92 número4

JPediatr(RioJ).2016;92(4):331---342

www.jped.com.br

REVIEW

ARTICLE

Coparenting

after

marital

dissolution

and

children’s

mental

health:

a

systematic

review

夽

,

夽夽

Diogo

Lamela

,

Bárbara

Figueiredo

a_{UniversidadeLusófonadoPorto(ULP),Porto,Portugal}

b_{UniversidadedoMinho(Uminho),Braga,Portugal}

Received30July2015;accepted30August2015 Availableonline20May2016

KEYWORDS Coparenting; Mentalhealth; Divorce;

Maritaldissolution; Children;

Parenting

Abstract

Objective: Research has shown that coparenting is a vital family mechanism inpredicting

mentalhealthinchildren andadolescents. Consideringtheincreasing prevalenceofmarital

dissolutioninWesternsocieties,theobjectiveofthissystematicreviewwastosummarizethe

keyresultsofempiricalstudiesthattestedtheassociationbetweenmentalhealthofchildren

andcoparentingaftermaritaldissolution.

Datasource:Thestudieswereobtainedfromthreedatabases(PsycInfo,PubMed,andWebof

Knowledge),publishedbetweenJanuary2000andOctober2014.Thetitles,abstracts,andkey

wordsofthegeneratedcitationswereindependentlyreviewedbytwoinvestigatorsto

consensu-allyselectthearticlesthatmettheinclusioncriteria.Articlesthatusedpsychometricallyvalid

toolstomeasureatleastonementalhealthindicatorandatleastonedimensionofcoparenting

insampleswithdivorcedparentswereincludedinthereview.

Datasynthesis: Ofthe933screenedarticles,11mettheinclusioncriteria.Significantpositive

associationswerefoundbetweencoparentalconflictandbehavioralproblemsandsymptomsof

anxiety,depression,andsomatization.Significantpositiveassociationswerealsofoundbetween

otherspecificdimensionsofcoparenting(coparentalsupport,cooperation,andagreement),

overallmentalhealth,self-esteem,andacademicperformance.

Conclusions: Theintegratedanalysisofthesestudiessuggeststhatcoparentingisakey

mecha-nismwithinthefamilysystemforthepredictionofchildmentalhealthaftermaritaldissolution,

夽

Pleasecitethisarticleas:LamelaD,FigueiredoB.Coparentingaftermaritaldissolutionandchildren’smentalhealth:asystematic review.JPediatr(RioJ).2016;92:331---42.

夽夽

StudycarriedoutatUniversidadeLusófonadoPorto(ULP),Porto,Portugal.

∗_{Correspondingauthor.}

E-mail:lamela@ulp.pt(D.Lamela). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jped.2015.09.011

332 LamelaD,FigueiredoB

andthus,itisrecommendedthatpediatricians,psychologists,andotherhealthprofessionals

considercoparentingasapsychosocialvariableforchildren’s mentalhealth assessmentand

diagnosis.

©2016SociedadeBrasileiradePediatria.PublishedbyElsevierEditoraLtda.Thisisanopen

accessarticleundertheCCBY-NC-NDlicense(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/

4.0/).

PALAVRAS-CHAVE Coparentalidade; Saúdemental; Divórcio;

Dissoluc¸ãoconjugal; Crianc¸as;

Parentalidade

Coparentalidadeapósadissoluc¸ãoconjugalesaúdementaldascrianc¸as:umarevisão

sistemática

Resumo

Objetivo: Ainvestigac¸ãotemdemonstradoacoparentalidadecomoumdosmecanismos

famil-iarescentraisnapredic¸ãodasaúdementalemcrianc¸aseadolescentes.Considerandooaumento

daprevalênciadadissoluc¸ãoconjugalnassociedadesocidentais,oobjetivodestarevisão

sis-temáticafoisumariarosresultados-chavedeestudosempíricosquetestaramaassociac¸ãoentre

asaúdementaldascrianc¸aseacoparentalidadepós-dissoluc¸ãoconjugal.

Fontesdosdados: Foramtriados estudos de três bases de dados(PsycInfo, Pubmed e Web

ofKnowledge), publicados entrejaneiro de 2000 e outubrode 2014. Os títulos, resumos e

palavras-chave das citac¸ões geradas foram independentementeanalisados pordois

investi-gadorespara selecionar consensualmenteos artigosquecumpriamos critérios deinclusão.

Foramincluídos artigosque utilizassem instrumentospsicometricamente válidospara medir

pelomenosumindicadordesaúdementalepelomenosumadimensãodacoparentalidadeem

amostrascompaisdivorciados.

Síntesedosdados: Dos933artigostriados,11cumpriramoscritériosdeinclusão.Foram

encon-tradas associac¸ões significativamente positivas entre o conflito coparental e problemas de

comportamentoesintomasdeansiedade,depressãoesomatizac¸ão.Foramtambémencontradas

associac¸õessignificativamentepositivasentreoutrasdimensõesespecíficasdacoparentalidade

(suporte, cooperac¸ão eacordo coparentais)saúdemental global, autoestima erendimento

acadêmico.

Conclusões: A análise integradora destes estudos sugeriu que a coparentalidade é um

mecanismo-chave dentrodosistema familiarpara apredic¸ãodasaúdemental infantil

pós-dissoluc¸ão conjugal,sendo recomendadoquepediatras, psicólogoseoutrosprofissionais de

saúdeconsideremacoparentalidadecomoumavariávelpsicossocialnaavaliac¸ãoediagnóstico

dasaúdementalemcrianc¸as.

©2016SociedadeBrasileiradePediatria.PublicadoporElsevierEditoraLtda.Este ´eumartigo

OpenAccesssobumalicenc¸aCCBY-NC-ND(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.

0/).

Introduction

The impact of life events on the psychological function-ing of human beings has aroused significant interest in psychologyliterature,asshownbythediversityof concep-tualdefinitionsandexplanatorymodelsdevelopedoverthe pastdecades.1,2 _{In thiscontext, givenitshigh prevalence} inWesterncountries,theimpactofmaritaldissolution on psychological function has been the target of systematic cross-sectional and longitudinal research. The dissolution of thefamily’s marital subsystemappears tohave signifi-cantimplicationsforpsychologicalfunction,notonlyforthe adultswhoexperienceit,butalsoforthechildren.Research hasattemptedtodescribe andunderstand the individual, family,social,andcontextualvariablesthatpredictmental healthafter maritaldissolution, either in adultsor inthe childrenwhoseparentsendedtheirintimaterelationship.

Marital dissolution, while a family life transition char-acterized by structural, processual, and socio-emotional reorganizations,appearstobeempiricallyassociatedwith

the adjustment levels of all family members. One of the most often studied topics in psychology literature about families with separated parents is the impact of marital dissolution on mental health indicators and chil-dren’spsychologicaldevelopment.Althoughtheassociation betweenmaritaldissolutionandproblemsinthe psycholog-icalfunctionofchildrenisnotlinear,3---6_{cross-sectionaland} longitudinal results have shown that children of divorced parentsareatincreasedriskformaladaptiveoutcomes.4,5

Coparentingandchildren’smentalhealth 333

andpsychologicalwell-beingofchildrenliving inthistype offamilystructure.

Although all recent coparenting models suggest the effect, either direct or indirect, of coparenting on the mentalhealthofchildren,9,10_{nosystematicreviewhas} sum-marizedthescientificstudiesthatassessedthisassociation in samples of divorced or separated parents. This article aimstoidentifyandsummarizethemainresultsof empiri-calstudiespublishedinscientificjournalswithpeerreview that assessed the associations between coparenting after maritaldissolution, mental health, and social adjustment ofchildren.

Definitionofcoparenting

Conceptually, coparenting focuses on interparental inter-actionsregardingthefunctions andexpectationsofadults whenperformingtheirroleasparents.11 _Therefore, copar-entingis notcharacterizedby howeach individualparent practiceschildcare,butratherthedynamicsynchronization of adultswhen caring for a particular child.12,13 _McHale14 definedcoparenting as‘‘acontract placedonthose [that are]mutuallyresponsiblefor thecareandupbringingof a child’’. In a previous contribution, Feinberg10 _{stated that} coparentingreferstothewaysparents--- andother adults whotakeonparentalresponsibilities---interact witheach otherwhenperformingparentingfunctions.

Coparenting is not defined, according to this line of thought, as a substrate or ramification of the mari-tal relationship, but as an autonomous subsystem with idiosyncraticanddifferentiablemechanismsand character-istics fromprocesses related to the marital and parental subsystems.10 _{While parenting conceptually describes the} styles and practices that each parent individually brings in their interaction with their child, coparenting focuses on interparental relational dynamics when caring for children.9 _{In other words, parenting focuses on vertical} exchanges(father/mother---child)betweentwodistinct fam-ily subsystems (the parental subsystem and the fraternal subsystem), whilethecoparentalsubsystemrefersto hor-izontalexchanges betweentwoadultssociallyresponsible for the care and development of one or more children. Throughoutthearticle,thecoparentalsubsystemis consid-eredasconsistingofmotherandfather.Oneshouldobserve, however,thatthecoparentalsubsystemcanconsistoftwo ormoreadultswhoundertakesharedfunctionsinthechild’s education,regardlessofgender,sexualorientation,or bio-logicaltiestothechild.10,14

Asthisisarelativelyrecentconstructinpsychology,the existence of an extensive number of proposals to define coparenting as a study object is noticeable.10,15,16 How-ever,mostoftheadvanceddefinitionsbyresearchersseem to converge to a common denominator. Coparenting is operationalized by the degree of coordination of adults in providing care and educationto at least one child, as well as the way each of the adults supports the other’s parenting.10,17,18

Thus,inthelast20years,severalresearchershave pre-sented proposalsto define coparenting,the identification ofitscomponents, andtheanalyticalunderstanding ofits relevance in family dynamics and the explanation of the

developmental outcomes of family members. Teubert & Pinquart,9,19 _{in an attempt to integrate the several} pro-posals for coparenting components described in previous literature,suggested amultidimensional constructsystem that attempts to match and integrate the components of coparentingadvocated by previous models.Therefore, theseauthorsclaimthatcoparentingconsistsoffour dimen-sions:cooperation,agreementincareandeducationofthe children,conflict,andtriangulation.Thecooperation com-ponentwasdefinedasthedegreeofinformationexchange betweentheparentsaboutthechild,andtheexistenceof acontextofrespectandmutualloyaltybetweenthem.

The agreement in care and education of the children componentreferstotheextentofagreementbetweenthe adultsinmattersrelatedtothechild.Inturn,theconflict componentreflectsthedegreeofparentingsabotagebythe otherparentthroughtheuseofguilt,criticism,and belittle-ment.Finally,accordingtotheseauthors,thetriangulation componentreferstothedevelopmentofcoalitionsbetween amemberofthecoparentalteamandthechild,whichputs thechildatthecenterofinterparentalconflicts.9

Coparentingandchildren’smentalhealth

Coparentingreferstocoordinationofadultsinthecareand educationof children. This coordination is not limited to merelyinstrumentalissues in providing care.Cooperative parentsgiveprioritytothewell-beingoftheirchildren,as theycreateandmaintainaconstructiverelationship, with moreflexibleandworkableboundariesbetweenthem.10

Relyingontheorganizationoffourcomponentsof copar-enting,Teubert&Pinquart9_{publishedthefirstmeta-analysis} toassesstheassociationbetweenthequalityofcoparenting relationshipsandthechild’spsychologicaladjustment.This studyhasthespecificadvantageofquantifyingtheeffectof coparentingintheexplanationofchildren’smentalhealth andsocial adjustment. Previous studies have consistently reportedastatisticallysignificantassociationbetweenthese twovariables.Forinstance, highlevelsofcoparental con-flictandlowlevelsofinterparentalcooperationpredicted externalizingproblems,regardlessoftheiragerange.20_The difficulties of coparental cooperation are also associated with internalizing problems, attentional difficulties, poor academicperformance,anddecreased qualityofparental relationshipestablishedindividuallybyeachparentwiththe child.21

In a pioneering study on the association between the qualityofcoparentingandthehealthstatusofthechildren, BarzelandReid22_{demonstratedthatthecoparentalconflict} wasassociatednotonlywithinternalizingandexternalizing problems,butalsowithworsebehaviorregardingthe man-agementof diabetes andalower perceptionof qualityof liferelatedtothisdisease,inasampleofschoolchildren.

334 LamelaD,FigueiredoB

coparentingwaslow,butsignificant,sucheffectsremained statisticallysignificantevenafterparentingandqualityof maritalrelationswerecontrolled.9

Coparentinginfamilieswithseparatedand divorcedparents

Maritaldissolutiondoesnotdissolvethefamily.Thefamily systemremains,requiring,however,aprocessualand struc-tural reorganization of the remaining family subsystems, with implications for the individual and systemic devel-opment.Overthe pastdecades,researchhasconsistently shownthatthequalityofcoparentalrelationshipafter mar-italdissolution is oneof themain predictors of children’s development.3,5 _{In other words, mental health problems} in children do not seem to becaused by marital dissolu-tionitself,butbythedegreeandtypeofinterparentaland coparentalconflictoccurringafterthisfamilytransition.

In fact, some authorsargue that coparentalconflict is theresult of diffuse boundaries betweenthe subsystems, characterized by the parent’s weak capacity to separate theromanticpastandthe possibleensuing litigiousissues from current coparental relationships.17,23,24 _More specif-ically, clinical investigations suggest that the coparental conflictmayreflectthetransferofmaritalconflictsintothe coparentalrelationship,which,inmostcases,becomesthe onlycontactbetweenparents,andthedifficultyin estab-lishingnewrelationalboundariesbetweenparentsemerges asoneofthemainfactorsforthecoparentalconflict.23,25

As in families with married parents, the coparental alliance is not synonymouswith absence of interparental conflict. The coparental alliance results from an active commitmentbetweenparents oncooperation andsharing ofchildcareandeducation.This cooperative commitment becomesevenmoreimportantinfamilieswithdivorcedor separatedparents. Empirical data suggest that a positive coparental alliance promotes greater involvement of the nonresident parentin the daily lives of children and acts asa protective factor for theacademic performance and psychosocialwell-beingofthesechildren.26---31 _{In addition,} secureattachment,thequalityofthemaritalrelationship prior to its dissolution, level of education, the parents’ financialstability,parentalmentalhealth,andtheexistence of newintimate relationships areimportant predictors of coparentalrelationshipqualityaftermaritaldissolution.32---37

Coparentingaftermaritaldissolutionand children’smentalhealth

Coparentingisadyadicconstructwithatriadic manifesta-tion.Inotherwords,theconceptualmodelsofcoparenting defendthatthecoparentalsubsystemstructureandprocess constituteapreviousexplanatory mechanismofindividual performances of each parent and each child that makes upthistriadicinteraction.10,14_{Thus,empiricalresearchhas} focused mainly on studying the associations between the qualityofcoparentingandparentingandthepsychological functionofeach parent.Overall,theresearchhasaimed, over the last decade, to understand how the quality of thecoparentalalliancebetweenparentsaftermarital dis-solution is associated with the psychopathology levels of

parents, thenonresident father’sinvolvement in the chil-dren’s lives, andthe qualityof and satisfactionwithnew intimaterelationships.

Surprisingly, the empirical data on the association betweencoparentingandchildren’smentalhealthafterthe parents’ maritaldissolution appearsto bereduced, when comparedtotheavailableempiricaldataonthe psychologi-calfunctionofchildrenwithmarriedparentsandevenwhen comparedtostudiesthatfocusontheimpactofcoparenting onmentalhealthindicatorsandsocialadjustmentofparents aftermaritaldissolution.

Thissystematicreviewaimedtoidentifyempirical stud-ies that have assessed associations between coparenting componentsindivorcedparentsanddifferentareasofthe children’smentalhealthdomains,aimingtosummarizethe keyfindingsandcriticallyassesstheirimplicationsforfuture research. Thus, this review discusses which coparenting componentsexercisedbydivorcedparentshavebeen empir-ically tested toexplain the variationin children’s mental healthindicators.

Methods

Researchstrategyanddataextraction

In orderto understand the methodologicaltrends, objec-tives, and results, the authors performed a systematic surveyofthescientificliteraturefromJanuary2000to Octo-ber2014,aimingtoidentifyempiricalstudiesonthetarget variablesof thisreview.Empirical studiesthathadasone of their research aims the assessment of the association between coparenting--- or at least one of itscomponents --- and psychological development and/or function indica-torsin childrenwithdivorcedparentsweresystematically reviewed. As the conceptual definition of coparenting is recentinthepsychologicalliterature,conceptsthatare tra-ditionallyusedtodescribethedimensionsofinterparental coordination, both regarding decision-making in the lives of their children and the children’s care, were consid-eredinthissurvey.Consequently,conceptssuchasparental alliance, interparentalconflict, triangulation,and parent-ing were considered in this review. Observe that these concepts arenotconceptuallysynonymouswith coparent-ing.Similarly,onlyempiricalstudiespublishedinscientific journals with a peer-review system indexed to selected databaseswereincludedand,therefore,empiricalstudies published in chapters of books, doctoral theses, master’s degreedissertations,andthoseinscientificjournalswithout apeer-reviewsystemwereexcludedfromtheanalysis.

Coparentingandchildren’smentalhealth 335

eligiblearticlesforthereview.Thefull articleswere ana-lyzedwhenitwasnotpossibletodecideupontheinclusion or exclusion of thepublication according tothese indica-tors. All studies that appeared tomeet the criteria were independentlyreviewedbytwoinvestigatorsregardingtheir inclusionanddataextraction.Disagreementsbetween the researchers were resolved through discussion to reach a consensus.

Inclusionandexclusioncriteria

The inclusion criteria to select articles for this review were:beingaquantitativeempiricalstudy;publicationina journalwithapeer-reviewsystem;havingatleastone mea-sure of coparenting evaluation, or one of its components or associatedconcepts; measurementof coparentingwith formerspouse(parentalremarriagewasnotconsideredan exclusioncriterion);havingatleastonepsychometric eval-uationmeasureofanindicatorofthechild’smentalhealth or development, includingreports of inferential statistics (e.g.,correlations,regressions,structuralmodels)between thecoparentingmeasureandmentalhealthmeasureofthe children assessedin thestudy; and,finally,having a sam-plethatalsoincludedchildrenofparentswithothermarital status rather than divorced and having independent data forfamilieswithdivorcedparentsregardingtheconsidered variables.

Studies thatmeasurednon-coparentalconflictbetween parents (e.g., studies evaluating the inter-adult conflict through marital conflict and/or operating scales, such as theConflictTacticsScale)38_{werenotincluded.Studiesthat} reported results on the same variables in the same sam-plewereexcluded,consideringforinclusiononlythemost recentlypublishedstudy.

Results

TheresearchandexclusionprocessissummarizedinFig.1. Ofthe933articlesidentifiedintheselecteddatabases,11 mettheinclusioncriteriaandwereincludedinthisreview. The mainresults oftheincluded studies onthe impactof

Articles initially identified in the database search

(n=933)

Studies selected for further screening (n=414)

– Case or qualitative studies

– Articles not available in English, Portuguese, or Spanish

– Theses, dissertations, lectures

– No psychometric measure of co-parenting – No measurement of at least one indicator of children’s mental health

– No data from the subsample of divorced parentes

– Articles with the same sample

– Psychometric studies Theoretical, reviews, books

– Exclusive evaluation of non-coparental conflict

Excluded (n=519):

Excluded (n=380):

Excluded (n=23): Studies selected for

detailed assessment (n=34)

Studies included in the review (n=11)

Figure1 Flowchartoftheselectionprocessofempirical

stud-ies.

coparentingonchildren’s psychological function are sum-marizedinTable1.

Studycharacteristics

From the methodological point of view, the 11 selected studiesshowconsiderablevariabilityamongthemregarding the sample size, the children’s ages, and the tools used tomeasurecoparentingandmentalhealth and psycholog-ical adjustment indicators. More specifically, the results reportedinthestudiesconsideredinthisreviewwere gener-atedfromsamplesofchildreninearlychildhood,schoolage, adolescence,andemergingadulthood,usedcross-sectional andlongitudinal designs,evaluatedcoparenting usingthe parents’and/orchildren’sself-report,andassessed psycho-logicalfunctionindicatorsusingdifferenttools.39---49

Coparentingandoverallmentalhealth

Theresults demonstrate asignificant association between coparenting(oritscomponents)andoverallmentalhealth indicatorsof children,adolescents,andyoung adultswith divorcedparents.Morespecifically,somestudiesshowthat coparentingexplains a substantial proportionof the vari-anceintheoverallpsychologicaladjustment.Forinstance, inthestudyofMacieandStolberg,40 _{thecoparental} behav-iorexplains46%ofthevarianceoftheoverallmentalhealth ofadolescents,whileTrinderetal.45_{showedthatparental} concerns about the parenting skills of the former spouse explained31% of mental health problems of children two yearsafter the mediation session that regulates parental power.

Coparentingandexternalizingandinternalizing problems

Exposuretocoparentalconflict,generallydefinedas expres-sionofangeranduseofreducedassertivenessstrategiesto solvecoparentalproblems, appearstobethe coparenting dimensionwiththemostrobustassociationswith external-izing problems.47 _{For instance, Amato et al.}47 _{found that} childrenwhoseparentshadaconflictingcoparentalpattern, characterized by high levels of latent conflict and nega-tiveaffectexpressionandlowlevelsofcoparentalsupport andagreement, had morebehavioral problems in adoles-cence(e.g.,absenteeismandschoolfailure,substanceuse, oroppositionalbehavior),whencomparedtoparents with acooperativecoparentalpattern (i.e.,high levelsof sup-portandagreementandlow levelsofnegativeaffectand conflictexpression) and parents withparallel coparenting (i.e.,lowlevelsofconflict,coparentalsupport,and agree-ment).

Coparentingandinternalizingproblems

336

Lamela

D,

Figueiredo

B

Table1 Summaryofstudycharacteristicsandmainresults.

Study(year)

Country

Design Participants Coparentalmeasurement Children’smentalhealth

measurement

Results

Hilton&

Desrochers39

(2002) USA

PCS 120parents(60divorced and60married)

Magechildrenwith divorced

parents=between7.3 and9.6years(SD=NA)

-Coparentalconflict (QualityofCoparental CommunicationScale)

-Externalizingproblems (SR-P)

(ChildBehaviorChecklist)

Coparentalconflict,amongother variables,wasshowntobeamediating mechanismbetweenthenegativeand significantassociationofthedivorced parents’maritalstatusandchildren’s externalizingsymptoms

Macie&

Stolberg40₍₂₀₀₃₎ USA

PCS 68dyads(parent---child) 72%childrenaged between10and 15years.28%between 16and17years

-Perceptionofparents’ coparentingbehavior (CoparentingBehavior Questionnaire)

-Psychologicaladjustment (SR-PandSR-C)

(BehaviorProblemsIndex) -Self-esteem(SR-C) (HareSelf-esteemScale)

Children’sperceptionofparents’ coparentingbehaviorpredictedthe globalmentalhealthandself-esteemof children.Thecoparentingbehavior perceivedbychildrenwasnot

statisticallyassociatedwithsymptomsof hyperactivityorsymptomsofdepression andanxiety,whenassessedbyparents. Dimensionsofcoparentingbehavior, suchasconflict,triangulation, respect/cooperation,and

communication,arenegativelyand significantlycorrelatedwiththe children’spsychologicalfunction measures

Fabricius& Luecken41₍₂₀₀₇₎ USA

RCS 266universitystudents, whoseparentsdivorced beforetheirchildren were16yearsold

-Coparentalconflict

(Singlequestioncreatedbythe studyauthors)

-Psychosomaticsymptoms (SomatizationSubscale, SymptomChecklist---90-R)

Overall,inastructuralmodel,parental conflictpredictedgreatercurrent distressabouttheparents’divorce,and inturn,thedistresssignificantly predictedtheparticipants’physical healthlevels

Morespecifically,astatistically significantassociationoflowmagnitude wasfoundbetweencoparentalconflict andthecurrentlevelsofpsychosomatic symptoms

Lau42₍₂₀₀₇₎ Hong-Kong

PCS 62dyads(residentfather andchild)

Mageofchild= 11.6years(SD=NA)

-Parentalagreementin decisionmaking

(CoparentalInteractionScale) -Coparentalsupportand cooperation

(ParentingSupportScale)

-Self-esteem(SR-C) (Self-perceptionProfilefor ChildrenScale)

Coparenting

and

children’

s

mental

health

337

Table1 (Continued)

Study(year)

Country

Design Participants Coparentalmeasurement Children’smentalhealth

measurement

Results

Schrodt&Afifi43

(2007) USA

RCS 1170youngadults(484 withdivorcedparents) Magetotalsample= 20.2years(SD=5.4)

-Triangulationandcoparenting sabotage(SRC)

(FeelingCaughtScale)

-Mentalhealth

(MentalHealthSubscale, AdolescentHealthScale)

Youngadultswithdivorcedparentshad significantlyhighervaluesof

triangulationandcoparentingsabotage thanyoungadultswithmarriedparents. Inthegroupofyoungindividualswith divorcedparents,triangulationand coparentingsabotagewereshowntobe amediatingvariablebetweenmarital dissatisfactioninthepastandcurrent mentalhealthlevels

Gasperetal.44 (2008) USA

PCS 389universitystudents Mage=19.6years (SD=2.0)

-Perceptionofparents’ coparentingbehavior(SR-C) (CoparentingBehavior Questionnaire)

-Overallmentalhealth (BriefSymptomInventory) -Problemswithintimacy (FearofIntimacyScale) -Delinquency

(DelinquencySyndrome Subscale,YoungAdult Self-Report)

Inastructuralmodel,theparents’ divorcedstatuswasrelatedtohigher coparentalhostilityandlower coparentalcooperationwhich,inturn, wereassociatedwithlowerlevelsof mentalhealthandself-esteemand higherdelinquencylevelsandproblems withintimacy.Theseresultssuggestthe mediatingeffectofthesecoparenting dimensionsoftheparents’maritalstatus andmentalhealthindicatorsofchildren Trinderetal.45

(2008)

UnitedKingdom

L 117divorcedfathersand mothers(moment3of theevaluation)residents andnon-residents.High litigationsample

-Coparentingconcerns (ParentingConcernsScale) -Divisionoftasksaccordingto coparenting

(CoparentalDecision-making scale)

-Emotionalandbehavioral well-being

(StrengthandDifficulties Questionnaire[SDQ] ---parents’version)

Higherconcernsaboutthequalityof parentingbytheotherparentpredicted psychologicalwell-being(totalSDQ)of thechildrentwoyearsafterthecourt sessionofmediationregulatingparental power.Theageandgenderofthechild werenotstatisticallysignificant predictorsoftheirpsychological well-beingatthemomentofthe assessment

Altenhofen etal.46₍₂₀₁₀₎ USA

PCS 24dyads(resident mothersandtheir children)

Mageofchild= 37months(SD=13.4)

-Coparentalcommunication (QualityofCoparental CommunicationScale)

-Secureattachment (Waters’AttachmentQ-Set)

338

Lamela

D,

Figueiredo

B

Table1 (Continued)

Study(year)

Country

Design Participants Coparentalmeasurement Children’smentalhealth

measurement

Results

Amatoetal.47

(2011) USA

L 784divorcedand/or separatedresident parents,455children evaluatedin adolescence,andof these,296were reassessedatemerging adulthood

Mageofchildrenatthe moment2of

evaluation=12.4years (SD=NA)

Mageofchildrenat moment3=22.7years (SD=NA)

-Coparentalfunction (Questionsdevelopedwithin theresearchprojectcontext onthedivisionofcoparental tasks,support,conflictsand agreement.Questions non-subjecttopsychometric validation)

-Problemswithbehavior, useofsubstances, self-esteemandlife satisfaction(Questions developedbyresearchers. Nopsychometricvalidity indicatoroftheitems administeredbytelephone interviewisreported)

Adolescentswithparentsthathada conflictedcoparentingpatternshowed morebehavioralproblemsthan adolescentswhoseparentswere characterizedbyacooperativeor parallelcoparentingpattern Nodifferenceswerefoundregarding othermentalhealthindicatorsof childrenduetotheparents’coparental pattern,eitherinadolescenceorin emergingadulthood

Shimkowski& Schrodt48₍₂₀₁₂₎ USA

RCS 493youngadults(129 withdivorcedparents) Mtotalsampleage= 20.3years(SD=2.9)

-Coparentalcommunication (SR-C)

(QualityofCoparenting Questionnaire)

-Mentalhealth

(AdolescentHealthScale Subscale)

Whencomparedwithyoungadultswith marriedparents,youngadultswith divorcedparentsshowedhigherlevelsof antagonistcoparentalcommunication andlowerlevelsofcoparentalsupport andmentalhealthcommunication. Inastructuralmodel,theeffectof maritalconflictexercisedatcurrent levelsofthechildren’smentalhealth wasexercisedthroughantagonistic coparentalcommunication.No multi-groupdifferenceswerefound (marriedparentsversusdivorced parents)inthismodel

Yárnoz-Yaben etal.49₍₂₀₁₂₎ Spain

PCS 223divorcedparentsand 160oftheirchildren Mageofchild= 11.0years(SD=6.7)

-Willingnesstocoparent(SR-P) (SubescalaCoparentalidade, CuestionariodeAdaptaciónal Divorcio-Separación)

-Coparentalsupport(SR-P) (CuestionariodeApoyo RecibidodelaEx-pareja)

-Internalizingand externalizingsymptoms (SR-P)

(ChildBehaviorChecklist [CBCL])

Willingnesstocoparentandcoparental supportwerenotsignificantlyassociated withofinternalizingandexternalizing symptomsandtotalCBCL

Coparentingandchildren’smentalhealth 339

the coparentalbehavior of parents significantlypredicted theirsymptomsofanxietyanddepression,explaining37%of thevarianceinthisinternalizingindicator.Additionally,that studyshowedthatspecificdimensionsofcoparenting,such asconflict, communication, triangulation,and coparental respect/cooperation, were associated with symptoms of anxietyanddepressionassessedeitherbytheparentsorby thechildren’sself-report.40

Coparentingandotherindicatorsofpsychological andsocialadjustment

Inadditiontotestingtheassociationbetweencoparenting and levels of overall psychological adjustment and inter-nalizingandexternalizing symptoms,fivestudies assessed the effect of coparenting on other psychological health indicators of children.40---42,44,46,47 _{In more detail, a low} levelofcooperationandhighcoparentalhostilityand con-flict were associated with lower levels of self-esteem in emerging adult and school-age children.42,44 _{In turn, the} pastcoparentalconflictpredictedlevelsofsomatizationin emergingadulthood.41

Furthermore,specificdimensions ofcoparenting---i.e., low support and high coparental conflict --- were associ-atedwithdifficultiesinestablishingintimate relationships in emerging adulthood,44 _{which appears to indicate that} frequent exposure to interparental interaction patterns characterizedbyreducedaffectivecloseness,cooperation, and relational negotiation (i.e., low coparental support) and high negative affect expression can influence the developmentofadaptive representationsinthehorizontal relationshipbetweenadults,whichisinturnreflectedinthe capacityofchildrentoestablishsecureandintimate inter-personalrelationsasadults.Ontheotherhand,Altenhofen etal.46 _{did notfind asignificant association between the} qualityofcoparentalcommunicationandchildren’ssecure attachmentatanearlyage.

Discussion

Inthissystematicreview,empiricalstudiesthatinvestigated theeffectofcoparentingaftermaritaldissolutionon chil-dren’smentalhealthwereidentified,aimingtosummarize themain results. Insynopsis,the resultsof the investiga-tionsincludedinthisreviewappeartoindicateasignificant associationbetweencoparentingandmentalhealthmarkers ofthechildrenofdivorcedparents.

Most studies that assessed the associations between coparenting and externalizing problems showed that coparentalconflictissignificantlyassociatedwithincreased symptoms of behavioral problems in the children. These results appear to be in line with empirical research that assessed the association between marital and coparental conflict in married parents and the children’s externaliz-inglevels.9,50,51_{Intheory,someauthorsmaintainthatsocial} learning,52,53 _{emotional security,}54 _{cognitive distortion,}55 and psychophysiological deregulation56 _{processes explain} theassociationbetweentheuseofaggressivetechniquesby parentstodestructivelymanageconflictsandthebehavioral regulationdysfunctionofchildren.

Additionally,theresultsofstudiesthatassessedthe asso-ciation between coparenting and internalizing symptoms appeartobeinlinewiththosefoundinstudiesofchildren withmarried,separated,or never-marriedparents.57---59 _In turn, the study by Fabricius & Luecken,41 _{which showed} thatpastcoparentalconflicthadpredictivepoweron som-atization levels in emerging adulthood, is in line with empiricalresearchthathasconsistentlyshownasignificant association between family conflict during childhood and psychosomaticsymptomsand/ordisordersinadulthood.60,61 Ontheotherhand,contrarytowhatmightbeexpected fromatheoreticalpointofview,62,63_{the onlystudyinthe} literature about the effect of coparenting after marital dissolutiononchildren’sattachmentshowednosignificant associationbetweenthechildren’ssecureattachmentand assessed coparenting components.46 _{This empirical} infor-mationappearstocorroborateprevious studiesoffamilies with married parents that systematically demonstrated positiveandsignificantassociationsbetweenpositive copar-enting and children’s secure attachment and between interparental conflict and/or conflictual/non-supportive coparentingandchildren’sinsecureattachments.64---66 How-ever,theresultsofthisstudy,intheauthors’opinion,should beinterpretedwithcaution, astheabsenceof significant association values may be due to the possible decreased statisticalpower,consideringthesamplesize(n=24).

Someofthestudies,whencomparingpsychological func-tiondimensionsinchildrenofdivorcedparentswithchildren of married parents, suggested that the effect of nega-tive coparenting in developmental outcomes appears to beobservedinchildren, adolescents,andemergingadults regardlessoftheirfamilystructure.48 _{Thus,futurestudies} shouldtrytoreplicatetheseresultsandunderstandwhether coparentalprocessesarequalitativelyinfluencedbythe par-ents’ marital status or, in contrast, through other proxy variables,67 _{which,althoughnotaresultofmarital} dissolu-tion,haveahigherprobabilityofprevalenceamongdivorced parents.

Studylimitationsandfutureinvestigations

340 LamelaD,FigueiredoB

componentsintheresearch,whichhindersthe comparabil-ityofresults.Second,coparentingwasassessedinallstudies byself-reportmeasures,withouttheinclusionofother mea-surementtools, which,through thetriangulation ofdata, wouldincreasethevalidityoftheresults.

Third,there is an overrepresentation of studies whose samplesconsistofasmallnumberofparticipants(five stud-ieswithasample sizewithlessthan150 participants),or participantswithriskcharacteristics (e.g.,high litigation) (onestudy)oryoungadultparticipantsinauniversity con-text(two studies).Onlyonestudy47 _{usedarepresentative} sampleofthepopulation;however,measuresadministered toevaluatecoparentingand mentalhealth werenot vali-datedusingapsychometrictool,whichrepresentsamarked methodological limitation. Finally, three of the studies withlargersamplesizes hadretrospectivecharacteristics, instructingparticipantstoevokememoriesofmarital con-flictorqualityofcoparentingduringtheirchildhoodand/or adolescence.41,43,48

Althoughtheresultsofthesestudiesshowatrendthat is in line withthose obtained instudies with longitudinal or prospective cross-sectional design, some research has shown,inotherareasofpsychology,thatempiricalresults based on measures that require evoking past memories aboutpotentiallyadverseeventscanshowvalidityproblems andsufferfromthemisinformationeffect.69---71 _Therefore, additional precautions are advised when interpreting the results of these retrospective investigations. Fifth, the reviewedstudies,exceptfortheonebyAmatoetal.,47_used eithertoolsthatmeasuredisolatedcomponentsof coparent-ing(sevenstudies)or broadbandtools(threestudies)that measuredcoparentingasaone-dimensionalconstruct.Now, basedontheconceptualpremisethatcoparentingis multi-dimensional,aone-dimensionalevaluationoftheconstruct doesnotallowtheunderstandingof thepotential special-izedeffectofthedimensionsofcoparentingwhenpredicting specificmentalhealthproblems,whichcanbeseenasa sig-nificantlimitationofthecurrentgenerationstudiesinthe domain.

Hence,onlythestudybyYárnoz-Yaben etal.49 _appears to be able to assemble a set of methodological charac-teristicsthat increasethe externalvalidityof theresults, asitprospectivelyevaluatesconstructs,hasasamplethat seemstoensureadequatestatisticalpowertotestthestudy objectives, and usesmeasures with psychometric quality. However,thedatareportedbytheauthorsarecorrelational, astheanalysisoftheassociationbetweencoparentingand children’s psychological function was not the aim of the study.

Hence,futurestudiesinthisareashouldrespondtothe methodologicallimitations identifiedinprevious empirical studies. Thus, future studies using theoretically oriented coparentingassessmentmeasureswithpsychometric valid-ity,whichhaveaprospectivedesignandanadequatesample sizetoachievestatisticalpower,cansignificantlycontribute tothe stateof theart.Additionally,futurestudiesshould alsoassessthepotentialmoderatingeffect,amongothers, ofthechildren’sage,ofthetimesincemaritaldissolution, andofthedegree oflitigation intheassociation between coparentingandthechildren’smental health, considering the lack of empiricaldata to date. Finally, based onthe factthat coparenting is a multidimensionalconcept, it is

reasonable to hypothesize that the interactive combina-tionof different componentsofcoparenting mayproduce differentcoparentalfunctionpatterns,whichmaybe differ-entiallyassociatedwithparentingandmentalhealthlevels of parents and their children. This theoretical hypothe-sis has been tested in a recent study carried out in the UnitedStates.47_{However,thisstudyshowsbothconceptual} (i.e., the operationalization of coparenting and its asso-ciations with other family subsystem is not theoretically oriented) and methodologicallimitations (Table 1), which reduce the external validityof the results. Following this line of thought, further investigations should be carried out toreplicate theresults found bythe authors,using a conceptual framework that will include the evaluation of coparentingcomponentsandtheirassociationwiththe psy-chologicalfunctionofdivorcedparentsandtheirchildren.

Final

considerations

Traditionally, psychological research has highlighted the impactofindividualvariablesrelatedtoeachparentonthe mentalhealthofchildren,suchaspsychopathological mal-adjustment, attachment patterns, personality traits, and exposure to adversities throughout life. However, as dis-cussedinthischapter,severalstudiespublishedinthelast 20 yearshave shown thatspecific coparentingdimensions (agreement/disagreement with the care and sabotage of parenting) have an important explanatory weight for the child’sdevelopmentalresultsaftermaritaldissolution.

Moreconcretely,researchdatahaveshown that copar-entingisarobustpredictorofinternalizingandexternalizing problemsofchildren,mentalhealthlevelsofparents,and processualcharacteristicswithinthefamilyafterthisfamily transition.However,asshowninthisreviewoftheempirical literature,thescientificstudyofcoparentingaftermarital dissolution can take on clinical importance for the plan-ningofpsychologicalinterventionsinthecontextofprimary health care, basedon evidencethat promotes familyand child adjustmentafter thisfamilytransition.More specif-ically, by showing which coparenting components have a differentialimpactontheadventofmentalhealthproblems in children, this review may contribute to the develop-mentofinterventionprogramsthatfocusonmorespecific modules for intervention targets, in accordance with the principlesofpediatricandpsychologicalpracticebasedon empiricalevidence.72---74

Conflicts

of

interest

Theauthorsdeclarenoconflictsofinterest.

References

1.SchlossbergNK.Counselingadultsintransition:linkingpractice withtheory.NewYork:Springer;2005.

2.McCannIL,Sakheim DK,AbrahamsonDJ.Trauma and victim-ization:amodel ofpsychologicaladaptation. Couns Psychol. 1988;16:531---94.

Coparentingandchildren’smentalhealth 341

4.LansfordJE.Parentaldivorceandchildren’sadjustment. Per-spectPsycholSci.2009;4:140---52.

5.Nunes-CostaR,LamelaD,Figueiredo B. Psychosocial adjust-mentandphysicalhealthinchildrenofdivorce.JPediatr(Rio J).2009;85:85---96.

6.TolleLW,O’DonohueWX.Improvingthequalityofchildcustody evaluations:asystematicmodel.NewYork:Springer;2012. 7.Hetherington EM, Bridges M, Insabella GM. What matters?

Whatdoesnot?Fiveperspectivesontheassociationbetween marital transitions and children’s adjustment. Am Psychol. 1998;53:167---84.

8.KellyJB,EmeryRE.Children’sadjustment followingdivorce: riskandresilienceperspectives.FamRelat.2003;52:352---62. 9.Teubert D, Pinquart M. The association between

coparent-ingand childadjustment: ameta-analysis. ParentSci Pract. 2010;10:286---307.

10.FeinbergME.Theinternalstructureandecologicalcontextof coparenting:aframeworkforresearchandintervention.Parent SciPract.2003;3:95---131.

11.McConnellMC, KerigPK.Assessingcoparentinginfamilies of school-agechildren:validationoftheCoparentingandFamily RatingSystem.CanJBehavSci.2002;34:44---58.

12.GroenendykAE,VollingBL.Coparentingand earlyconscience developmentinthefamily.JGenetPsychol.2007;168:201---24. 13.McHaleJP,Kuersten-HoganR,RaoN.Growingpointsfor

copar-entingtheoryandresearch.JAdultDev.2004;11:221---34. 14.McHaleJP. Wheninfantsgrowupinmultipersonrelationship

systems.InfantMentHealthJ.2007;28:370---92.

15.MargolinG,GordisEB,John RS.Coparenting:alinkbetween maritalconflictand parenting intwo-parentfamilies.JFam Psychol.2001;15:3---21.

16.McHaleJP.Overtandcovertcoparentingprocessesinthefamily. FamProcess.1997;36:183---201.

17.Lamela D, Nunes-Costa R, Figueiredo B. Modelos teóri-cos das relac¸ões coparentais: revisão crítica. Psicol Estud. 2010;15:205---16.

18.FeinbergME, Brown LD,Kan ML.A multi-domainself-report measureofcoparenting.ParentSciPract.2012;12:1---21. 19.TeubertD,PinquartM.Thelinkbetweencoparenting,

parent-ing,andadolescentlifesatisfaction.FamSci.2011;2:221---9. 20.Feinberg ME, Kan ML, Hetherington EM. The

longitudi-nal influence of coparenting conflict on parental negativity and adolescent maladjustment. J Marriage Fam. 2007;69: 687---702.

21.Kolak AM, Vernon-Feagans L. Family-level coparenting pro-cesses and child gender as moderators of family stress and toddleradjustment.InfantChildDev.2008;17:617---38. 22.BarzelM,Reid GJ.Coparentingin relationtochildren’s

psy-chosocialanddiabetes-specificadjustment.JPediatrPsychol. 2011;36:618---29.

23.Madden-Derdich DA, Leonard SA, Christopher FS. Boundary ambiguityandcoparentalconflictafterdivorce:anempirical testofafamilysystemsmodelofthedivorceprocess.JMarriage Fam.1999;61:588---98.

24.StewartSD.Howthebirthofachildaffectsinvolvementwith stepchildren.JMarriageFam.2005;67:461---73.

25.BaumN.Postdivorcepaternaldisengagement:failedmourning androlefusion.JMaritalFamTher.2006;32:245---54.

26.AhronsCR,MillerRB.Theeffectofthepostdivorce relation-ship on paternal involvement: a longitudinal analysis. Am J Orthopsychiatry.1993;63:441---50.

27.Cookston JT, Braver SL, Griffin WA, De Lusé SR, Miles JC. Effectsofthedadsforlifeinterventiononinterparentalconflict andcoparentinginthetwoyearsafterdivorce.FamProcess. 2007;46:123---37.

28.HawkinsDN,AmatoPR,KingV.Nonresidentfatherinvolvement andadolescentwell-being:fathereffectsorchildeffects?Am SociolRev.2007;72:990---1010.

29.McGeneJ,KingV.Implicationsofnewmarriagesandchildren for coparentinginnonresidentfatherfamilies.JFam Issues. 2012;33:1619---41.

30.PaulsonJF,DauberSE,LeifermanJA.Parentaldepression, rela-tionshipquality,andnonresidentfatherinvolvementwiththeir infants.JFamIssues.2011;32:528---49.

31.ModeckiKL,HaganMJ,SandlerI,WolchikSA.Latentprofilesof nonresidentialfatherengagementsixyearsafterdivorce pre-dictlong-termoffspringoutcomes.JClinChildAdolescPsychol. 2015;44:123---36.

32.Dush CM, Kotila LE, Schoppe-Sullivan SJ. Predictors of sup-portivecoparentingafterrelationshipdissolutionamongat-risk parents.JFamPsychol.2011;25:356---65.

33.FeinbergME, KanML. Establishingfamily foundations: inter-ventioneffectsoncoparenting,parent/infantwell-being,and parent---childrelations.JFamPsychol.2008;22:253---63. 34.HiltonJM,DevallEL.Thefamilyeconomicstrainscale:

devel-opment and evaluation of the instrument with single- and two-parentfamilies.JFamEconIssues.1997;18:247---71. 35.LamelaD,FigueiredoB.Post-divorcerepresentationsofmarital

negotiationduringmarriagepredictparentingallianceinnewly divorcedparents.SexRelatTher.2011;26:182---90.

36.StrightAD,BalesSS.Coparentingquality:contributionsofchild andparentcharacteristics.FamRelat.2003;52:232---40. 37.Yárnoz-YabenS.Hacialacoparentalidadpost-divorcio:

percep-ción del apoyo de la ex pareja en progenitores divorciados espa˜noles.IntJClinHealthPsychol.2010;10:295---307. 38.StrausMA.Measuringintrafamilyconflictandviolence:the

con-flicttactics(CT)scales.JMarriageFam.1979;7:5---88. 39.Hilton JM, Desrochers S. Children’s behavior problems in

single-parentand married-parentfamilies:developmentofa predictivemodel.JDivorceRemarriage.2002;37:13---36. 40.MacieKM,StolbergAL.Assessingparentingafterdivorce:the

co-parenting behavior questionnaire. J Divorce Remarriage. 2003;39:89---107.

41.Fabricius WV, Luecken LJ. Postdivorce living arrangements, parent conflict, and long-termphysical healthcorrelates for childrenofdivorce.JFamPsychol.2007;21:195---205. 42.Lau YK. Patterns of post-divorce parental alliance and

chil-dren’s self-esteem in Hong Kong. J Divorce Remarriage. 2007;47:155---73.

43.Schrodt P, Afifi TD. Communication processes that predict young adults’feelingsofbeingcaughtand theirassociations withmentalhealthand familysatisfaction.Commun Monogr. 2007;74:200---28.

44.GasperJAF,StolbergAL,MacieKM,WilliamsLJ.Coparentingin intactanddivorcedfamilies:itsimpactonyoungadult adjust-ment.JDivorceRemarriage.2008;49:272---90.

45.TrinderL,KelletJ,SwiftL.Therelationshipbetweencontact and child adjustment in high conflict cases after divorce or separation.ChildAdolescMentHealth.2008;13:181---7. 46.AltenhofenS,SutherlandK,BiringenZ.Familiesexperiencing

divorce: ageat onsetof overnightstays, conflict, and emo-tionalavailabilityaspredictorsofchildattachment.JDivorce Remarriage.2010;51:141---56.

47.Amato PR, Kane JB, James S. Reconsidering the ‘‘good divorce’’.FamRelat.2011;60:511---24.

48.ShimkowskiJR,SchrodtP.Coparentalcommunicationasa medi-atorofinterparentalconflictandyoungadultchildren’smental well-being.CommunMonogr.2012;79:48---71.

49.Yárnoz-YabenS,GonzálezPC,JáureguiAG.Ajustealdivorciode losprogenitoresyproblemasdeconductaenhijosdefamilias separadas.InfancAprendiz.2012;35:37---48.

342 LamelaD,FigueiredoB

51.Kouros CD, Cummings EM, Davies PT. Early trajectories of interparental conflict and externalizing problems as predic-torsofsocialcompetenceinpreadolescence.DevPsychopathol. 2010;22:527---37.

52.Cummings EM, Goeke-Morey MC, Papp LM. Everyday mari-tal conflict and child aggression. J Abnorm Child Psychol. 2004;32:191---202.

53.McDonaldR,JourilesEN,TartCD,MinzeLC.Children’s adjust-ment problems in families characterized by men’s severe violencetoward women:does other family violencematter? ChildAbuseNegl.2009;33:94---101.

54.CummingsEM,GeorgeMRW,McCoyKP,DaviesPT.Interparental conflictinkindergartenand adolescentadjustment: prospec-tive investigation of emotional security as an explanatory mechanism.ChildDev.2012;83:1703---15.

55.Fosco GM, Grych JH. Adolescent triangulation into parental conflicts: longitudinal implications for appraisals and adolescent---parent relations. J Marriage Fam. 2010;72: 254---66.

56.El-SheikhM,KourosCD,ErathS,CummingsEM,KellerP, Sta-tonL. Marital conflictand children’s externalizing behavior: pathwaysinvolvinginteractionsbetweenparasympatheticand sympatheticnervoussystemactivity.MonogrSocResChildDev. 2009;74:1---79.

57.BensonMJ,BuehlerC,GerardJM.Interparentalhostility and early adolescent problem behavior: spillover via maternal acceptance,harshness,inconsistency,andintrusiveness.JEarly Adolesc.2008;42:8---54.

58.BuehlerC,TrotterBB.Nonresidentialandresidentialparents’ perceptionsof theformerspouserelationship and children’s socialcompetencefollowingmaritalseparation:theoryand pro-grammedintervention.FamRelat.1990;34:395---404.

59.Majdandˇzi´cM,deVenteW, FeinbergME,AktarE,BögelsSM. Bidirectional associations between coparentingrelations and familymemberanxiety:areviewandconceptualmodel.Clin ChildFamPsycholRev.2012;15:28---42.

60.BrownRJ,SchragA,TrimbleMR.Dissociation,childhood inter-personal trauma, and family functioning in patients with somatizationdisorder.AmJPsychiatry.2005;162:899---905. 61.LandaA, Peterson BS,FallonBA.Somatoform pain:a

devel-opmentaltheoryandtranslationalresearchreview.Psychosom Med.2012;74:717---27.

62.LamelaD,FigueiredoB,BastosA,MartinsH.Psychometric prop-ertiesofthePortugueseversionoftheposttraumatic growth inventory short form among divorced adults. Eur J Psychol Assess.2014;30:3---14.

63.FeeneyBC,Monin JK.Anattachment-theoreticalperspective ondivorce.In:CassidyJ,ShaverP,editors.Handbookof attach-ment:theoryresearch,andclinicalapplications.2nded.New York:Guilford;2008.p.934---57.

64.Brown GL, Schoppe-Sullivan SJ, Mangelsdorf SC, Neff C. Observedand reported supportive coparentingas predictors ofinfant---motherandinfant---fatherattachmentsecurity.Early ChildDevCare.2010;180:121---37.

65.CalderaYM,LindseyEW.Coparenting,mother---infant interac-tion,andinfant---parentattachmentrelationshipsintwo-parent families.JFamPsychol.2006;20:275---83.

66.El-SheikhM,Elmore-StatonL. Thelinkbetween marital con-flictandchildadjustment:parent---childconflictandperceived attachmentsasmediators,potentiators,andmitigatorsofrisk. DevPsychopathol.2004;16:631---48.

67.KraemerHC, Stice E,Kazdin A, OffordD, KupferD.How do riskfactorsworktogether? Mediators,moderators, and inde-pendent,overlapping,andproxyriskfactors.AmJPsychiatry. 2001;158:848---56.

68.Ahrons CR. The continuing coparental relationship between divorcedspouses.AmJOrthopsychiatry.1981;51:415---28. 69.FrendaSJ,NicholsRM,LoftusEF.Currentissuesandadvances

inmisinformationresearch.CurrDirPsycholSci.2011;20:20---3. 70.MorganCA,SouthwickS,SteffianG,HazlettGA,LoftusEF. Mis-informationcaninfluence memory for recently experienced, highlystressfulevents.IntJLawPsychiatry.2013;36:11---7. 71.Hardt J,Rutter M.Validity ofadult retrospective reports of

adversechildhoodexperiences:reviewoftheevidence.JChild PsycholPsychiatry.2004;45:260---73.

72.Anderson NB. Evidence-based practice in psychology. Am Psychol.2006;61:271---85.

73.Narayan A, Cicchetti D, Rogosch FA, Toth SL. Interrelations of maternal expressed emotion, maltreatment, and separa-tion/divorceandlinkstofamilyconflictandchildren’s exter-nalizingbehavior.JAbnormChildPsychol.2015;43:217---28. 74.HoagwoodK,BurnsBJ,KiserL, RingeisenH, SchoenwaldSK.