Article
Interparental Conlicts and the Development of Psychopathology in Adolescents and
Young Adults
1Abstract: The objective in this study was to analyze to what extent inter parental conlicts and divorce act as predictors of psychopathological development in young people from intact and divorced families. The participants were 827 Portuguese young people between 13 and 25 years of age. A sociodemographic questionnaire, the Children’s Perception of Interparental Conlict Scale and the Brief Symptom Inventory were used. Signiicant difference in the psychopathology were found with regard to gender, age and family structure. As veriied, the intensity and lack of solution of the inter parental conlicts positively predict the development of psychopathology. In conclusion, the children whose parents are separated or divorced perceive the frequency and intensity of inter parental conlicts more highly, but present a higher solution level of the inter parental conlicts and higher psychopathology levels. Nevertheless, the family structure has no moderating effect on the interaction between the inter parental conlicts and the development of pyschopathology.
Keywords: attachment behavior, marital conlict, psychopathology
Conlitos Interparentais e o Desenvolvimento de Psicopatologia em Adolescentes e
Jovens Adultos
Resumo: O objetivo deste estudo foi analisar em que medida os conlitos interparentais e o divórcio se apresentam como preditores do desenvolvimento de psicopatologia em jovens de famílias intactas e divorciadas. Participaram 827 jovens portugueses de 13 a 25 anos de idade. Foram utilizados um questionário sociodemográico, o Children’s Perception of Interparental Conlict Scale e o Brief Symptom Inventory. Foram encontradas diferenças signiicativas da psicopatologia face ao gênero, idade e coniguração familiar. Constatou-se que o desenvolvimento de psicopatologia é predito positivamente pela intensidade e falta de resolução dos conlitos interparentais. Concluiu-se que os ilhos cujos pais se encontram separados ou divorciados têm maior percepção relativamente à frequência e intensidade de conlitos interparentais, porém apresentam maior nível de resolução dos conlitos interparentais e maiores níveis de psicopatologia. Contudo, a coniguração familiar não exerce um efeito moderador na interação entre os conlitos interparentais e o desenvolvimento de psicopatologia.
Palavras-chave: comportamento de apego, conlito conjugal, psicopatologia
Conlictos Interparentales y Desarrollo de la Psicopatología en Adolescentes y
Jóvenes Adultos
Resumen: La inalidad de este estudio fue examinar en que medida los conlictos maritales y el divorcio actúan como predictivos de psicopatología en jóvenes de familias tradicionales y divorciadas. Participaron 827 jóvenes portugueses de 13 a 25 anos. Fueron utilizados un cuestionario sociodemográico, la Children’s Perception of Interparental Conlict Scale y el Brief Symptom Inventory. Fueron encontradas diferencias signiicativas en la psicopatología ante el género, la edad y la coniguración familiar. Se constato que el desarrollo de la psicopatología se predice positivamente por la intensidad y la no resolución de los conlictos interparentales. Se concluyó que hijos de padres separados o divorciados tienen mayor percepción de frecuencia y intensidad del conlicto marital, pero muestran mayor nivel de resolucion de los conlictos interparentales y mayores niveles de psicopatología. Sin embargo, la coniguración familiar no tiene efecto moderador en la interacción entre el conlicto marital y el desarrollo de la psicopatología.
Palabras clave: conducta de apego, conlicto marital, psicopatología Olga Melo2
Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Vila Real, Portugal
Catarina Pinheiro Mota
Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Vila Real, Portugal Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
1 Support: This research was partially funded by FCT under the project
PEst-C/PSI/UI0050/2011 and FEDER funds through the COMPETE program under the project FCOMP-01-0124-FEDER-022714.
2 Correspondence address:
Olga Melo. Departamento de Educação e Psicologia, Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro – UTAD, Quinta dos Prados, Edifício do Complexo Pedagógico, 5000-801. Vila Real, Portugal.
E-mail: [email protected]
According to Bowlby (1969, 1980, 1988) and Ainsworth’s (1989) attachment theory, the quality of an individual’s primordial relationships, established early on with parental igures, caregivers or other signiicant igures,
is relevant to their physical and emotional development. Throughout the second millennium, an increase in the
growing need of research development in this area, where
we can then investigate the implications that can be caused
by divorce. Divorce is a likely event in today’s family life
cycle, impacting its structure and the dynamics between the
elements of which it is composed (Cano, Gabarra, Moré, & Crepaldi, 2009).
Therefore, throughout their development, adolescents not only go through the changes and transformations inherent to adolescence, but can also be faced with changes or alterations in their family structure, such as their parent’s divorce. These alterations can trigger signiicant transformations, with all the events that comprise a separation process, namely the presence of interparental conlicts, which put the family’s homeostasis at risk (Amato & Cheadle, 2008; Storksen, Roysamb, Moum, & Tambs, 2005). Many times, the existence of a quarrelsome family environment can present itself as a risk factor in the development of problems (both internal and external) in adolescents (Castillo, 2007). Interparental conlicts hold implicit particularities which can decrease the quality level of family operation, especially when they are not resolved and thus limit the opportunity for adolescents to learn how to eficiently resolve problems, or even compromise the development of resolution strategies. Moreover, it also decreases the perception of parental support and communication skills, increases the establishment of dysfunctional ties between adolescents and their parents, and also reduces the possibility of providing adolescents with the understanding of family as a cohesive support system (Unger, Brown, Tressell, & McLeod, 2000).
The results of the research study performed by García, Marín and Currea (2006), which was made up of a sample of 256 families, formed by parents and adolescent children, between the ages of 12 and 18, with the objective of identifying the characteristics of parental relationships
that could be considered predictors in the psychological
adjustment of the children. It became evident that the existence of conlict between the couple was associated to the development of internalization problems in the children,
such as anxiety and depression as well as externalization problems such as aggressive behavior. On the other hand,
Unger et al. (2000), in a study done with a sample of 107 adolescents between the ages of 12 and 18, from divorced as well as intact families, had the objective of studying the family and the inluence of interparental conlicts on the psychological adjustment of the children, it was found that interparental conlicts have a very close connection with the depressed state of children belonging not only to divorced but also intact families. According to O’Donnell, Moreau, Cardemil and Pollastri (2010), the development of depressive symptomatology can result from negative alterations to the family environment, which surges from parental conlicts, interacting with the children’s pessimistic cognitive style. In children with greater resiliency skills, it has been veriied that interparental conlicts have a lower impact. This point was developed by Lemos (2010), who
worked with a sample of 63 adolescents between the ages of 13 and 18, all considered to have a delinquent record. A lack of involvement, negligence and weak supervision, as well as interparental conlict, from the part of the parents was noted, all of which can be predicting factors of antisocial behavior and the development of psychopathology. In relation to the presence of interparental conlicts, the adolescents that reported the existence of such conlicts presented higher levels of psychopathology, contrary to the young people that have no perception of there being conlicts between their parents. The emotional differences between the children of separated parents and those from intact homes are not
entirely due to divorce, but to the conditions and manner in
which the couple manages the separation. In other words, the differences are due to the perception that the children
have in relation to the manner in which the divorce process is handled, namely the way in which the couple handles
conlicts, which many times is of a destructive nature as well as the social support of the parental igure, which many times after divorce, is greatly reduced (Schick, 2002). Authors such as Mota and Matos (2009) refer to the fact that interparental conlict, more than divorce itself, can predict the quality of development, adaptation and resilience in young people, especially since it has been veriied that children of divorced parents, which witnessed high levels of interparental conlict, presented a lower resilience capacity compared to those children from intact families with low levels of interparental conlict. Young adults from intact families that witness high levels of interparental conlict are also not immune from problems, feeling many times involved in the conlicts themselves, which can result in damages to their well-being and the quality of their relationship with their parents, this being true for younger and older children (Amato & Aii, 2006). It has also been veriied that parents, during conlicts, put more pressure on their daughters to
choose sides, which leads to them being more sensitive to
interparental conlicts than male children (Amato & Aii, 2006). Interparental conlicts which involve physical as well as verbal abuse have negative effects on the emotional, cognitive and social development of the children. Therefore, interparental conlict of a pejorative nature, for the children, should keep in mind the level of the intensity, frequency, content, resolution strategies and the expression of conlict, which can be in an open or hidden manner (Benetti, 2006).
The direct consequences of divorce, in reference to the children’s well-being, are not linear and uniform for all
young people, especially since other variables seem to be
of psychopathology. Consequently, the objective of this study is to analyze in what way interparental conlict and
divorce present themselves as predictors in the development
of psychopathology in young people from intact as well as divorced families. We also look to examine the moderating role of the family coniguration in the association between interparental conlicts and the development of
psychopathology.
With regard to the hypotheses constructed from the proposed objectives, it was foreseen that there would be signiicant differences between the variable family coniguration, the interparental conlicts perceived by the adolescents and the development of psychopathology. Therefore, it is expected that the adolescents from divorced families present more frequent and intense interparental conlicts, but also more resolution. It is also expected that these adolescents from divorced families present more
psychopathological symptomatology. Furthermore, it is
expected that the development of psychopathology be predicted by interparental conlicts and also that there is no signiicant prediction in relation to family coniguration. Finally, it is anticipated that family coniguration does not play
a moderating role in the association between interparental
conlict and the development of psychopathology.
Method
Participants
The sample was composed by 827 participants, ranging
in age between 13 and 25 (M = 17.17; SD = 3.28), residents
in Northern Portugal. In terms of the family coniguration, 574 (69.4%) of the individuals came from married or unmarried intact families, 245 (29.6%) came from separated or divorced families, while the rest (n = 8; 1%) came from another type of
family coniguration, such as monoparental families (death of spouse). Out of all the participants, 574 (69.4%) were female, while 253 (30.6%) were male. The participants held education levels between the 7th grade and University (Master’s degree),
denoting secondary school level as the average in relation to
academic qualiications (M = 10.70; SD = 2.14).
Instruments
Sociodemographic Questionnaire. Composed of a series
of questions not only related to the age, gender and education level of the respondent but also their family. These questions range from the age, profession and education level of both parents to the current composition of the household and marital status. In the case of the individuals from separated or divorced families, additional questions related to the divorce process were asked, such as which parent left the
household; how regularly that parent visits the household;
whether or not the parent(s) remarried; if so, whether or not there are children from these new relationships living in the
household and, inally, if their parents’ divorce process was handled in a friendly manner.
Children’s Perception of Interparental Conlict Scale
(CPIC). Developed by Grych, Seid and Fincham (1992) and
adapted to the adolescents and young adults of the Portuguese population by Moura, Santos and Matos (2006). This is considered a self-report questionnaire whose objective is to
evaluate the perception that the adolescents and young adults
had in relation to the existence of conlict between parental igures. It is initially composed of a total of 49 items,
distributed over nine scales. The present study only used the
scale referring to the Properties of Interparental Conlicts, which holds the following dimensions: frequency, intensity
and resolution.
The responses were given using a Likert type of scale;
where the responses vary between completely disagree to completely agree. The internal consistency analysis showed
a Chronbach’s alpha value of .93 for the present sample.
The alpha values, in relation to the dimensions, were .73
for frequency, .77 for intensity and .78 for resolution. The conirmatory factorial analysis presented the adjustment indexes within the critical values, CFI above .90 (CFI = .97), as well as the RMR indexes (.030) and RMSEA (.070), with values below (.080) adequate (Byrne, 2006; Fan, Thompson, & Wang, 1999).
Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI). Developed by Degoratis
(1993) and validated for the Portuguese population by Canavarro (1999). It consisted of a self-report instrument, which evaluates psychopathological symptoms on a Likert style scale, varying between 0 (never) and 4 (many times),
totaling nine dimensions. In this study only the following
three dimensions were used: interpersonal sensitivity, depression and anxiety. The internal consistency analysis
showed the Chronbach’s alpha value at .97 for the totality of the instrument. In what concerns each of the dimensions, the following alphavalues were observed: .83 for Interpersonal Sensitivity, .87 for Depression, and .80 for Anxiety. The conirmatory factorial analysis presented adjustment indexes within the critical values, CFI above .90 (CFI = .95), as well as the RMR indexes (.030) and RMSEA (.060), with values below (.080) adequate (Byrne, 2006; Fan et al., 1999).
Procedure
Data collection. Educational institutions (secondary schools and universities) in the Northern region of Portugal were selected and the appropriate authorizations for data collection were obtained. The completion of the tasks was performed in classrooms where anonymity, conidentiality and voluntary participation were reinforced and secured. The consent for the use of data was obtained through a consent form, signed by the participants or guardians. Then, we proceeded to the inversion of the self-report questionnaires, in order to avoid bias responses due to the fatigue factor.
secondary schools in the 7th and 12th grades as well as classes
at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro (UTAD
– Portugal), these institutions conceded authorization for
data collection and provided a wide range of young people to work with, which in turn provided the study with a signiicant sample of individuals from divorced families. The researcher was present during the administration of the questionnaires in order to explain the objectives of the study, provide directions, and clarify any doubts that arose during the process.
Data analysis. In reference to the handling of data, the results were coded irst and then a data base was elaborated for later analysis using the statistical program SPSS version 17. The variables of each research instrument were categorized, proceeding to the inversion of some items, in accordance
with the original authors in the Children’s Perception of
Interparental Conlict Scale (CPIC). The normality of the data distribution was tested. In order to do so, the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was used and then results were interpreted. It is used for large samples with the purpose of analyzing the signiicance value (p), as well as the following graphs:
Histograms, Q-QPlots, Scatterplots and Boxplots, since they
provide information about the distribution of data (Pallant, 2001). Also calculated were the measures for skewness and kurtosis of the sample data according to the average,
assuming normality every time when the values were
understood in their unit interval (-1 and 1) (Maroco, 2007). According to the calculated values, it was conirmed that the
sample met the inclusion criteria for normality, and therefore statistical analysis were performed. T-tests were developed in order to test the signiicant differences according to family coniguration, and a differential univariate analysis (ANOVA) was also performed in order to analyze the moderating role of family coniguration in the association between interparental conlicts and the development of psychopathology in the
children. Lastly, multiple hierarchical regression analyses
were performed, in blocks, in order to analyze the predictive effect of gender (block 1 Dummy), family coniguration (block 2 Dummy), and interparental conlicts (block 3), in the development of psychopathology.
Ethical Considerations
All ethical precaution was taken throughout the study. Informed consent was obtained from the institutions where
data collection occurred; authorization was also obtained
from each participant or legal guardian (in the case of minors). Conidentiality of all data was also secured.
Results
The presentation of results follows, keeping in consideration the methodology and proposed objectives of the
study. Table 1 presents the sociodemographic characterization
of the individuals from intact and divorced families.
Table 1
Sociodemographic Characterization of the Individuals From Intact and Divorced Families
Intact families Divorced families
n = 574 (69.4%) M (SD) n = 245 (29.6%) M (SD)
Gender
17.42 (3.19) 16.62 (3.43)
Male 408 (71.1%) 85 (34.7%)
Female 166 (28.9%) 160 (65.3%)
Age of adolescents/young adults
[13-17] 284 (49.5%) 169 (69%)
[18-22] 254 (44.3%) 51 (20.8%)
[23-25] 36 (6.3%) 25 (10.2%)
Education levels
7th grade 180 (31.4%)
47.45 (6.47)
114 (46.5%)
45.70 (7.44)
Secondary school 131 (22.9%) 82 (33.5%)
University 263 (45.7%) 49 (20%)
Father age
[22-50] (70.7%) 192 (78.4%)
[51-70] (28.6%) 47 (19.2%)
[71-82] (.3%) 1 (.4%)
Mother age 44.72 (5.99) 43.03 (6.36)
[27-40] 138 (24%) 94 (38.4%)
[41-50] 346 (60.3%) 125 (51%)
[51-69] 87 (15.2%) 26 (10.6%)
Father academic qualifications
Low education (6th grade or less) 337 (58.7%) 118 (48.2%)
7th grade (from 7th to 12th) 196 (34.1%) 99 (40.4%)
University (12th grade or more) 36 (6.3%) 18 (7.3%)
Differential Analyses of Interparental Conlicts and Psychopathology According to Family Coniguration
To test the differences between Interparental Conlicts
and Psychopathology via the variable family coniguration,
T-tests were performed. In relation to Interparental Conlicts in light of family coniguration, the results showed the existence of signiicant differences in the frequency variables:
t(817) = -8.04, p = .001; with 95% CI [-.79, -.48], intensity t(815) = -11.31, p = .001; with 95% CI [-.93, -.65] and resolution t(533) = -13.76, p = .001; with 95% CI [-1.22, -.91].
Therefore, it was veriied that children of separated or divorced parents indicated the existence of greater frequency and intensity of interparental conlict, compared to children from intact families. The children of separated or divorced
families also pointed to a greater resolution of interparental conlicts, compared to those children from intact families (Table 2). Although there is a greater frequency and intensity of interparental conlicts in separated or divorced households, there is also a greater capacity of conlict resolution compared to intact families. In what concerns the presence of
Psychopathologyin light of family coniguration,signiicant
differences were observed between the studied variables, namely Interpersonal Sensitivity: t(415) = -3.18, p = .002;
with 95% CI [-.32, -.06], depression t(414) = -3.03, p = .003;
with 95% CI [-.35, -.08], and anxiety t(393) = -3.208, p = .001;
with 95% CI [-.30, -.08]. In other words, it was found that individuals from separated or divorced families presented greater symptomatology compared to the individuals from intact families (Table 2).
Continuation
Mother academic qualifications
Low education (6th grade or less) 290 (50.5%) 86 (35.1%)
7th grade (from 7th to 12th) 240 (41.8%) 122 (49.8%)
University (12th grade or more) 40 (7%) 36 (14.7%)
Father professional status
High 7 (1.2%) 0 (0%)
Medium high 33 (5.7%) 33 (13.5%)
Medium 137 (23.9%) 72 (29.4%)
Medium low 273 (47.6%) 85 (34.7%)
Low 120 (20.9%) 43 (17.6%)
Mother professional status
High 9 (1.6%) 5 (2%)
Medium high 34 (5.9%) 39 (15.9%)
Medium 78 (13.6%) 47 (19.2%)
Medium low 171 (29.8%) 45 (18.4%)
Low 278 (48.4%) 107 (43.7%)
How long are separated/divorced
6 months or less 6 (2.4%)
From 6 months to 2 years 37 (15.1%)
From 2 to 4 years 29 (11.8%)
4 years or more 172 (70.2%)
Participant’s age when separeted/divorced 8.44 (5.12)
Who left home
Mother 66 (26.9%)
Father 176 (71.8%)
Went to live with
Mother 207 (84.5%)
Father 24 (9.8%)
Another person 12 (4.9%)
Any parent reconstitued another family
Yes 32 (13.1%)
No 211 (86.1%)
Lives with other brother from father/mother
Yes 37 (15.1%)
No 206 (84.1%)
Divorce was friendly
Yes 144 (58.8%)
Prediction of Psychopathology Development by Gender, Family Coniguration and Interparental Conlicts
In order to predict psychopathology, the effects of the gender, family coniguration and interparental conlicts
variables were tested using a multiple hierarchical regression
analysis. With regard to the multiple hierarchical regression analysis, for interpersonal sensitivity (Table 3) three blocks were used. In block 1 we placed gender (Dummy, constructed in order to understand, during regression
analysis, which of the two genders would be contributing to the prediction of psychopathology) which had a signiicant
contribution F(1,822) = 15.44, p < .001, explaining 1.8%
of the total variance (R2 = .018), contributing, individually,
with 1.8% of the model’s variance (R2change = .018).
In block 2 we placed family coniguration (Dummy) which signiicantly contributes to the model’s variance
F(1,821) = 10.03, p < .001 and explains 3% of the total
variance (R2 = .030), presenting an individual contribution of
1.2% (R2change = .012). In block 3 we placed interparental
conlicts, which also signiicantly contributed to the model F(3,818) = 19.14, p < .001 and explains 9.4% of the total
variance (R2 = .094), presenting an individual contribution
of 6.4% (R2change = .064). Therefore, after analyzing each
one of the variables independently, it was found that three registered a signiicant contribution, with a total variance
of 9.4%. Here we present them by order of importance: intensity of interparental conlicts (β = .184); frequency of interparental conlicts (β = .132) and gender (β = -.132) with the contribution of the female gender (Table 3).
Concerning the prediction of depression (Table 4), three blocks were also used. In block 1 we placed gender (Dummy),
which had a signiicant contribution F(1,822) = 16.89, p < .001, explaining 2% of the total variance (R2 = .020),
offering an individual contribution of 2% of the model’s variance (R2change = .020). In block 2, family coniguration
(Dummy) signiicantly contributed to the model’s
variance F(1,821) = 13.09; p < .001 and explains 3.6%
of the total variance (R2 = .036), presenting an individual
contribution of 1.5% (R2change = .015). In block 3,
interparental conlicts signiicantly contributed to the model
F(3,818) = 17.49, p < .001 and explains 9.4% of the total
variance (R2 = .094), presenting an individual contribution of
5.8% (R2change = .058). After analyzing the contribution of
each one of the variables, it was found that three revealed a signiicant contribution, with a total variance of 9.4%. Here, we present them in order of importance: gender (β= -.139) with the female contribution, frequency of interparental conlicts (β = .165) and, lastly, intensity of interparental conlicts (β = .127), predicting variables of depression as psychopathological symptomatology (Table 4).
Table 2
Differential Analyses of Interparental Conflicts and Psychopatology According Family Configuration
95% CI Intact families(n = 574) M (SD)
Divorced families (n = 245)
M (SD)
p the significant Direction of
differences Interparental Conflict
Frequency [-.79, -.48] 2.79 (1.00) 3.43 (1.12) .000 1 < 2
Intensity [-.93, -.65] 2.66 (.90) 3.45 (.97) .000 1 < 2
Resolution [-1.22, -.91] 2.75 (1.00) 3.84 (1.05) .000 1 < 2
BSI
Interpersonal
sensitivity [-.32, -.06] 1.89 (.83) 2.08 (.94) .027 1 < 2
Depression [-.35, -.08] 1.95 (.85) 2.17 (.97) .005 1 < 2
Anxiety [-.30, -.08] 1.83 (.74) 2.02 (.83) .000 1 < 2
Note. BSI = Brief Symptom Inventory.
Table 3
Interpersonal Sensivity Multiple Hierarchical Regression
R2 R2change B SE β t p
Block 1 .018 .018 -.248 .063 -.132 -3.958 .000
Block 2 .030 .012
Block 3 .094 .064
Frequency .106 .046 .132 2.318 .021
Intensity .160 .052 .184 3.090 .002
Resolution
In relation to the multiple hierarchical regression analysis regarding anxiety (Table 5), three blocks were also used. In block 1 we placed gender(Dummy), which had a signiicant
contribution F(1,822) = 18.94, p < .001, explaining 2.3% of the
total variance (R2 = .023), individually contributing with 2.3%
of the model’s variance (R2change = .023). In block 2, family
coniguration (Dummy) contributed signiicantly to the model’s
variance F(1,821) = 14.83, p < .001 and explains 4% of the total
variance (R2 = .040), presenting an individual contribution of 1.7%
(R2change = .017). In block 3, interparental conlicts signiicantly
contributed to the model F(3,818) = 18.97, p < .001 and explains
10.2% of the total variance (R2 = .102), presenting an individual
contribution of 6.2% (R2change = .062). After analyzing the
contribution of each variable, we observed that four presented a signiicant contribution, with a total variance of 10.2%. Here, we present them in order of importance: intensity of interparental conlicts (β= .182), frequency of interparental conlicts (β = .156), gender (β = -.150) with the female contribution and, inally, conlict resolution (β= -.098), predicting variables of anxiety as psychopathological symptomatology (Table 5).
Moderating Role of Family Coniguration in the Association Between Interparental Conlicts and the Development of Psychopathology
Tending to the objectives of the present study, a differential univariate analysis (ANOVA) was performed with the objective of analyzing the moderating role of family
coniguration in the association between interparental
conlicts and the development of psychopathology in
children. In what concerns the psychopathological dimensions, no signiicant interactions were observed with family coniguration in the association between interparental
conlicts and the development of interpersonal sensitivity
F(2,817) = 1.36, p > .05; η2 = .29; depression F(2,818) = .35, p > .05; η2 = .10, and anxiety F(2,817) = .78, p > .05; η2 = .18.
It was found that when faced with high levels of conlict, the individuals presented greater levels of psychopathology, regardless of their family coniguration.
Discussion
The objective of this study was to analyze in what way interparental conlicts and divorce can present themselves as predictors of the development of psychopathology in adolescents and young adults of divorced and intact families. As was expected, differences were observed in relation to interparental conlicts and family coniguration. However, the children of divorced or separated parents indicated higher frequency, intensity and resolution of conlicts. The identiication of a greater capacity of conlict resolution would be expected after divorce. It was also expected that a lower frequency and intensity of conlict would be found because of the distancing of parents, which was not the case. These results refute those found by Moura and Matos (2008), who analyzed the implications of family coniguration and interparental conlict on the attachment between young
people and parents. The study was done with the participation
of 310 adolescents between the ages of 14 and 18, whose
Table 5
Anxiety Multiple Hierarchical Regression
R2 R2change B SE β t p
Block 1 .023 .023 -.240 .053 -.150 -4.518 .000
Bloco 2 .040 .017
Block 3 .097 .062
Frequency .107 .039 .156 2.763 .006
Intensity .136 .044 .182 3.076 .002
Resolution -.067 .033 -.098 -1.945 .048
Note. B, SE and β for significance level of p < .05; Block 1 = Gender; Block 2 = Family configuration; Block 3 = Interparental conflict
dimensions (CPIC).
Table 4
Depression Multiple Hierarchical Regression
R2 R2change B SE β t p
Block 1 .020 .020 -.270 .065 -.139 -4.148 .000
Block 2 .036 .015
Block 3 .094 .058
Frequency .137 .047 .165 2.905 .004
Intensity .115 .054 .127 2.130 .033
Resolution
Note. B, SE and β for significance level of p < .05; Block 1 = Gender; Block 2 = Family configuration; Block 3 = Interparental conflict
parents were divorced. The adolescents described higher
levels of conlicts before their parents’ divorce. Therefore,
it would be expected that the separation or divorce would
contribute to a decrease in interparental conlict. However, it is also known that throughout the post-divorce period, many times, the conlicts between parental igures can persist and the decrease of conlict occurs very slowly in a progressive form, conferring a certain stability, concerning the existence of interparental conlicts. According to Cano et al. (2009), the phase after the divorce holds implicit change and dificulty for all members of the family, although, after some time they can proit on an emotional level, being provided with a greater level of maturity, resiliency and better quality of life in general. Even though the conlicts might not cease immediately after
divorce, according to Vallejo Orellana, Vallejo and Vallejo
(2004), the separation of the couple will trigger, with time, a gradual decrease of interparental conlicts. As stated in the study by Averdijk, Malti, Eisner and Ribeaud (2012), with the objective of analyzing the relationship between parental
divorce and the aggressive and internalizing behavior in
children and adolescents, it was veriied that the interparental conlicts tend to increase during the period around the couple’s separation. Although, they are also inclined to decrease drastically through time, being that the effects of divorce on
the children are reactive, not lasting through time.
The differential analysis referring to the development of psychopathology, given the family coniguration, was found to be signiicant. Therefore, in agreement with the obtained results, the development of greater levels of psychopathology
in young people whose parents are separated or divorced was
observed. According to Pratta and Santos (2007), the changes in organization and functioning, which the families can be
subjected to throughout their lives, namely due to separation
or divorce, can increase the development of psychological problems in the couple’s children.
Parental divorce has been connected to the development
of a greater negative emotional adjustment in the children, contrary to what is found in the cases of children from intact families (Buehler, Benson, & Gerard, 2006). However, according to Vallejo Orellana et al. (2004), the effects found in children of separated or divorced parents are not exclusive to divorce itself but also results of the changes and transformations inherent to the separation process, such as a
change in residency, which can trigger a cut on a peer level and
extend to the entire social network, implicating restructuring skills and adapting to new realities and circumstances.
In the matter of interparental conlicts, it was found that the interparental conlicts, particularly those of elevated frequency
and intensity; present themselves as predictors in the development
of psychopathological symptomatology in adolescents, such
as interpersonal sensitivity, depression and anxiety. Thus, the
conlicts may carry the weight of less availability from the part of the parents, being that they are more preoccupied in resolving their own dificulties, they become more irritable and unavailable, which limits their availability to their children. Therefore, due to
troublesome family conlicts, in addition to the unavailability of parental igures, the children become vulnerable and susceptible to the development of psychopathological symptomatology. A study by García et al. (2006), which dealt with a sample of 256 families, made up of parents and adolescent children, between the ages of 12 and 18, had the objective of identifying characteristics in the parents’ relationship, which could predict the psychological adjustment of their children. The results made it evident that the existence of conlicts between the couple was associated to the development of depressive and anxious symptomatology as well as externalization behavioral problems. In the study performed by Elkington, Bauermeister and Zimmerman (2010), with a sample of 850 African-American adolescents and young adults, the existence of interparental conlicts seemed to be a risk factor in the children’s developmental and behavioral process. On the
other hand, they stated that a positive presence, in other words,
presence, support, emotional exchange and sharing of knowledge by the parental igures in their children’s lives, leads to a positive and preventative inluence in future behaviors. Following this line of thought, Féres-Carneiro and Diniz Neto (2010) highlight the importance of the couples reducing negativity and promoting positive affection during marital conlict. In addition, the results showed that the perception of a low conlict resolution presents itself as a predictor of anxiety. Therefore, it seems that the parental igures’ inability to resolve their own conlicts triggers, in their children, emotional states characterized by high levels of anxiety. According to a study of a sample of 111 couples by Schermerhorn, Chow and Cummings (2010), with the objective of analyzing the inluence and interaction of children in the interparental conlicts as well as their effects on the family system, it was found that the exposure and involvement of children in interparental conlict, in the attempt of resolution, can result in negative implications on the children’s adjustment. Therefore, children can be involved in these triangles, however, they risk developing maladaptive
behaviors, as well as developing internalizing symptomatology such as anxiety and depression.
The obtained results, with the objective of testing the moderating role of family coniguration in the association of interparental conlicts and the development of psychopathology, confer the validation of the previous
theoretical and empirical assumptions. Thus, in agreement
with the results obtained in this study, family coniguration does not signiicantly compromise the development of psychopathology, which means interparental conlicts are better predictors of psychopathology than family coniguration. The results corroborate not only the previous hypothesis but also the literature. As stated by Amato and Aii (2006), the fact that children grow up in intact families, even when there are high levels of conlict between the parents, does not save the children from the effects of interparental conlicts, especially since these conlicts also result in damage to the psychological well-being of the children, regardless of their age.
and insecure environment, especially in children
(Walper, Kruse, Noack, & Schwarz, 2005). In this sense, exposing the children to the conflicts between their
parents, triggers negative emotional adjustment and leads
to the development of depressive symptomatology and a decrease in their psychological well-being, interfering with all parameters of the children’s development,
whether biological, psychological or even social
(Benetti, 2006). Smojver-Azic and Bezinovic’s study (2011) had as its objective, the analysis of the influence of family interaction, as protective or risky, against the development of psychopathology in the children, in a sample of 1,191 adolescents, it was found that the quality of the relationships between parental figures seems to influence the psychological adjustment of the adolescents. Therefore, while aggressiveness, hostility and interparental conflict are highlighted as predictors in the development of depressive symptoms, regardless of gender, it was found that cohesive families, and paternal figures which provide experiences guided by cordiality and affection, were presented as significant factors, especially in females. The manner in which parents resolve interparental conflicts should not be neglected, especially since it has been found that even when conflict exists between a couple, the strategies and
solutions used by the parents to resolve and overcome
conflict, can present themselves as constructive behaviors and positive emotions (Cummings, Goeke-Morey, & Papp, 2004).
Final Considerations
The family continues to be a relevant and primordial institution, a reference, on which young people base
their individual, emotional and relational construction.
With the present study, we looked to highlight the effect of interparental conflicts on the development of psychopathology, apart from the family organization and form. The results indicated that the children from separated or divorced families have greater perception of the frequency and intensity of interparental conflict, and adduce, concomitantly, greater resolution of interparental conflicts, compared to the children from intact families. In addition, children from separated or divorced families presented more psychopathological symptoms, compared to those children from intact homes. Finally, the results allow us to conclude that family configuration does not practice a moderating effect on the interaction between interparental conflicts and development of
psychopathological symptomatology.
In this sense, the direction of future research could go in search of a longitudinal study, in order to analyze the experience of interparental conflicts and its management in terms of resolution, as well as its relationship concerning psychopathological development. It would be relevant to analyze the time variable of the divorce
and whether or not it was litigious or friendly. In this sense, the loyalty conflict variables (coalition and triangulation) could have been added to the study, in order to verify relational contingencies inherent to divorce, and their damage to the mental health of adolescents and young adults. It could also be suggested that there be an analysis of the attachment quality between parents and children as a moderating factor in the association between interparental conflicts and psychopathology. Lastly, we also feel it would be pertinent to use other sources, namely the parents’ qualitative perspective
regarding the process.
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Olga Melo is a Clinical Psychologist at the Associação
Chaves Social IPSS.
Catarina Pinheiro Mota is an Assistant Professor at the
Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal, and a Researcher – Member of the Centre for Psychology at the
Universidade do Porto, Portugal.
Received: Mar. 15, 2013 1st Revision: Oct. 14, 2013 2nd Revision: Apr. 30, 2014
Approved: June 3, 2014
How to cite this article:
Melo, O., & Mota, C. P. (2014). Interparental conlicts and development of psychopathology in adolescents and
