and the Birth of Liberation Theology
1Bruno J. Linhares
2RESUMO
+i TXDVH FLQTXHQWD DQRV 5XEHP$OYHV DSUHVHQWRX VXD WHVH GH GRXWRUDPHQWR ³7RZDUGV D 7KHRORJ\ RI /LEHUDWLRQ $Q ([SORUDWLRQ RIWKH(QFRXQWHU%HWZHHQWKH/DQJXDJHVRI+XPDQLVWLF0HVVLDQLVP DQG0HVVLDQLF+XPDQLVP´QR3ULQFHWRQ7KHRORJLFDO6HPLQDU\ 376 Publicada como A Theology of Human Hope (1969), sua obra foi a SULPHLUDDXWLOL]DURWHUPR³7HRORJLDGD/LEHUWDomR´HWHYHJUDQGHLQ-ÀXrQFLDQRÀRUHVFLPHQWRGDWHRORJLDODWLQRDPHULFDQDQD~OWLPDSDUWH do século XX. A tese não é apenas parte de uma longa ligação histórica do PTS com a Teologia da Libertação. À luz da contribuição inovadora da obra de Alves, este ensaio apresenta primeiro o papel do Princeton Theological Seminary como um dos lugares do nascimento da Teologia GD/LEHUWDomR VHJXQGRLQYHVWLJDRFRQWH~GRHVLJQL¿FDGRGDWHRORJLD de Rubem Alves.
PALAVRAS-CHAVE
Rubem Alves. Princeton Theological Seminary. Teologia da Liber-tação.
1 Publicado originalmente em Koinonia: The Princeton Theological Seminary Gra-duate Forum 19 (2007): 85-105. (ISSN: 1047-1057)
2 Bruno J. Linhares is Lutheran (IECLB), and earned his Ph D. at Princeton
ABSTRACT
$OPRVW¿IW\\HDUVDJR5XEHP$OYHVSUHVHQWHGKLVGRFWRUDOGLVVHU- WDWLRQ³7RZDUGVD7KHRORJ\RI/LEHUDWLRQ $Q([SORUDWLRQRIWKH(QFRX-QWHU%HWZHHQWKH/DQJXDJHVRI+XPDQLVWLF0HVVLDQLVPDQG0HVVLDQLF +XPDQLVP´DW3ULQFHWRQ7KHRORJLFDO6HPLQDU\ 376 /DWHUSXEOLVKHG
as A Theology of Human Hope$OYHV¶ZRUNZDVWKH¿UVWWRXVHWKHWHUP
³7KHRORJ\RI/LEHUDWLRQ´DQGSURYLGHGVRPHEDVLFLPSHWXVIRUWKHODWH
20thFHQWXU\ÀRXULVKLQJRI/DWLQ$PHULFDQWKHRORJ\$OYHV¶GLVVHUWDWLRQ
KRZHYHULVRQO\DVLQJOHSDUWRIDQHDUO\FHQWXU\ORQJVWRU\OLQNLQJ376 WRWKHELUWKRI/LEHUDWLRQ7KHRORJ\,WLVKRZHYHUDJUHDWO\PLVXQGHUV-tood story. In light of Alves’ innovative contribution, this essay attempts WZRWKLQJV ¿UVW,ZLOOWHOOWKHVWRU\RI376¶UROHDVRQHRIWKHELUWKSODFHV RI/LEHUDWLRQ7KHRORJ\LQWKH8QLWHG6WDWHVDQGVHFRQG,ZLOOLQYHVWLJD-te the conRI/LEHUDWLRQ7KHRORJ\LQWKH8QLWHG6WDWHVDQGVHFRQG,ZLOOLQYHVWLJD-tent and meaning of Alves’ theology.
KEYWORDS
Rubem Alves. Princeton Theological Seminary. Liberation Theology.
$OPRVW¿IW\\HDUVDJR5XEHP$OYHVSUHVHQWHGKLVGRFWRUDOGLVVHU- WDWLRQ³7RZDUGVD7KHRORJ\RI/LEHUDWLRQ $Q([SORUDWLRQRIWKH(QFRX-QWHU%HWZHHQWKH/DQJXDJHVRI+XPDQLVWLF0HVVLDQLVPDQG0HVVLDQLF
+XPDQLVP´DW3ULQFHWRQ7KHRORJLFDO6HPLQDU\ 376 3. Later published
as A Theology of Human Hope4$OYHV¶ZRUNZDVWKH¿UVWWRXVHWKHWHUP
³7KHRORJ\RI/LEHUDWLRQ´5 and provided some basic impetus for the late
3
$/9(65XEHPµ7RZDUGVD7KHRORJ\RI/LEHUDWLRQ $Q([SORUDWLRQRIWKH(QFRX-QWHU%HWZHHQWKH/DQJXDJHVRI+XPDQLVWLF0HVVLDQLVPDQG0HVVLDQLF+XPDQLVP¶ (Ph.D. diss., Princeton Theological Seminary, 1968).
4 ALVES, Rubem. A Theology of Human Hope (Washington: Corpus, 1969). Its
Portu-guese translation, Da esperança &DPSLQDV 3DSLUXV ZDVSXEOLVKHGHLJKWHHQ years after the English original due to self-censorship because of political problems during the time of the military dictatorship in Brazil (1964-1985).
5
$WURXJKO\WKHVDPHWLPH*XVWDYR*XWLpUUH]0HULQRZDVZRUNLQJRQDVLPLODUSUR-MHFWZKLFKZDV¿UVWSXEOLVKHGLQ3HUXDVTeología de la liberación: perspectivas (Lima: Centro de Estudios y Publicaciones, 1971).The book derived from a confe-rence given at Chimbote, Peru, in 1968 entitled Hacia una teología de la liberación DQGIURPD³SURSKHWLFFRPPLVVLRQ´RQWKHSDUWRIWKHZULWHU-RVp0DUtD$UJXHGDV
20thFHQWXU\ÀRXULVKLQJRI/DWLQ$PHULFDQWKHRORJ\$OYHV¶GLVVHUWDWLRQ KRZHYHULVRQO\DVLQJOHSDUWRIDQHDUO\FHQWXU\ORQJVWRU\OLQNLQJ376 WRWKHELUWKRI/LEHUDWLRQ7KHRORJ\,WLVKRZHYHUDJUHDWO\PLVXQGHUV-tood story. In light of Alves’ innovative contribution, this essay attempts WZRWKLQJV ¿UVW,ZLOOWHOOWKHVWRU\RI376¶UROHDVRQHRIWKHELUWKSODFHV
of Liberation Theology in the United States6
DQGVHFRQG,ZLOOLQYHVWL-gate the content and meaning of Alves’ theology.
1. Princeton Theological Seminary’s Role
Alves’ contribution to the emergence of Liberation Theology has its RULJLQLQWKH\HDU ZKHQ-RKQ$OH[DQGHU0DFND\JUDGXDWHGIURP376
DQGWKHQWUDYHOHGWR6SDLQWRVWXG\ZLWK0LJXHOGH8QDPXQR\-XJR7. The
trip to Spain marked the beginning of Mackay’s life-long interest in Ibero -American culture, and it prompted him to travel to South America, parti-cularly to Peru, as a missionary and educator. It also prompted him later in KLVOLIHWRUHWXUQWR376DV3URIHVVRURI(FXPHQLFV+HFUHDWHGWKLVFKDLU ZKLFKZDVWKH¿UVWSRVLWLRQRILWVNLQGLQ$PHULFDQWHUULWRU\+HHYHQWXDOO\ left this position to become President of PTS from 1936 to 1959.
In 1933, Mackay published The Other Spanish Christ: A Study in
the Spiritual History of Spain and South America8ZKLFKZDV³DERRNRI VHPLQDOVLJQL¿FDQFHLQWKHKLVWRU\RI3URWHVWDQWWKRXJKWDQGPLVVLRQLQ
/DWLQ$PHULFD´9. This book, as Luis Rivera Pagán points out, has been
In this article the terms Liberation Theology and Theology of Liberation are used indistinctively, although in Portuguese and Spanish there is a semantic difference. Liberation Theology, related to Teologia libertadora, can be a characteristic of any WKHRORJ\ZKLOH7KHRORJ\RI/LEHUDWLRQUHODWHGWRTeologia da libertação/Teologia de
la liberación, is a school of theological thought.
6 Union Theological Seminary, NY, could also be considered a birth place.
7
0LJXHOGH8QDPXQR\-XJRZDVNQRZQDVD.LHUNHJDDUGLDQH[LVWHQFLDOLVWµ0HPR-ULDO 0LQXWH -RKQ$OH[DQGHU 0DFND\ ¶ Theology Today 40:4 (January, 1984), p. 453.
8 John A. Mackay, The Other Spanish Christ: A Study in the Spiritual History of Spain and South America 1HZ<RUN 0DF0LOODQ
9 RIVERA PAGÁN, Luis N. ‘Theology and Literature in Latin America: John A.
Mackay and The Other Spanish Christ’, Journal of Hispanic/Latino Theology 7:4 0D\ 7KLV DUWLFOH LV D PRGL¿HG YHUVLRQ RI WKH -RKQ$OH[DQGHU 0DFND\
FULWLFL]HGIRU³FRQÀDWLQJWRRHDVLO\DQGZLWKRXWQHFHVVDU\FDYHDWV6SD- QLVKDQG/DWLQ$PHULFDQFXOWXUHVDQGVSLULWXDOLW\´IRUSUHVHQWLQJD³UD-ther naïve understanding of the Spanish and Latin American political VLWXDWLRQV´IRUEHLQJ³XQDEOHWRGHFLSKHUWKHKLGGHQVWUHQJWKRISRSX- ODU&DWKROLFLVP´DQGIRUQRWPDNLQJFOHDU³KRZWKH3URWHVWDQWXQGHUV-tanding and conception of the Christian gospel might be enriched and transformed by its incarnation in the Latin American spiritual milieu ZLWK LWV IDVFLQDWLQJ LQWHUWZLQH RI DXWRFKWKRQRXV ,EHULDQ DQG$IULFDQ
FXOWXUHV´10<HWDV5LYHUD3DJiQH[SODLQVWKHVDPHERRNZDVWKH¿UVW WRVLJQDO³DQHZHUDLQZKLFK3URWHVWDQWLVPZDVXQGHUVWRRGWREHDOH-JLWLPDWHSDUWRIWKH/DWLQ$PHULFDQUHOLJLRXVODQGVFDSH´116SHFL¿FDOO\ LWSRLQWHGWR³DOLEHUDWLRQIURPWKHVWUDLWMDFNHWRIDQRI¿FLDOVWDWHFKXUFK >5RPDQ&DWKROLF@WKDWDOORZHGRQO\RQHZD\RIUHODWLQJWRWKHWUDQV-FHQGHQWDQGWKHVDFUHG´ZKLOHDOVRUHFODLPLQJ³VWURQJXQGHUFXUUHQWVRI VSLULWXDOYLWDOLW\´LQ6SDQLVKDQG/DWLQ$PHULFDQFXOWXUHV12. Furthermo-UHLQWKHQLQWKDQGWHQWKFKDSWHUVRIKLVERRN0DFND\IRFXVHVRQQHZ VSLULWXDOFXUUHQWVLQ6RXWK$PHULFDDQGWKHTXHVWRID³QHZZD\´7KLV ³QHZZD\´LVUHSUHVHQWHGQRWRQO\E\UHOLJLRXVPRYHPHQWVEXWDOVRE\ UHOLJLRXVWKLQNHUVDQGZULWHUVZKRH[SUHVVWKHLUYLHZVWKURXJKOLWHUDWXUH and literary language. Even though Mackay himself did not move in this GLUHFWLRQLQWKLVZRUNWKLVERRNSODQWHGVHHGVWKDWERUHIUXLWWKUHHGH-FDGHVODWHU7KDWLVWRVD\DIWHU0DFND\/DWLQ$PHULFDQOLWHUDWXUHGUHZ PRUHDQGPRUHLQWHUQDWLRQDODFFODLP7KLVZDVHVSHFLDOO\WUXHRIWKH ³0DJLF5HDOLVP´ZKLFKGHYHORSHGVLGHE\VLGHZLWK/LEHUDWLRQ7KHR-logy in the late 1960s.
In the early 1950s, Reformed theological education in Brazil still copied the North American Puritan model brought to the country by Ame-ULFDQPLVVLRQDULHVLQÀXHQFHGE\&KDUOHV+RGJHDQG$XJXVWXV6WURQJ,W ZDVLQWRWKLVFRQWH[WWKDW5LFKDUG6KDXOOWKHVFKRODUZKRZRXOGEHFRPH
Visiting Professor in World Christianity Conference lecture delivered at PTS in Fe-bruary 2000 and published as ‘Myth, Utopia, and Faith: Theology and Culture in Latin America’, The Princeton Seminary Bulletin +HUH,DP using the version published in the Journal of Hispanic/Latino Theology.
10 RIVERA PAGÁN, ‘Theology and Literature in Latin America’, p. 8-9. 11 RIVERA PAGÁN, ‘Theology and Literature in Latin America’, p. 9. 12 RIVERA PAGÁN, ‘Theology and Literature in Latin America’, p. 10-12.
Alves’ dissertation advisor at PTS, arrived in Brazil in 1952 to teach theo-logy at the Presbyterian Seminary in Campinas. According to Leopoldo &HUYDQWHV2UWL]6KDXOOZDQWHGWRUHFODLPDQGUHQHZWKHRORJLFDOWKLQ-king13E\VWUHVVLQJWKHZRUNVRI-RKQ&DOYLQ0DUWLQ/XWKHU.DUO%DUWK
and particularly Dietrich Bonhoeffer14. By prompting a fresh look at these
more traditional Western resources, Shaull helped stimulate the thinking RIDQHZJHQHUDWLRQRI3UHVE\WHULDQWKLQNHUVLQ%UD]LODQGLWSURYLGHG QHZLQVLJKWVIRUKLVVWXGHQWVDVWKH\HQJDJHGZLWKWKHZRUOGDURXQGWKHP DQGFRQVWUXFWHGWKHLURZQDSSURDFKWRFRQWHPSRUDU\WKHRORJ\ $GHFDGHODWHUWKLVQHZJHQHUDWLRQKDGKDGWRFRSHZLWKWKHFRQ-VHTXHQFHVRIWKH&ROG:DUDQGPDMRUFRQÀLFWVLQ$VLDDQGPDQ\RI WKHPWXUQHGWRZKDWZDVNQRZQDVD³FRXQWHUFXOWXUH´PRYHPHQW15. $OWKRXJK$OYHVZDVQRWDFWLYHLQWKLVPRYHPHQWKHUHÀHFWHGLWVVSLULW DQGZDVDWWHQWLYHWRWKHVLJQVRIKLVRZQWLPH±DWLPHWKDWLQFOXGHG dictatorships, political and ecclesial persecution, and gross differences RIVRFLDOFODVVHV,QGHHGKHFRQIHVVHVWREHLQJSDUWRID³IUXVWUDWHGJH-QHUDWLRQ´DQGKHVD\VWKDW³LWLVRXWRIWKLVH[SHULHQFHWKDW>KH@WKLQNV
DQGVSHDNV´167KLVIUXVWUDWLRQZDVFRPELQHGZLWKUHÀHFWLRQXSRQWKH
13 CERVANTES-ORTIZ, Leopoldo. Series de Sueños: La teología ludo-erótico-poéti-ca de Rubem Alves 4XLWR &RQVHMR/DWLQRDPHULFDQRGH,JOHVLDV S 14 0(/$12 %HDWUL] µ7KH ,QÀXHQFH RI 'LHWULFK %RQKRHIIHU 3DXO /HKPDQQ DQG
Richard Shaull in Latin America’, The Princeton Seminary Bulletin 22:1 (2001), S7KLVDUWLFOHSUHVHQWVDGHWDLOHGDFFRXQWRIKRZ3DXO/HKPDQQZDVLQÀXHQ-FHGE\%RQKRHIIHUGXULQJWKHLUWLPHDW8QLRQ7KHRORJLFDO6HPLQDU\LQ1HZ<RUN &LW\/DWHU/HKPDQQLQÀXHQFHG5LFKDUG6KDXOOZKRLQWXUQWDXJKWWKHSULQFLSOHVRI &RQWH[WXDOL]HG7KHRORJ\DQG(WKLFVLQ%UD]LO 15 *OHQ%3HWHUVRQGHVFULEHVWKLVPRYHPHQW ³&RXQWHUFXOWXUHUHIXVHGWRDFFHSWUHD-OLW\ LQVWHDGLWVRXJKWXWRSLD7KHFRXQWHUFXOWXUHVRPHKRZUHPDLQHGKRSHIXOIRUWKH QHFHVVDU\OHQJWKRIWLPH´6HH³3DUDGLJPVRI+RSH $&RPSDULVRQRI(UQVW%ORFK and Rubem $OYHV´ 0$WKHVLV0F*LOO8QLYHUVLW\ S
16 ALVES, Rubem. Tomorrow’s Child: Imagination, Creativity, and the Rebirth of Cul-ture 1HZ<RUN +DUSHU 5RZ S/DWHULQWKHWH[WKHH[SODLQVWKDW WKHIUXVWUDWLRQLVDFRQVHTXHQFHRIXQIXO¿OOHGGUHDPVRISHDFHDQGSURVSHULW\WKDW IROORZHGWKHHQGRI:RUOG:DU,,³7KHFROGZDUWKHLQVDQLW\RIWKHDUPVUDFHSROL-WLFDODQGHFRQRPLFLPSHULDOLVPWKHJURZLQJJDSEHWZHHQULFKDQGSRRUQDWLRQVWKH UHDOLWLHVRIKXQJHUH[SORLWDWLRQDQGRSSUHVVLRQ±DOOSURFODLPHGWKHVLFNQHVVRIRXU FLYLOL]DWLRQ,WEHFDPHREYLRXVWKDWWKHZRUOGQHHGHGDUDGLFDOWUDQVIRUPDWLRQ2XW RIWKLVYLVLRQUHYROXWLRQDU\KRSHVDQGPRYHPHQWVZHUHERUQ&KULVWLDQVGLVFRYHUHG DQHZPHDQLQJRIIDLWK$JDLQKRSHVZHUHIROORZHGE\IUXVWUDWLRQ9RLFHVIURPWKH
WKRXJKW RI YDULRXV ¿JXUHV LQFOXGLQJ /XGZLJ :LWWJHQVWHLQ /XGZLJ )HXHUEDFK.DUO0DU[)ULHGULFK1LHW]VFKH(UQVW%ORFKePLOH'XU-NKHLP DQG .DUO 0DQQKHLP7KHVH WKLQNHUV SURYLGHG IXHO IRU$OYHV¶ UHÀHFWLRQXSRQKLVFRQWH[WDQGKRZEHVWWRDSSURDFKLW8VLQJWKHVHUH-VRXUFHVDVKLVVWLPXOXVKHSURSRVHGDSDUDGLJPRIKRPHWKDWZDVZLWK VRPHDGMXVWPHQWUHOHYDQWWRDOPRVWDQ\SROLWLFDOFRQWH[WLQWKHZRUOG 7KHLQÀXHQFHRI6KDXOOWKHVSLULWRIWKHFRXQWHUFXOWXUHKLVSKLORVR-phical-sociological readings, and his intense concern for the suffering of people, all combined to prompt the development of a paradigm of KRSHWKDWZRXOGEHFRPHDOLIHORQJSURMHFWIRU$OYHV7KLVSDUDGLJP WRRNGLIIHUHQWIRUPVWKURXJKRXWKLVOLIH$W¿UVWKLVSURMHFWFHQWHUHGRQ
the question of hope
ZLWKLQD7KHRORJ\RI/LEHUDWLRQEXWODWHUWKHSUR-MHFWPRYHGEH\RQGSROLWLFVLQWRWKHRSRHWLFVDPHWKRGLQZKLFK$OYHV HPSOR\HGSHUVRQDOH[SHULHQFHDQGVRFLHWDOP\WKVWRDGGUHVVWKHWRSLF RIKRSH%RWKDSSURDFKHVKRZHYHUSURPRWHWKHIUHHGRPRIKXPDQ-kind by means of encouraging utopian dreams.
2. Alves’ Development
,WZLOOEHKHOSIXODWWKLVSRLQWWRSURYLGHDPRUHVSHFL¿FEDFNJURXQG WR 5XEHP$]HYHGR$OYHV¶ OLIH DQG ZRUN +H ZDV ERUQ RQ 6HSWHPEHU LQDVPDOOPRXQWDLQYLOODJHLQ%UD]LOQDPHG³ 1RVVD6HQKRUD GDV 'RUHVGD%RD(VSHUDQoDZKLFKWUDQVODWHVOLWHUDOO\DV³ 2XU/DG\ RIWKH 3DLQVRIWKH*RRG+RSH´(YHQWKRXJK$OYHVFODLPVQRGLUHFW UHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQWKHQDPHRIKLVELUWKSODFHDQGKLVWKHRORJ\KRSH KDVIXQFWLRQHGDVSHUKDSVWKHPRVWLPSRUWDQWWKHPHRIKLVZRUNGXULQJ his career17: +RSHLVDEHDXWLIXOWKLQJRQHWKDW,ORYH%XWKRSHOLYHVLQVXE-MHFWLYLW\LWLVVRPHWKLQJLQWHUQDO$QGWKLVZDVQRWHQRXJKIRUPH ,GLGQRWZDQWWRNHHSRQRQO\KDYLQJKRSH,ZDQWHGWREHDEOHWR SDVWKDGDOUHDG\ZDUQHGXVWKDWWKHUHZDVVRPHWKLQJZURQJLQWKHQDwYHLGHQWL¿FD-WLRQRIUHYROXWLRQZLWKOLEHUDWLRQ´6HHS 17 $VH[SODLQHGLQDQLQIRUPDOLQWHUYLHZWRPHKHOGLQ5LRGH-DQHLUR%UD]LORQ-XQH 15, 2006.
SHUFHLYHWKHVLJQVRILWVSRVVLEOHIXO¿OOPHQWLQWKHOLYHVRILQGLYLGXDOV and of peoples18. 5HOLJLRQZDVDFRQVWDQWLQKLVOLIHDVDFKLOG:KHQKHZDVHOHYHQ \HDUVROG$OYHV¶IDPLO\PRYHGWR5LRGH-DQHLURWR¿QGHPSOR\PHQW$V DFRXQWU\ER\OLYLQJLQDODUJHFLW\LWZDVUHOLJLRQWKDWSURYLGHGKLPWKH VWUHQJWKWRFRSHZLWKWKHLPSDFWRIWKHFKDQJHDQGKLVORVVRILGHQWLW\ ,QGHHGDV$OYHVH[SODLQVKLVUHOLJLRXVOLIHSURYLGHGDUHIXJHIRUKLP DQGJDYHKLVOLIHPHDQLQJ³,EHFDPHDIXQGDPHQWDOLVW´KHH[SODLQV³D pious fundamentalist. Fundamentalism is a mental attitude that attributes DSHUPDQHQWFKDUDFWHUWRLWVRZQEHOLHIV7KHUHDOO\LPSRUWDQWDVSHFWLV
not what the fundamentalist says, but how he says19.
,WZDVDVDIXQGDPHQWDOLVWWKDWKHVWXGLHGDWWKH6HPLQiULR3UHVEL-teriano do Sul, in Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil. According to Cervantes 2UWL]WKLVSHULRGVKRXOGEHVHHQDVWKH³¿UVWSKDVH´RIKLVZRUNRQH
that ranges from 1956 to 1963207KLV³¿UVWSKDVH´PRVWRIWHQLVXVHGWR
GHVFULEHWKHSHULRGRI$OYHV¶WKHRORJLFDOIRUPDWLRQDQGRQO\DIHZWH[WV ZHUHSURGXFHGWKLVWLPH7KHVHWH[WVDUHFKDUDFWHUL]HGE\FDUHIXOWKHROR-JLFDODI¿UPDWLRQVWKDWUHYHDODQHJDWLYHDSSURDFKWRWKHXQMXVWFRORQLDO societal order. They also demonstrate Alves’ anguish at the fact that La-tin American Protestants remained at the margins of the most important social and political questions of the time because of their tendency to VHHWKHVHTXHVWLRQVPHUHO\DV³ZRUOGO\´SUREOHPV$OYHVDUJXHVLQWKHVH HDUO\WH[WVIRUWKHQHFHVVLW\RIDUDGLFDO\HWSURYLVLRQDOUHQHZDORIVRFLDO VWUXFWXUHVWKURXJKWKHDFWLRQRI*RGDQGKHEHOLHYHVWKDWWKLVUHQHZDO should be engendered both through spiritual and concrete means.
5LFKDUG6KDXOOLQÀXHQFHG$OYHVDWWKH6HPLQiULR3UHVELWHULDQRGR Sul by introducing him both to the ideas of the Social Gospel and to the
18 Rubem Alves, ‘Sobre deuses e caquis’, Comunicações do ISER 7.32 (1988), 29. This
DUWLFOHZDVDOVRSXEOLVKHGDVWKHSUHIDFHRIWKH3RUWXJXHVHHGLWLRQRIA Theology of
Human Hope but never appeared in English.
19
$/9(65XEHPµ'DOSDUDGLVRDOGHVHUWR ULÀHVVLRQLDXWRELRJUD¿FKH¶LQ5RVLQR*L-bellini, ed., La nuova frontiera della teologia en America Latina, 2nd. ed. (Brescia: 4XHULQLDQD S,WDOLFVLQWKHRULJLQDO
20 CERVANTES-ORTIZ, Series de sueños, p. 34-38. The chronology is presented here
ZULWLQJVRI'LHWULFK%RQKRHIIHU,WLVKHUHWKDWWKHVHHGVRIWKH7KHRORJ\ RI/LEHUDWLRQZHUHSODQWHG$OYHVVD\V
7KHQHZYLVLRQRIRXUVSDFHRIRXUWLPHDQGRIRXUH[LVWHQFH UHYHDOHGD%LEOHWKDWKDGEHHQXQWLOQRZKLGGHQWRRXUH\HV)URPWKH beginning to the end, the Bible is a constant celebration of life and JRRGQHVV,WLVJRRGWREHDOLYHLWLVJRRGWREHÀHVKDQGEORRGLWLV JRRGWREHLQWKHZRUOG6XGGHQO\WKH&DOYLQLVWREVHVVLRQZLWKWKH glory of God seemed to us deeply inhuman and anti-biblical. Couldn’t KDSSLQHVVRIKXPDQEHLQJVEHWKHRQO\FRQFHUQRI*RG",VQ¶WWKLV+LV ¿QDOZLVK"&RXOGQ¶W*RGEHDKXPDQLVWLQWKHVHQVHWKDWKXPDQLW\LV *RG¶VVROHREMHFWRIORYH"21
$IWHUJUDGXDWLQJIURPWKHVHPLQDU\$OYHVZRUNHGIRUVL[\HDUVDV a parish minister of the Presbyterian Church of Brazil in Lavras, Minas *HUDLV )ROORZLQJ WKLV PLQLVWU\ WKH VHFRQG SKDVH RI KLV ZRUN EHJDQ WDNLQJSODFHEHWZHHQWKH\HDUV DQG 7KHVH\HDUVDUHFRQQHF-WHGWRKLVWKUHHYLVLWVLQ$PHULFD ¿UVWDVDFDQGLGDWHIRUWKHGHJUHHRI 0DVWHULQ6DFUHG7KHRORJ\DW8QLRQ7KHRORJLFDO6HPLQDU\LQ1HZ<RUN (1963-64); second, as a candidate for the degree of Doctor of Theology DW376 DQG¿QDOO\DVDYLVLWLQJOHFWXUHUDW8QLRQ7KHRORJLFDO 6HPLQDU\LQ1HZ<RUN 7KHPDLQFKDUDFWHULVWLFVRIWKLVVHFRQG SHULRGDUHKLVZRUNWRGHYHORSDprise de conscience about the political VLWXDWLRQLQ%UD]LODQGWKHZRUOGDQGKLVVXJJHVWLRQVDERXWZKDWWKHRORJ\ can offer to help promote change in these regions.
'XULQJWKLVSHULRGKHZURWHKLV0DVWHURI6DFUHG7KHRORJ\WKHVLV
³$7KHRORJLFDO,QWHUSUHWDWLRQRIWKH0HDQLQJRIWKH5HYROXWLRQLQ%UD-]LO´22DQGLWUHYHDOHGWKHUHJLRQDOFRQFHUQVWKDWZRXOGEHDPSOL¿HGODWHU
on in his doctoral dissertation. As he completed this master’s degree, KRZHYHUDPLOLWDU\coup d’état deposed the president of Brazil and es-WDEOLVKHGDPLOLWDU\GLFWDWRUVKLS±RQHWKDWZRXOGODVWXQWLO 7KLV FKDQJHSURPSWHGDVKLIWLQ$OYHV¶SHUVSHFWLYH7KDWLVZKLOH$OYHV¶¿UVW VWD\LQWKH8QLWHG6WDWHVZDVSXUHO\WKDWRIDVWXGHQWKLVVHFRQGVWD\
21 ALVES, ‘Dal paradiso’, p. 418.
22 ALVES, Rubem. ‘A Theological Interpretation of the Meaning of the Revolution in
ZDVWKDWRIDQexiledVWXGHQW+HH[SODLQVWKDWKHKDGDOUHDG\FRPSOHWHG his master’s thesis and had been hoping to return to Brazil before the
coup occurred. While the events gave him pause, he decided to return
KRPHDQ\ZD\8SRQDUULYDOKRZHYHUKHZDVZDUQHGE\IULHQGVWKDWWKH Supreme Council of the Presbyterian Church of Brazil had released a do- FXPHQWWRWKH3ROLFHGHQRXQFLQJVL[SDVWRUVLQFOXGLQJ$OYHVIRUSUHD-FKLQJ0DU[LVWWKHRORJ\$OYHVNQHZWKDWWKLVDFWLRQPHDQWLQSUDFWLFHD
carte blanche for political persecution against him. Considering both his
and his family’s safety, Alves accepted an offer arranged through friends
from the United Presbyterian Church – USA23, and from President James
McCord of PTS, to return to safe American soil and pursue a doctorate24.
Through this action, PTS once again became the nurturer of the nascent Liberation Theology.
Alves’ dissertation published as A Theology of Human Hope25 one
\HDUDIWHUWKHGHIHQVHDW376LQWKHVSULQJRI HQMR\HGZLGHDF-FODLP7KHVDPHFDQQRWEHVDLGKRZHYHUDERXWWKHGLVVHUWDWLRQLWVHOI
ZKLFKEDUHO\UHFHLYHGDSDVVLQJJUDGH26. Even though it had support from
the Dissertation Committee (Richard Shaull, Diogenes Allen, and Char- OHV:HVW KLVGHIHQVHZDVWHQVHHQFRXQWHULQJGLI¿FXOWLHVDPRQJWKHID-FXOW\7KHUHFHSWLRQRIWKHERRNKRZHYHUGHPRQVWUDWHVWKDW$OYHV¶ZRUN
ZDVLQWXQHZLWKLQWKHFRQWH[WLQ/DWLQ$PHULFDDWWKHWLPH27.
23 7KLVLVDSUHGHFHVVRUWRZKDWWRGD\LVWKH3UHVE\WHULDQ&KXUFK 86$
24 ALVES, ‘Sobre deuses e caquis’, p. 18-23; and ARAÚJO, João Dias de. Inquisição sem fogueiras: Vinte anos de História da Igreja Presbiteriana do Brasil: 1954-1974
6mR3DXOR ,QVWLWXWR6XSHULRUGH(VWXGRVGD5HOLJLmR S7KLVZRUN UHYHDOVKRZWKH3UHVE\WHULDQ&KXUFKRI%UD]LOVXSSRUWHGWKHSROLWLFDOSHUVHFXWLRQ enforced by the military government.
25
,QDQLQWHUYLHZ$OYHVH[SODLQHGWKDWWKHFKDQJHLQWKHWLWOHZDVSURSRVHGE\WKH5R-man Catholic editor in order to make the book more marketable. Not only is there an REYLRXVDOOXVLRQWR-UJHQ0ROWPDQQ¶VZRUNTheologie der Hoffnung:
Untersuchun-gen zur Begründung und zu den Konsequenzen einer christlichen Eschatologie, ¿UVW
SXEOLVKHGLQ EXWDOVRWKHWHUP³OLEHUDWLRQ´ZDVFRQVLGHUHGWREHWRR0DU[LVWDW that time. 26 $/9(6µ6REUHGHXVHVHFDTXLV¶S7KLVVWRU\ZDVYHUEDOO\FRQ¿UPHGLQDQLQ-WHUYLHZ 27 7KH\HDU ZDVDULFKRQHIRUFRQWURYHUVLDODQGUHYROXWLRQDU\PRYHPHQWVDPRQJ ZKLFKRQHPLJKWLQFOXGHWKH&ROG:DUWKH3UDJXH6SULQJWKH9LHWQDP:DUWKH&LYLO Rights Act, and the French movement during the month of May.
After his graduation from PTS, and in spite of persistently dangerous political circumstances, Alves returned to Brazil. Soon after his return, KHZDVLQYLWHGWROHFWXUHDW8QLRQ7KHRORJLFDO6HPLQDU\RQDSHUPDQHQW basis in Reinhold Niebuhr’s chair, but he decided to accept only a year ORQJSRVLWLRQDVYLVLWLQJOHFWXUHULQVWHDG,WZDVGXULQJWKLV\HDUWKDWKH ZURWHKLVVHFRQGERRNTomorrow’s Child: Imagination, Creativity, and
the Rebirth of Culture.7KHFRQWHQWRIWKLVERRNIROORZVWKHSDWKVHWIRUWK
in Theology of Hope,EXWLWDOVRUHYHDOV$OYHV¶DWWHPSWWR¿QGDQHZZD\
RIH[SUHVVLQJKLVLGHDV+LVPHVVDJHFRPHVWKURXJKLQDPRUHIUHHDQG SRHWLFVW\OHWKDQLQKLVHDUOLHUZRUNDQGLWUHYHDOVWKHFKDUDFWHULVWLFVWKDW ZRXOGÀRXULVKPRUHSURPLQHQWO\DGHFDGHODWHU
,Q LQ3LULiSROLV8UXJXD\$OYHVSDUWLFLSDWHGLQRQHRIWKH¿UVW ecumenical conferences on Liberation Theology, but he did not partici-pate in the encounters that took place in August 1970 and June 1971 in
%XHQRV$LUHV7KH FRQIHUHQFHZDVWKHRULJLQRIDERRNWKDWFRQWDL-QHGRQHRIWKH¿UVWGLVFXVVLRQVDERXW/LEHUDWLRQ7KHRORJ\28. Instead,
Al-YHVZDVSXEOLVKLQJLQGHSHQGHQWO\ZLWKWKHPRYHPHQW,6$/±Iglesia y
Sociedad en América Latina29. Alves’ distance from the other Liberation
28 $660$11 +XJR et alii, Pueblo Oprimido, Señor de la Historia (Montevideo:
Tierra Nueva, 1972).
29 ALVES, Rubem. ‘God’s People and Man’s Liberation’, ISAL Abstracts, 3:26, [1970],
p. 7-12. I mention this article because in it, Alves clearly summarizes his project at WKHWLPH+HH[SODLQV ³0DQQHHGVDPRGHOVRWKDWKLVZRUOGPD\EHPHDQLQJIXO not only in the sphere of civilization, of discovery, of the structure of his physical XQLYHUVHEXWLQWKDWRIFXOWXUHWKDWLVWRVD\LQWKHEXLOGLQJRIDVLJQL¿FDWLYHRUGHU :HFRPHKHUHWRWKHFHQWUDOSRLQWRIWKHFULVLVZKLFKZHDUHDFWXDOO\OLYLQJWKURXJK :KLOHWKHRSHUDWLYHWKHRUHWLFDOPRGHOVZLWKLQWKHVSKHUHRIFLYLOL]DWLRQEHFRPHPRUH SUHFLVHDQGHI¿FLHQWLQWKH¿HOGRIFXOWXUHWKHUHRFFXUVH[DFWO\WKHRSSRVLWH WKH PRGHOVWKDWZHUHXVHGLQWKHSDVWZLWKDGRJPDWLFDVVXUDQFHDUHWRGD\LQFROODSVH $QGWKHUHIRUHPDQLVODFNLQJWKHWKHRUHWLFDOUHVRXUFHVZKLFKPD\JXLGHKLVDFWLYLW\´ 7KHQDIWHUH[SODLQLQJZK\KHVHHVWKHRUJDQLFLVWPRGHORIVRFLDOG\QDPLFVLQVSLUHG by Aristotelism and supported by Christian theology in collapse, and the revolutio-nary model as but an incomplete assessment of the faulty functional structures of VRFLHW\KHSURSRVHVDPRGHOEDVHGRQWKHLGHDRIDSSURDFKLQJ*RG¶V.LQJGRPDVD utopia of community. ISAL functioned from 1961 to 1972 as a forum of theological UHÀHFWLRQVHHNLQJWKHUHIRUPDWLRQRIVRFLHW\¿UVWZLWKLQWKHIUDPHZRUNRIOLEHUDO LGHDOLVP DQG ODWHU ZLWKLQ D ODQJXDJH RI UHYROXWLRQ SDUWLFXODUO\ LQ WKH FURVVURDGV EHWZHHQ0DU[LVPDQGUHDGLQJVRIWKH([RGXV KXPDQNLQGZDVSHUFHLYHGDVFROODER-UDWLQJDFWLYHO\LQZKDW*RGLVVXSSRVHGWREHGRLQJLQWKHZRUOG
7KHRORJLDQVRIWKHWLPHUHYHDOVWKH¿UVWVLJQRIKLVGLVDJUHHPHQWZLWK other streams of Latin American Christianity, especially those associated ZLWK5RPDQ&DWKROLFLVPWKDWZHUHGLVFXVVLQJVRPHRIWKHVDPHLVVXHV 6SHFL¿FDOO\KHZDVXQFRPIRUWDEOHZLWKWKH³VROHPQLW\´RIWKHH[SUHVVLRQ WKDWFKDUDFWHUL]HGPXFKRIWKLVQHZ/LEHUDWLRQ7KHRORJ\DQGKHZRUULHG WKDWLWZDVZULWWHQLQWKHVW\OHRIWUDGLWLRQDOWKHRORJLFDOODQJXDJH30.
$VDUHVXOWRIWKHVHGLVDJUHHPHQWV$OYHVEOD]HGKLVRZQWKHRORJLFDO path in the years 1972 through 1975, and though faithful to his previous LGHDOVKHEHJDQWRH[SUHVVWKHPZLWKDSRHWLFÀRXULVKDQGFUHDWLYHIUHH-GRPWKDWKDGQRWEHHQVHHQEHIRUH&HUYDQWHV2UWL]H[SODLQVWKDWWKLV shift marks, «WKHHPHUJHQFHRIDQHZWKHRORJ\HYHQWKRXJKLWLVQRWFODV-VL¿HGDVVXFKDQ\PRUH,WLVDQHZZD\WRH[SHULPHQWZLWK*RGWKH ZRUOGIDLWKKXPDQLW\VRFLHW\/LEHUDWLQJWKHRORJ\"&HUWDLQO\EXW ZLWKDZLGHUDSSURDFKPRUHHFOHFWLFPRUHLQFOXVLYHmore playful than the liberation theologies, almost all solemn31.
7KLVSHULRGRI$OYHV¶ZRUNLVDOVRPDUNHGE\KLVLQFUHDVLQJGLVLOOX-VLRQPHQWZLWKERWKWKHFKXUFKDQGWKHSROLWLFDOHVWDEOLVKPHQWDQGLWDOVR LVPDUNHGE\$OYHV¶FRQWLQXLQJDWWHPSWVWR¿QGQHZIRUPVWRH[SUHVVKLV theological ideas. During this period, Alves began to distance himself more and more from traditional theological language, and he replaced LWZLWKDQHZRIWHQVXUSULVLQJSRHWLFODQJXDJH7KLVVKLIWLQIRUPGRHV QRWPHDQWKDWKLVFRQWHQWFKDQJHGKRZHYHUDVWKHWUDQVIRUPDWLRQRI VRFLHW\ UHPDLQHG KLV GULYLQJ FRQFHUQ ,QGHHG LW ZDV WKLV FRQWHQW WKDW SXWKLPRQDFROOLVLRQFRXUVHZLWKWKHPRVWSURPLQHQWWKLQNHUVLQ/DWLQ $PHULFDQ3URWHVWDQWLVP:KLOH3URWHVWDQWLVPDVDZKROHKDGSURYLGHG VRPHEHQH¿WLQ/DWLQ$PHULFDE\HQFRXUDJLQJOLWHUDF\DQGHQJDJLQJLQ some forms of subversion of the established cultural order, its theology
30 The dominance of Roman Catholic theologians in the Liberation movement is not
surprising, since the changes prompted by the Second Vatican Council meant that WKHVHQHZLGHDVIRXQGDPRUHIHUWLOHVRLOWKDQFRXOGEHIRXQGLQ3URWHVWDQWWKHRORJ\ ,QGHHGPDQ\/DWLQ$PHULFDQ3URWHVWDQWWKLQNHUVZHUHPRUHHQJDJHGLQPDLQWDLQLQJ the social and political order than in changing it.
failed to promote an active social change in society. That is, Protestant WKHRORJ\WHQGHGWRHPSKDVL]HLQGLYLGXDOVDOYDWLRQDWWKHH[SHQVHRIUHDO
and physical political change32$OYHVIRUKLVSDUWZDQWHGWKHRORJ\WR
assist in the production of concrete changes for the people of his nation DQGFXOWXUH$VDUHVXOWZKLOHKHGLGQRWDEDQGRQWKHGLVFLSOLQHRIWKHR-ORJ\DOWRJHWKHU$OYHVVWDUWHGWRH[SORUHRWKHUDUHDVRILQTXLU\LQFOXGLQJ the role of science and education in cultural formation and the usage of V\PEROLFDQGSRHWLFHOHPHQWV$IHZZRUNVIURPWKHSHULRGDIWHU SURYLGHHYLGHQFHRI$OYHV¶WUDQVIRUPDWLRQGXULQJWKLVSHULRG)RUH[DP-ple, the book Protestantismo e Repressão (1979)33 reveals that Alves’ concern has shifted from the liberation of the poor as a class to a more personal liberation, and this is a change that leads him to focus on aes-thetics rather than social ethics. Further shifts are revealed in his focus on WKH³WKHRORJ\RIWKHERG\´LQKLV SXEOLFDWLRQCreio na ressureição
do corpo34.7KLVVKLIWEHFDPHPRUHSURQRXQFHGZLWKWKHSXEOLFDWLRQRI WKHDUWLFOH³6REUHGHXVHVHFDTXLV´LQ DSLHFHWKDWSURYLGHVDQRYHU-YLHZRIKLVLQWHOOHFWXDOGHYHORSPHQWXSWRWKDWSRLQW,WLVDWWKLVSRLQW that the third phase of his career truly began.
3. Liberation: The Dissertation and Beyond
:LWKWKHFRQWH[WDQGGHYHORSPHQWRIKLVWKRXJKWLQYLHZZHFDQ QRZWXUQWRDQDQDO\VLVRI$OYHV¶ZRUN3XWVLPSO\WKHFHQWUDOTXHV-WLRQRI$OYHV¶GLVVHUWDWLRQLV³:KDWGRHVLWWDNHWRPDNHDQGWRNHHS
KXPDQOLIHKXPDQLQWKHZRUOG"´35$OYHVVHHNVDQDQVZHUE\H[SORULQJ
YDULRXVWKHRORJLFDODQGVRFLRORJLFDOVFKRROVRIWKRXJKWDQGWHVWLQJZKH-ther they can provide a reasonable response. Alves asserts that his main REMHFWLYHLV³WRKXPDQL]HWKHQHZO\DZDNHQHGFRQVFLRXVQHVVRISROLWLFDO
32 CERVANTES-ORTIZ, Series de Sueños, p. 36.
33 ALVES, Rubem. Protestantismo e repressão (São Paulo: Ática, 1979).
34 ALVES, Rubem. Creio na ressurreição do corpo: meditações. Rio de Janeiro: CEDI,
1982.
35 7KLVIUDPLQJTXHVWLRQHYLQFHVWKHLQÀXHQFHRI3DXO/HKPDQQZKRZDVWHDFKLQJ
DW8QLRQ6HPLQDU\ZKHQ$OYHVZDVVWXG\LQJWKHUHLQ &I/(+0$13DXO
KXPDQLVP´367KLVFRQVFLRXVQHVVLQWXUQ¿QGVH[SUHVVLRQZLWKDQHZ ODQJXDJHWKDWVWDQGVLQDFFRUGZLWKDQHZH[SHULHQFHDQGVHOIXQGHUV-tanding, one that provides a different approach to human community. 7KLVQHZFRPPXQLW\LVFDOOHG³ZRUOGSUROHWDULDW´DQGLWLVDFRPPXQLW\ that disregards traditional national, economic, social, or racial
bounda-ries37. Instead, this community is united by a common understanding of
LWVKLVWRULFDOH[SHULHQFHRQHPDUNHGE\SRYHUW\DQGDQDZDUHQHVVRI FRORQLDOLVPDQGLWVHHNVLWVRZQYRLFHDQGODQJXDJHDVLWZRUNVWRFUHDWH LWVRZQKLVWRU\ 7KHWHUP³7KHRORJ\RI/LEHUDWLRQ´XVHGODWHUPDLQO\LQWKHSOXUDO UHIHUULQJIRULQVWDQFHWR%ODFN)HPLQLVWRU4XHHUWKHRORJLHVVWUHVVHV WKDWDOOLGHDVSUDFWLFHVDQGSUD[LVDUHMXGJHGDFFRUGLQJWRZKHWKHURU not they promote liberation or transformation of society on behalf of the RSSUHVVHG7KHWHUP³RSSUHVVHG´UHIHUVWRDSHUVRQZKRLVLQWKHSRVLWLRQ QHLWKHUWRFKRRVHQRUWRPDVWHURQH¶VRZQIXWXUH7KLVSHUVRQLQRWKHU ZRUGVODFNVWKHSRZHUWRFULWLTXHLQWHUYHQHLQRUVRPHWLPHVHYHQWR XQGHUVWDQGWKHKLVWRULFDOSURFHVVHVLQZKLFKKHRUVKHLVLQVHUWHG7KLV SHUVRQLVRIWHQXQDEOHWRH[SUHVVKLVRUKHUVXIIHULQJDQGIRUWKLVUHDVRQ Alves engages in a discussion about language and its purpose.
$OYHVUHMHFWVWKHODQJXDJHRIWHFKQRORJLVPZKLFKKHGHVFULEHVDV ³DIRUPRIFRQVFLRXVQHVVWKDWUHJDUGVWHFKQRORJ\DVWKHZD\WRWKHIX-
WXUHDQGZKLFKFLWHVWKHZRQGHUVRIWHFKQRORJ\DVSURRIRILWVFRQYLF-WLRQ´38EHFDXVHKHYLHZVLWDVDODQJXDJHRISROLWLFDOKXPDQLVP$PRQJ
the reasons for his rejection of this kind of language is his argument that a shift often occurs in this kind of language, such that, instead of human-kind using technology, technology incorporates and molds humanhuman-kind DFFRUGLQJWRLWVRZQV\VWHP$VDFRQVHTXHQFHKXPDQNLQGORVHVLWVFD- SDFLW\WRWKLQNDQGDFWFULWLFDOO\DQGWKHUHVXOWLVDQHZIRUPRIFRORQLD-OLVP2QWKLVSRLQW*OHQ3HWHUVRQH[SODLQVWKDWIRU$OYHV³WKHWRWDOLWDULDQ technological system and the messianic pretensions of its language stand in direct opposition to the liberation and humanization sought by the man ZKRUHIXVHVWRJLYHXSWKHFUHDWLRQRIKLVWRU\IRUWKHFRQVXPSWLRQRI
36 3(7(5621³3DUDGLJPVRI+RSH´S 37 ALVES, Theology of Human Hope, p. 6. 38 ALVES, Theology of Human Hope, p. 17.
JRRGV´39 )RUKLVSDUW$OYHVLVFDUHIXOWRSRLQWRXWWKDW³SROLWLFDOKXPD-QLVPGRHVQRWZDQWWRGHVWUR\WHFKQRORJ\EXWUDWKHUKXPDQL]HLW >WKDW@ PHDQVWKDWLWPXVWUHPDLQDVDWRRODWWKHVHUYLFHRIIUHHVXEMHFWV´40. +HDOVRUHMHFWVWKHRORJLFDOODQJXDJHDVDODQJXDJHRISROLWLFDOKX-PDQLVP+HH[SODLQV ³WKHPDQZKRLVWKHREMHFWRIKLVWRU\WKHEHLQJ WKDW¿WVLQWKDWDGDSWVWRWKHJLYHQIDFWVLVWKHPDQZKRORVHVKLVWUDQV-FHQGHQFH+HLVVXEPHUJHGLQWRWKHZRUOGDQGWKHUHIRUHORVHVKLVSRZHU WRFULWLFL]HDQGWRUHFUHDWHLW´41. For Alves, theological language refers WRWUDQVFHQGHQFHDVVRPHWKLQJ³XS´DQG³RXW´DQGWKHUHIRUHLW³GRHVQRW XQGHUVWDQGWUDQVFHQGHQFHDVDUHDOLW\LQWKHPLGVWRIOLIH´42. It separates WKHSUHVHQWWLPHIURPHWHUQLW\DQGDVDUHVXOWLW³EHFRPHVDWUXWKKLJKHU
WKDQDERYHDQGEH\RQGKLVWRU\´43. Consequently, God becomes an
en-tity that limits human freedom, and as such, God becomes anti-human DQGFDXVHVVXIIHULQJ7KLVZDVWKH*RGZKRZDVVHHQDVFRPSHQVDWRU\ HQWLW\ IRU KXPDQNLQG¶V VXIIHULQJ E\ )HXHUEDFK DQG ZKRVH GHDWK ZDV ZHOFRPHGE\1LHW]VFKH$OYHVH[SODLQVKRZHYHUWKDWIRUERWKWKLQNHUV ³WKHUHVXOWLVWKHVDPHVLQFH*RGGRHVQRWDOORZPDQWRRYHUFRPHKLV PLVHU\HLWKHUEHFDXVHKHFDXVHVLWRUEHFDXVHKHUHFRQFLOHVPDQZLWKLW E\JLYLQJKLPWKHKRSHRIDWUDQVFHQGHQWPHWDKLVWRULFDOOLEHUDWLRQ´44. 7KHWKLUGNLQGRIODQJXDJHWKDW$OYHVUHMHFWVLVWKHH[LVWHQWLDOLVPRI 6¡UHQ.LHUNHJDDUGDQG5XGROI%XOWPDQQ$OYHVJLYHVWKUHHUHDVRQVIRU WKLV UHMHFWLRQ )LUVW H[LVWHQWLDOLVP QHJDWHV WKH ZRUOG DV KRPH OHDYLQJ KXPDQLW\LQD.DINDOLNHSULVRQ VHFRQGLWUHGXFHVKRSHWRDGLPHQVLRQ RIVXEMHFWLYLW\ZLWKRXWDKRSHIRUFRQFUHWHWUDQVIRUPDWLRQRIWKHZRUOG DQGWKLUG³LWGLYLGHVWKHZRUOGRIIUHHGRPIURPWKHZRUOGRIWLPHDQG
VSDFHPDNLQJPDQ¶VDFWLRQSRZHUOHVVWRFUHDWHDQHZWRPRUURZ´45. Alves’
rejection rests both on the assumption that political humanism negates the present, and in particular the dehumanizing present, in favor of a better WRPRUURZDQGRQWKHQRWLRQWKDWKXPDQEHLQJVFDQDFWDQGPDNHKLVWRU\
39 3(7(5621³3DUDGLJPVRI+RSH´S 40 ALVES, Theology of Human Hope, p. 27. 41 ALVES, Theology of Human Hope, p. 28. 42 ALVES, Theology of Human Hope, p. 29. 43 ALVES, Theology of Human Hope, p. 29. 44 ALEVES, Theology of Human Hope, p. 32. 45 3(7(5621³3DUDGLJPVRI+RSH´S
$OYHVHQGVKLVH[SORUDWLRQRIWKHRORJLFDOODQJXDJHZLWKDQH[DPL-QDWLRQRIWKHZRUNRI.DUO%DUWKDQG-UJHQ0ROWPDQQERWKRIZKRP he also rejects as paradigms for the language of humanization. Among the many arguments Alves presents about Barth, the most important is KLV FRQWHQWLRQ WKDW %DUWK¶V YLHZ RI WUDQVFHQGHQFH OHDYHV QR URRP IRU WKHFUHDWLRQRIDQHZWRPRUURZE\KXPDQNLQGDQGWKXVQRURRPIRU
a historical future46. It is, Alves contends, as if Barth makes the future
the past and real time not historical but metaphysical. As for Moltmann, Alves believes that he leaves no room for transcendence in the presence. +HDUJXHVWKDWLQ0ROWPDQQ¶VDQDO\VLVRIWKHELEOLFDOFRPPXQLW\RIIDLWK the Church alone mediates the fact of the resurrection through its prea-ching, and thus it is the one that creates the only true history. Alves re-MHFWVWKLVYLHZFODLPLQJWKDWWKH&KXUFKLVQRWVRPHVRUWRIPLGZLIHWKDW JLYHVOLJKWWRWKHIXWXUH+HDOVRDUJXHVWKDWLWLVQRWWUXHWKDWZKHQHYHU the Word is not preached, there is no history; on the contrary, he argues, KLVWRU\H[LVWVLQVSLWHRIWKHODFNRIWKH:RUGSUHDFKHG47.
After dismissing these various types of theological language, Al-YHVPRYHVLQDPRUHSRVLWLYHDQGFRQVWUXFWLYHGLUHFWLRQ+HRIIHUVWZR SRVVLEOH DOWHUQDWLYHV WR WKH UHMHFWHG YLHZV WKH ODQJXDJH RI +XPDQLV-WLF0HVVLDQLVPRUWKHODQJXDJHRI0HVVLDQLF+XPDQLVP,Q+XPDQLVWLF 0HVVLDQLVPKXPDQL]DWLRQLVDWDVNRIKXPDQNLQG7KDWLVWKLVYLHZSOD-FHVDOOLWVKRSHIRUFUHDWLQJDQHZIXWXUHLQWKHKDQGVRIKXPDQLW\LWVHOI $OYHVXWLOL]LQJWKHWKRXJKWRI.DUO0DU[H[SODLQVWKDW³PDQNLQGDOZD\V VHWVLWVHOIRQO\VXFKSUREOHPVDVLWFDQVROYH IRUZKHQZHORRNFORVHU ZHZLOODOZD\V¿QGWKDWWKHSUREOHPLWVHOIRQO\DULVHVZKHQWKHPDWHULDO conditions for its solution are already present or at least in the process
RIFRPLQJWREHLQJ´48)ROORZLQJWKLVLGHDKXPDQNLQG¶VRSHQQHVVWRWKH
future acts as an indicator that the future, in turn, is open to human-NLQG ³WKHHPHUJHQFHRIWKHµRXJKW¶FRLQFLGHVZLWKWKHVXEMHFWLYHDQG REMHFWLYHSRVVLELOLW\RIWKHµFDQ¶´49. Alves points out that this language
46 ALVES, Theology of Human Hope, p. 54-55. 47 ALVES, Theology of Human Hope, p. 67-68.
48
0$5;.DUOµ3UHIDFHWRD&RQWULEXWLRQWRWKH.DUO0DU[&ULWLTXHRI3ROLWLFDO(FR-nomy,’ in Erich Fromm, Marx’s Concept of Man 1HZ<RUN )UHGHULFN8QJDU p. 218.
has questionable abilities to be both historical and optimistic, because it easily falls prey to either becoming overly optimistic romanticism or becoming overly faithful to history. As a consequence, he concludes, optimism may lose hope and give rise to frustration.
,Q0HVVLDQLF+XPDQLVPRQWKHRWKHUKDQG³WKHSROLWLFVIRUDQHZ WRPRUURZ FDQQRW EH DVVHVVHG E\ D VLPSOH VWDWLVWLFDO RU TXDQWLWDWLYH HYDOXDWLRQRIWKHKXPDQUHVRXUFHVDQGRIWKHSRZHURIUHVLVWDQFHRIWKH
H[LVWLQJVWUXFWXUHVRIGRPLQDWLRQ´50. Instead, it is based upon historical
H[SHULHQFHPHDQLQJWKDWWKLVYLHZ³SODFHVLWVKRSHIRUGHOLYHUDQFHLQD
SRZHURFFXUULQJLQKLVWRU\IURPEH\RQGKLVWRU\ZKLFKUHIXVHVWRDEDQ-GRQKLVWRU\´51+LVWRU\LQVKRUWLVWKHPHGLXPWKURXJKZKLFK*RGDQG
humankind cooperate to create a future. Alves suggests that imbedded LQWKHWHUP³KXPDQNLQG´WKHUHLVWREHIRXQGZKDWKHFDOOVWKH³3HRSOH RI*RG´7KLVWHUPFDQQRWEHFRQ¿QHGWR&KULVWLDQVDORQHEXWUDWKHU LWLQFOXGHVWKRVHZKRORVWIUHHGRPDWWKHKDQGVRIUXOLQJSRZHUHOLWHV 7KHVHPHPEHUVRIWKH³3HRSOHRI*RG´QRWRQO\KDYHWKHORVVRIIUHH-GRPLQFRPPRQEXWWKH\DOVRVKDUHDORYHIRUWKH.LQJGRPDQGIRUWKH QHLJKERU8VLQJWKH([RGXVDQG*RVSHODFFRXQWVDVKLVEDVLV$OYHVFRQ-FOXGHVWKDWWKHODQJXDJHRI0HVVLDQLF+XPDQLVPLVWKHDSSURSULDWHSDWK DQGHWKLFVLVZKDWIXHOVPRWLRQLQWKLVSDWK+HFDXWLRQVKRZHYHUWKDW ³WKH%LEOHFDQQRWEHXVHGWRIRUPDWKHRORJ\RIUHYROXWLRQ,WRQO\SRLQWV WRZDUGDQHVFKDWRORJ\)RUQRZQRWUHYROXWLRQEXWWKHHVWDEOLVKPHQWRI SRVLWLYHFRPPXQLWLHVH[SUHVVLYHRIWKHXWRSLDRIWKHNLQJGRPPXVWEH WKHJRDO´52.
Many of Alves’ ideas in his dissertation have their origins in Mar- [LVPDOWKRXJKKHGRHVQRWDGRSWWKHVHLGHDVXQFULWLFDOO\,QGHHGKHDU- JXHVWKDW0DU[LVWVDUHVRIRFXVHGRQWKHIXWXUHWKDWWKH\DUHGLVFRQQHF-WHGZLWKWKHSUHVHQWUHDOLW\7RGHYHORSWKLVSRLQWKHXVHVDQLQWHUHVWLQJ LPDJHWKDWZRXOGEHFRQVWDQWLQVXEVHTXHQWZRUNVZKHQKHFODLPVWKDW 0DU[LVWUHYROXWLRQDULHVUHIXVHWKHapéritif, thinking only about the pièce
de résistance. $OYHVH[SODLQVIXUWKHU
50 ALVES, Theology of Human Hope, p. 87. 51 3(7(5621³3DUDGLJPVRI+RSH´S 52 3(7(5621³3DUDGLJPVRI+RSH´S
,QWKHFRQWH[WRIWKH*RG¶VPHVVLDQLFSROLWLFVRIOLEHUDWLRQWKH HURWLFVHQVHRIOLIHH[LVWVRQO\DVLWNHHSVPDQRSHQIRUDQHZIXWXUH /LIHLVWKHUHWREHHDWHQEXWPDQLVWRHDWLWZLWKELWWHUKHUEVZLWKKLV ORLQVJLUWKLVVDQGDOVRQKLVIHHWDQGKHVKDOOHDWLWLQKDVWH ([RGXV 12:8-11). The bitter taste of suffering can never be eliminated from the apéritif, VRWKDWPDQZLOOQHYHUVHWWOHIRULW53.
7KHGLDOHFWLFWKXVLVQRWEHWZHHQDWRWDOQHJDWLRQRIWKHSUHVHQWDQG a totally positive vision of the future. It is the good of the present
apéri-tif, RQHWKDWDOORZVWKHKXPDQWRDWDVWHIRUOLIHDQGDORQJLQJIRUDQHZ
WRPRUURZRIOLEHUDWLRQH[HPSOL¿HGLQWKHpièce de résistence DQGZK\
not, in a dessert$OYHVFRQFOXGHVE\VD\LQJWKDW0HVVLDQLF+XPDQLVPLV
FRPPLWWHGWRWKHOLEHUDWLRQRIWKHERG\,WVWDUWVZLWKWKHERG\ LQWKHQDPHRIWKHERG\LWQHJDWHVZKDWHYHUPDNHVWKHERG\VXIIHU ZKDWHYHUPHDQVYLROHQFHRUUHSUHVVLRQZKDWHYHUFDXVHVKXQJHURU GHDWK,WLVIRUWKHVDNHRIWKHERG\WKDWLWKRSHVIRUDQHZWRPRUURZLQ ZKLFKUHSUHVVLRQZLOOEHEURXJKWWRDQHQG$QGLWLVWKURXJKWKHERG\ WKDWLWSODQVWROLEHUDWHPDQIRUWKHZRUOGDQGWKHZRUOGIRUPDQ54. $OYHVH[SDQGVXSRQWKLVFULWLTXHLQKLVVHFRQGZRUNTomorrow’s
Child: Imagination, Creativity, and the Rebirth of Culture, ZKHUH KH
claims that imagination also suffers domestication by technocrats, alie- QDWLRQE\GUHDPHUVDQGYLVLRQDULHVDQGVXSHUÀXRXVQHVVE\UHYROXWLRQD-ries. Such suffering, he argues, has drastic consequences. The language of a community of faith and its ethics is based on imagination, and by controlling the imagination, the paradigm that projects the future in the SUHVHQW LV DOVR FRQWUROOHG +H SUHVHQWV WKUHH ZD\V WKDW LPDJLQDWLRQ LV FRQWUROOHG ¿UVW³WKHFUHDWLRQRIVRPDQ\REMHFWVRIGHVLUHWKDWWKHPLQG ZLOO EH NHSW PRYLQJ IURP RQH WR DQRWKHU ZLWKRXW HYHU EHLQJ DEOH WR
PRYHEH\RQGWKHP´55, second, the elimination of any free pleasure56; and
third, the idea of the inevitability of humankind’s alienation57. Within
53 ALVES, Theology of Human Hope, 155. Original italics. 54 ALVES, Theology of Human Hope, p. 152.
55 ALVES, Tomorrow’s Child, p. 26. 56 ALVES, Tomorrow’s Child, p. 31. 57 ALVES, Tomorrow’s Child, p. 34.
WKHIUDPHZRUNRIWKHVHFRQWUROVFUHDWLYLW\EHFRPHVQHDUO\LPSRVVLEOH As a consequence, people become convinced that the present reality is the only possible approach to life. That is, since imagination belongs to
the category of illusion, it needs to be rejected out of hand58. This type
RIWKLQNLQJ$OYHVDUJXHVZDVERUQZLWKWKH(QOLJKWHQPHQWDQGGHYHOR-ped by Auguste Comte in his Philosophie Positive, ZKHUHUHOLJLRVLW\DQG
imagination belong to earlier stages of human development59.
,QDQLQWHUHVWLQJFRPSDULVRQ$OYHVPDNHVWZRRWKHUOHJDFLHVRIWKH (QOLJKWHQPHQW0DU[LVPDQGSV\FKRDQDO\WLFWKHRU\LQWRSDUWQHUV2Q the one hand, Freudian analysis legitimizes the system by making resis- WDQFHDEQRUPDO RQWKHRWKHUKDQG0DU[LVPFRQFOXGHVWKDWVLQFHLPDJL-QDWLRQPD\EHDQLOOXVLRQLWLVLQIDFWDQLOOXVLRQ+HDUJXHVWKDWVLQFHLW is not imagination but science that moves history, both the psychoanalyst DQGWKH0DU[LVWWKHRULHVLQWKHLUVHDUFKIRUWKDWZKLFKLVUHDOLVWLFDOO\ functional, discard the dysfunctional by considering it to be negative. $OYHVFRQFOXGHVWKDW³WKHV\VWHPLVWKHPHDVXUHRIHYHU\WKLQJ7KHV\V-WHPMXGJHVHYHU\WKLQJEXWQRWKLQJLVTXDOL¿HGWRMXGJHLW,IDWKLQJ>RU a person, a thought] has a function it is good, or at least essential. Man
LVWKXVDIXQFWLRQRIWKHVRFLDOVWUXFWXUH´60+HZDUQVWKDWLQVXFKDQ
LGHDRQHWKLQJLVIRUJRWWHQ ³ZKDWLVFDOOHGUHDOLW\ZDVFUHDWHGE\PDQ´61
through his imagination.
,QDWZLVWWKDWZRXOGEHIXOO\GHYHORSHGRQO\\HDUVODWHU$OYHVLQ-WURGXFHVWKHLGHDRIPDJLFDVDZD\WRWUDQVIHUKRSHLQWRDQHZUHDOLW\±D VXJJHVWLRQWKDWVWDQGVLQRSSRVLWLRQWRUHDOLVPZKLFKVHHNVWRFDXVHRQH
to accept fate62$OYHVLVDZDUHWKDWPDJLFLQLWVHOIGRHVQRWKDYHSRZHU
WRPDNHDZLVKUHDO0DJLFKRZHYHUIXHOVFRQVFLRXVQHVVDQGDWWDLQLQJ consciousness means a realization of both the need for freedom and the
58 ALVES, Tomorrow’s Child, p. 43.
59 $GHWDLOHGDQGFRQGHQVHGH[SODQDWLRQRIKLV3RVLWLYH3KLORVRSK\LQZKLFKUHOLJLRXV
and theological studies are included under the historical studies of Social Physics, is found in: Auguste Comte, La Philosophie Positive, tome II, résumé Jules Rig (Paris: -%%DLOOLqUH )LOV &RPWH¶VLGHDVDQGPHWKRGKDYHEHHQVWURQJO\ FULWLFL]HGE\.DUO3RSSHU6HHKLVLogik der Forschung: zur Erkenntnistheorie der
modernen Naturwissenschaft (Wien: Springer, 1935). 60 ALVES, Tomorrow’s Child, p. 71.
61 ALVES, Tomorrow’s Child, p. 71. 62 ALVES, Tomorrow’s Child, p. 74.
QHHGWRFKDQJHLQWRDQHZEHLQJ$OYHVLQVSLUHGE\WKH1HZ7HVWDPHQW calls this process metanoia, ZKLFK KH XQGHUVWDQGV DV GHDWK RI DQ ROG EHLQJDQGWKHUHVXUUHFWLRQRIDQHZRQH7KLVLVDSURFHVVWKDWFDQRFFXU ERWKLQSHUVRQVDQGLQVWLWXWLRQV3HWHUVRQH[SODLQLQJ$OYHV¶FRQFHSWRI metanoiaVD\VWKDW³LWLVFORVHO\OLQNHGZLWKSOD\DQGLPDJLQDWLRQ´DQG WKDWLWVKLIWV³FRQVFLRXVQHVVIURPWKHORJLFRISURGXFWLRQDQGFRQVXPS-WLRQWRWKHFRQVFLRXVQHVVRIOLEHUDWLRQ´63. ,PDJLQDWLRQIXHOVSOHDVXUHE\DOORZLQJSOD\HYHQZLWKDVXEYHUVLRQ of established rules64DQGDVDUHVXOWQHZVROXWLRQVIRUVLWXDWLRQVLQOLIH can be found. Imagination also forms a utopian image of the future. It is in the forming of the idea of a future transformed by hope that possible
changes may be attempted65
+XPDQNLQGFDQWKHQ³EHOLEHUDWHGIURPGH-WHUPLQLVPRIPDWHULDOIRUFHVZKLFKFUHDWHWKHFRPSXOVLRQRIDYRLGDQFH
EHKDYLRUDQGVD\QRWRDQ\VROXWLRQRIWKHSUREOHPRIVXIIHULQJ´66. For
this reason, magic rituals, play, and utopian dreams should not conside-red symptoms of sickness as much as they might be seen as values that
are not seen as functional, pragmatic, or real by Western civilization67.
$OYHVSUHIHUVOLIHEHMXGJHGQRWE\WKHZD\LW¿WVLQWRWKHVRFLDOV\VWHPRU as a function of the structures of social organization; rather, he seeks to IROORZWKHH[DPSOHRI-HVXVZKRZDV³DPDVWHULQWKHDUWRIVXEYHUWLQJ
WKHUXOHVRIVDQLW\DQGLQVDQLW\´68+HVHHNVLQRWKHUZRUGVWRLPDJLQH
WKHELUWKRIDQHZFXOWXUH6LQFHWKHZRUOGLVQRW\HWFRPSOHWHEHFDXVH *RGLVVWLOOH[HUFLVLQJFUHDWLYHSRZHUVWKHSUHVHQWWLPHRIFDSWLYLW\LV not a time of birth but a time of the conception of a community of faith.
,WLVLPSRUWDQWWREHDULQPLQGWKDWZKHQ$OYHVUHIHUVWRWKHFRQFHSW RI³SOD\´KHGRHVQRWPHDQ³PHUHGLYHUVLRQ´EHFDXVHDV*RUGRQ*UDK-DP DUJXHV ³DFWLYLW\ ZLWKRXW D SXUSRVH QHHG QRW EH SRLQWOHVV´69. Play FDQEHVHULRXVLQWKHVHQVHWKDWLWGHPDQGV³VROHO\IRULWVRZQSXUSRVHV
63 3(7(5621³3DUDGLJPVRI+RSH´S 64 ALVES, Tomorrow’s Child, p. 85-87. 65 ALVES, Tomorrow’s Child, p. 101-103. 66 ALVES, Tomorrow’s Child, p. 115. 67 ALVES, Tomorrow’s Child, p. 121. 68 ALVES, Tomorrow’s Child, p. 131.
69 *5$+$0*RUGRQPhilosophy of the Arts: An Introduction to Aesthetics, 3rd ed.
WKHEHVWWHPSHUDPHQWVDQGWKH¿QHVWVNLOOVRIZKLFKKXPDQEHLQJVDUH
FDSDEOH´70)ROORZLQJDQDUJXPHQWIRUH[SODLQLQJDUWSURSRVHGE\+DQV
Georg Gadamer71*UDKDPH[SODLQVWKDW³DUWLVDNLQGRISOD\LQZKLFK
DUWLVWDQGDXGLHQFHMRLQ´72 in the challenge to propose and discern
mea-QLQJEHKLQGDZRUNDPHDQLQJFRQFHSWXDOL]HGRUH[SOLFDWHGLQV\PEROLF ODQJXDJH+HFRQFOXGHVE\VD\LQJWKDWWKHFKDOOHQJHLVWRUHDOL]HIXOO\LQ RXURZQLPDJLQDWLRQWKHV\PEROLFFRQVWUXFWVRIWKHDUWLVW¶VLPDJLQDWLRQ DQG,DGGKRZWKHVHV\PEROLFFRQVWUXFWVDIIHFWHDFKSHUVRQSDUWLFXODUO\ 7KHDUWLVW¶VWDVNWKXV³LVWRHQJDJHWKHDXGLHQFHLQDFUHDWLYHIUHHSOD\ RILPDJHVZKHUHE\V\PEROLFUHSUHVHQWDWLRQLVUHDOL]HG´73. Furthermore, WKLVUHDOL]DWLRQRIWKHV\PEROLVDFRPPXQDODFWLYLW\RQHZKLFKUHTXLUHV FRRSHUDWLYH DFWLYLW\ LQ ZKLFK DOO DQG DQ\ PD\ HQJDJH /LWHUDWXUH DQG WKHRORJ\EHFDXVHWKH\ERWKGHDOZLWKV\PEROLFFRQVWUXFWLRQVFDQFHU-tainly be seen from the perspective of play and as symbolic constructions RIDSRVVLEOHQHZSHUVSHFWLYH
4. A Critical Dialogue
:HFDQQRWSURYLGHDQH[WHQVLYHFULWLTXHRI$OYHV¶ZRUNKHUH(YHQ VRLWZLOOEHKHOSIXOWRPHQWLRQWKHPDLQSRLQWVRIDGLDORJXHEHWZHHQ Rubem Alves and Thomas Sanders that occurred in the second phase of
$OYHV¶ZRUN$VVXPPDUL]HGE\3HWHUVRQ74
6DQGHUVRIIHUVDWZRIROGFUL-tique of the Theology of Liberation of the type that Alves proposed. First, he argues that Christians, although liberated from sin, remain sinners. As VXFKWKH\UHPDLQ³LQGLYLGXDOVZKRFODLPWREHOLEHUDWHG>EXWZKR@DUH
QRWDVOLEHUDWHGLQWKHLUSUDFWLFDODFWLRQVDVWKH\PD\DVVXPH´75. As a
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70 *5$+$0Philosophy of the Arts, p. 25.
71 *$'$0(5+DQV*HRUJ*DGDPHUµ'LH$NWXDOLWlWGHV6FK|QHQ .XQVWDOV6SLHO
Symbol und Fest’, in Gesammelte Werke 8: Ästhetik und Poetik I (Tübingen: J. C. B. Mohr, 1993 [1974]), p. 94-142.
72 *5$+$0Philosophy of the Arts, p. 25. 73 *5$+$0Philosophy of the Arts, p. 25. 74 3(7(5621³3DUDGLJPVRI+RSH´S 75 3(7(5621³3DUDGLJPVRI+RSH´S
DVSLUDWLRQVEXWDSHUPDQHQWGLDOHFWLFEHWZHHQWKHKRSHVRIPDQNLQGDQG WKHFRQWUDGLFWLRQVWKDWXQGHUPLQHWKHP´6HFRQG6DQGHUVFRQWHQGVWKDW ³XWRSLDQLVPJLYHVLQVXI¿FLHQWFRQVLGHUDWLRQWRWKHPRUDODPELJXLW\WKDW FKDUDFWHUL]HV DOO IRUPV RI VRFLDO H[LVWHQFH´76. It is, he says, balanced SRZHU UDWKHU WKDQ JRRGZLOO WKDW UHVXOWV LQ PRYHPHQW WRZDUG IUHHGRP
and justice776DQGHUVFRQFOXGHVWKDW³VRPHVXSSRUWHUVRIOLEHUDWLRQPD\
EHFRPHGLVLOOXVLRQHGRYHUDSHULRGRIWLPHZKHQWKH\UHDOL]HWKDWWKH ongoing problems and limited options open to given nations have not
EURXJKWWKHPFORVHUWROLEHUDWLRQRUWKH.LQJGRPRI*RG´78.
Alves responded to Sanders’ critique by arguing that Christian uto-pianism does not seek a perfect society; it presents, rather, an alternative WRDQLPSHUIHFWVRFLHW\$VVXFKKHDUJXHVWKLVYLHZ³GRHVQRWFODLPWKDW LWLVSRVVLEOHWRDEROLVKVLQEXWLWDI¿UPVWKDWWKHUHLVQRUHDVRQWRDFFHSW WKHUXOHRIWKHVLQIXOVWUXFWXUHVWKDWFRQWUROVRFLHW\´79. Reality is a human FRQVWUXFWLRQKHLQVLVWVDQGWKHUHIRUHLWLVOLDEOHWRFKDQJH+HZDUQV WKDW³ZKHQHYHUZHFDOODSURYLVLRQDOVRFLDOJDPHEXLOWE\PDQUHDOLW\ ZHDUHLQYROYHGLQLGRODWU\>E\@JLYLQJXOWLPDF\±GHPRQLFRUGLYLQH±WR VRPHWKLQJWKDWLVVLPSO\KXPDQDQGQRWGHVWLQHGWRHWHUQLW\´80. Finally, KHDUJXHVWKDWWKHWHUPV³XWRSLDQ´DQG³LPSRVVLELOLW\´DVHPSOR\HGE\ 6DQGHUVDUHFDWHJRULHVXVHGSHMRUDWLYHO\DQGLQDEVROXWHWHUPVWRUHÀHFW the system they serve. In actuality, these terms are relative to the systems they seek to transcend by pointing to the limitations of a given society81. +HH[SODLQVWKDW&KULVWLDQXWRSLDQLVP³LVEDVHGRQWKHYLVLRQWKDWDOO social systems are under God’s historical judgment [and that] sooner or ODWHUWKH\ZLOOGLH´82. For this reason, it is a mistake to take a given so-FLDOV\VWHPDVWKHXOWLPDWHFULWHULRQIRUZKDWLVSRVVLEOHRULPSRVVLEOH in history. Indeed, just as biblical stories are full of social surprises and
76 3(7(5621³3DUDGLJPVRI+RSH´S
77 6$1'(567KRPDV*³7KH7KHRORJ\RI/LEHUDWLRQ &KULVWLDQ8WRSLDQLVP´Chris-tianity and Crisis 33:15 (September 1973), p. 170.
78 6$1'(56³7KH7KHRORJ\RI/LEHUDWLRQ´S 79 6$1'(56³7KH7KHRORJ\RI/LEHUDWLRQ´S 80 6$1'(56³7KH7KHRORJ\RI/LEHUDWLRQ´S
81 $/9(65XEHP³&KULVWLDQ5HDOLVP ,GHRORJ\RIWKH(VWDEOLVKPHQW´Christianity and Crisis 33:15 (September 1973), p. 175.
WUDQVIRUPDWLRQVVRLVWKHKLVWRU\RIKXPDQNLQG+HFRQFOXGHVWKDW³>U@ ealism’s revolt against utopias is a sign that it participates in the revolt DJDLQVWWUDQVFHQGHQFHWKDWFKDUDFWHUL]HV:HVWHUQFLYLOL]DWLRQ´DQGWKDW ³>X@WRSLDQLVPRQWKHFRQWUDU\EHOLHYHVWKDWVRPHKRZVRPHZKHUH*RG LVGRLQJ+LVWKLQJRYHUWKURZLQJWKHH[LVWLQJRUGHU´83.
7KH GHEDWH EHWZHHQ $OYHV DQG 6DQGHUV GHYHORSHG IXUWKHU ZLWK 6DQGHUVFULWLFL]LQJ/DWLQ$PHULFDQWKHRORJLDQVIRUVLPSO\ZRUNLQJRXW DSDUWLFXODUWKHRORJ\WRMXVWLI\WKHLUSDUWLFXODUYLHZV7RWKLVDUJXPHQW $OYHVUHVSRQGHGWKDW1RUWK$PHULFDQWKHRORJLDQVKDYHDOZD\VFODLPHG XQLYHUVDOLW\IRUWKHLUWKHRORJLHVDQGWHQGWRGLVPLVVDQ\RWKHUZRUOGYLHZ DVQRWKDYLQJ³DQ\EHDULQJRQRXUWUDGLWLRQDOVFKRODUO\DQGGHWDFKHG ZD\VRIWKLQNLQJDERXWWKHZRUOG´847KLVNLQGRIYLHZ$OYHVFRQWHQGV LVFXOWXUDOLPSHULDOLVPDWLWVZRUVW,QDGGLWLRQKHDUJXHVWKDWWRRSHUDWH ZLWKLQWKLVIUDPHZRUNRI1RUWK$PHULFDQUHDOLVPDQGSUDJPDWLVPDWDOO RQHPXVWDEDQGRQPRUDOLW\LQPXFKWKHVDPHZD\DVWKH1RUWK$PHULFDQ State has done. Realism and pragmatism are, in short, ideologies that ZRUNWRPDLQWDLQWKHstatus quo RIDIDLOLQJLPSHULDOSRZHU
,QDVRPHZKDWV\OORJLVWLFOLQHRIWKRXJKWIURPTheopoetics:
Lon-ging for Liberation,85 Alves relates his ideas to the spiritual re-enactment of the Eucharist:
Communion is a child of love.
It seems that love shuns too much light.
Therefore communion, it seems, shuns too much light86.
$VPXFKDVDQH[SODQDWLRQFDQEHDWWHPSWHGWKH(XFKDULVWUHPDLQV DP\VWHU\WREHHQMR\HGUDWKHUWKDQH[SODLQHG:LWKWKLVWKRXJKW$OYHV PRYHV³IURPWKHFODVVURRP>DFDGHPLFODQJXDJHVHHNLQJIXOOH[SODQD-WLRQRIDQ\JLYHQLVVXH@ZKHUHWKHUHLVOLJKWWRWKHNLWFKHQ>ZKHUH@WKH DOFKHPLFWUDQVIRUPDWLRQVRIWKHUDZDUHSUHSDUHGIRUWKHGHOLJKWRIWKH 83 $/9(6³&KULVWLDQ5HDOLVP´S 84 $/9(6³&KULVWLDQ5HDOLVP´S
85 $/9(65XEHP³7KHRSRHWLFV /RQJLQJIRU/LEHUDWLRQ´,Q Struggles for Solida-rity: Liberation Theologies in Tension. Lorine M. Getz, and Ruy O. Costa (eds.).
Minneapolis: Fortress, 1992, p. 159-171.
ERG\RIWKHRWKHU´87+HFRQFOXGHV ³WKLVLVWKHVHFUHWRIFRPPXQLRQ
ZKHQP\ERG\WUDQVIRUPHGLQZRUGVLVJLYHQWRWKHRWKHUWREHHDWHQ´88.
$OYHVDGGVWKDW³ZKHQWKHRWKHUHDWVHXFKDULVWLFDOO\DSLHFHRIP\ERG\ ZHEHFRPH³FRPSDQLRQV´LQWKHRULJLQDOVHQVHRIWKHZRUG WKRVHZKR eat the same bread, that is cum panis.´89 It is this idea of companionship WKDW$OYHVFODLPVWRKDYHXQGHUVWRRGRQO\ZLWKWKHZLVGRPRIROGHUDJH GLIIHUHQWIURP\RXQJHUDJHZKHQKHSUHIHUUHG³WKHSRZHURIFOHDUDQG GLVWLQFWLGHDV´90
+HFRQFOXGHV
To speak about my body is to speak about the stories that make XSLWVVRXO7KHVHFUHWRIP\ÀHVKLVDKLGGHQIRUJRWWHQWH[WZKLFK LVZULWWHQLQLW:HDUHSDOLPSVHVWV,QE\JRQHWLPHVZKHQZULWLQJ ZDV GRQH RQ OHDWKHU ROG WH[WV ZHUH VFUDSHG RII DQG RQ WRS RI WKH DSSDUHQWO\FOHDQVXUIDFHQHZRQHVZHUHZULWWHQWH[WXSRQWH[W«%XW the marks of the old stories could never be erased. They remained invisible, inside…Today, thanks to science, it is possible to recover WKHP$JRRGPHWDSKRUIRUZKDWRXUERGLHVDUH«VWRULHVWKDWDUHZULW-ten, scraped off, forgotWKHP$JRRGPHWDSKRUIRUZKDWRXUERGLHVDUH«VWRULHVWKDWDUHZULW-ten, one after the other. But even the old ones ZHEHOLHYHGHDGUHPDLQDOLYHDQGRQFHLQDZKLOHWKH\SXQFWXUHWKH VPRRWKVXUIDFHRIRXURI¿FLDOVWRULHVDVGUHDPVDUWDVLQFRPSUHKHQ-VLEOHVLJQVVLJKVLQWKHÀHVKDVPDGQHVV91
Whereas Alves encourages the readers to understand meaning WKURXJKDZHKHDOVRHQFRXUDJHVWKHPWRJREH\RQGWKHDZHDQGXQGHUV-tand the meaning and consequences that a story of a person or institution has in relation to other persons or institutions. Navigating through the ZDWHUVRIGLVFRYHU\RIDSDUWLFXODUVWRU\FDQKHOSDSHUVRQLQKLVRUKHU quest for meaning in life.
87 $/9(6³7KHRSRHWLFV´S 88 $/9(6³7KHRSRHWLFV´S
89 7KH/DWLQH[SUHVVLRQcum panisOLWHUDOO\PHDQV³ZLWKEUHDG´7KHH[SUHVVLRQJDYH
origin to the term compania in Vulgar Latin, meaning a group of people that eat bread together, and later it came to refer to people that do something together.
90 $/9(6³7KHRSRHWLFV´S 91 $/9(6³7KHRSRHWLFV´S
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ALVES, Rubem. ‘A Theological Interpretation of the Meaning of the
Revolution in Brazil’6707KHVLV1HZ<RUN 8QLRQ7KHRORJLFDO
Seminary, 1964.
$/9(65XEHPµ'DOSDUDGLVRDOGHVHUWR ULÀHVVLRQLDXWRELRJUD¿FKH¶ In: Rosino Gibellini (ed.). La nuova frontiera della teologia en
Ame-rica LatinaQGHG%UHVFLD 4XHULQLDQD S
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$/9(65XEHP³6REUH'HXVHVH&DTXLV´,Q Sobre Deuses e Caquis:
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$/9(65XEHP³&KULVWLDQ5HDOLVP ,GHRORJ\RIWKH(VWDEOLVKPHQW´ In: Christianity and Crisis 33:15 (September, 1973), p. 173-176. $/9(65XEHP³7KHRSRHWLFV /RQJLQJIRU/LEHUDWLRQ´,Q Struggles
for Solidarity: Liberation Theologies in Tension. Lorine M. Getz, and
Ruy O. Costa (eds.) Minneapolis: Fortress, 1992, p. 159-171.
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$/9(65XEHP7RZDUGVD7KHRORJ\RI/LEHUDWLRQ $Q([SORUDWLRQRIWKH (QFRXQWHU%HWZHHQWKH/DQJXDJHVRI+XPDQLVWLF0HVVLDQLVPDQG0HV-VLDQLF+XPDQLVP 3K'GLVV3ULQFHWRQ7KHRORJLFDO6HPLQDU\ ALVES. Rubem. Protestantismo e repressão. São Paulo: Ática, 1979. ARAÚJO, João Dias de. Inquisição sem fogueiras: Vinte anos de
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3(7(5621*OHQ%³3DUDGLJPVRI+RSH $&RPSDULVRQRI(UQVW%OR-ch and Rubem $OYHV´0$WKHVLV0F*LOO8QLYHUVLW\
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6$1'(567KRPDV*³7KH7KHRORJ\RI/LEHUDWLRQ &KULVWLDQ8WRSLD-QLVP´Christianity and Crisis 33:15 (September 1973), p. 167-173.
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