D E P A R T A M E N T O DE L Í N G U A E L I T E R A T U R A E S T R A N G E I R A S
DEVELOPMENT OF INITIAL COMPETENCE IN LISTEN ING COMPREHENSION
(A Te n t a t i v e An a l y s i s)
TESE SUBMETIDA Â UNIVERSIDADE FEDERAL DE SANTA CATARINA PARA A OBTENÇÃO DO GRAU DE MESTRE EM LETRAS
ÂURin e i d e Co s t a d a Pe n h a
FLORIANÓPOLIS, SC BRASIL
DEV E LQR CNT OF INICfIAL COMPETENCE IN LISTENING C O ^ R B C N S I O N
- M E S T R E E M L E T R U S -
OPÇftO I N GL Ê S E L I T E R A T U R A C O R R E S P O N D E N T E E A P R O V A D A EIM S U A F O R M A F I N A L P E L O P R O G R A M A DE PÜS-G RA D UA Ç ft O .
A p r e s e n t a d a ã b a n c a e x a m i n a d o r a c o m p o s t a p e l o s p r o f e s s o r e s :
G r a t e f u l a c k n o w l e d g e m e n t is m a d e t o - t h e f o l l o w i n g persons P r o f e s s o r A r t u r o . U g a l d e , my a d v i s e r , for his u s e f u l c o m m e n t s and s u g g e s t i o n s . My d e e p e s t t h a n k s to him f o r his p a t i e n c e and d e d i c a t i o n . T h e v i c t o r y of the c o m p l e t i o n of m y M.A. s t u d i e s b e l o n g s to h i m also.
P r o f e s s o r M a r i a de F a t i m a R a m o s V i a n a ( U . F . C . ) a n d ; E l z a P e r e i r a . d e S o u z a L e m o s f o r t h e i r m o ra l s u p p o r t ; t-he p r o f e s s o r s of the M.A. p r o g r a m of the F e d e r a l U n i v e r s i t y of S a n t a C a t a r i n a n o t a b l y a mo n g t he m the C o o r d i n a t o r P r o f e s s o r H i l i r i o B o h n , f o r t h e i r c o u r s e s ; P r o f e s s o r J o s é P i n h e i r o de S o u s a and M a r i a O d i r e n e N. de A l m e i d a ( U . F . C . ) f o r h a v i n g r e a d my w o r k a n d f or h a v i n g m a d e u s e f u l c o m m e n t s . I am a l s o v e r y g r a t e f u l to t he F e d e r a l U n i v e r s i t y of C e a r a an d t he F e d er a l U n i v e r s i t y of S a n t a C a t a r i n a for the o p p o r t u n i t y th ey g a v e m e to t a k e t h is M.A. C o u r s e . I am p a r t i c u l a r l y g r a t e f u l to C A P E S , f o r the s c h o l a r s h i p . i F i n a l l y - I t h a n k God f o r e n a b l i n g me to a c c o m p l i s h t h is stúdy.;
PAGE ÎNTRODUCTÏ (MB,BflSI<ail,B(BBiailBllSSGI,,tBS>BBBIGBBIB laaaeB.t.ianBBis 01
CHAPTER I - Ge n e r a l Re v i e w i-
1. 1.0, Co m p r e h e n s i o n a n d l e a r n i n g.... ...r... b t , a i . . e b e b t b a a i! 03 1,1, Li s t e n i n g Co m p r e h e n s i o n. ... siaaaiaaaetiE.Bi 06 1.2, f;emory Development,.., ■ b , s b , ■, ■... i • ■ <, > ■ « • a a s a b . s a s a a a a a a a 09 1.2.1. SPEECH PROCESSING MEMORY... ... n 1 2 2 PRIMARY MEMORY ... ... ... .... ... 13 1.2.3. SECONDARY MEMORY... ... ... . 17 2 i0■ SUMMARYpiicjftiicieiiiEiaiî.Eiteeaitait.ïciiGïae Baaia.aa.Bsaaaea IB
CHAPTER II - Th e Re s e a r c h
2,0, Sc o p e o f t h e Re s e a r c h11 b « ba b « ... a. a a. a.., a,. atieii.i.SGt.SBB 21 2.1. Wa y s o f Te s t i n g Li s t e n i n g Co m p r e h e n s i o n, a.ee.fiBia.aiiBi, 22 2a2 a So m e Pr o c e d u a l Cr i t e r i a,,. .a.t a .,•bb »bc•a b,ai» »eat.E.faaeBaaBi^i 23 2a3. Th e Fi a t e r i a l.i**stiBBeiii»iiii#**»i*îEBi»ii(tii( .iBeaiaaaiGBiiae 26 2b^}b An a l y s i s o f t h e Da tÂb » » c » ? i ■i s *. • e • a e . » s e » = ». » e oBaae.Ba.asEseaGE 27
CHAPTER III
3 s 0 a GENERAL CONCLUSIONS b t a iibb b t b siia b ca ib a b t b e b b b t b■BBtaasxaaaBatis 58 3,1, Pe d a g o g i c a l Im p l i c a t i o n s... . . aafl.aBiacaiaaiaa 62
BIBLIOGRAPHYBBat.BSi8iaBBcaBaB,,,,iaB,B,iBaaaaeaaaBat BBBBeeBBaataasBs 64 APPRAISAL. tssiicic.oiBBiBBBBeaaaiBtaEBattBitiaasitti! laaBEitiSt.esaii 69 QUESTIONNAI RE, aaa.attatEaaa.BEtBatBiBEaasiiiaiictectt aGiaaaiieBBaiaaa 72
HAND OUTS
FORLISTENING (»PREHENSION...
BiBaisa.aaaaaaEB 73A f a l t a de c o m p e t ê n c i a da h a b i l i d a d e da c o m p r e e n s ã o oral q u e a m a i o r i a dos n o s s o s a l u n o s a p r e s e n t a no p r o c e s s o da a p r e n d i z a g e m de uma l í n g u a e s t r a n g e i r a , l e v o u - n o s a d e t e c t a r as c a u s a s que c o n c o r r e m pa r a q ue e s t a h a b i l i d a d e s e j a e n t r e as qua^ t ro ( o u v i r , f a l a r , ler, e s c r e v e r ) a m e n o s e n t e n d i d a . Nõs l e v a n t a m o s a h i p ó t e s e de q u e as p o s s í v e i s d i f i - c u l d a d e s que os a l u n o s e n f r e n t a m nas t a r e f a s da c o m p r e e n s ã o oral s ã o c a u s a d a s por: m ã i n t e r p r e t a ç ã o f o n é t i c a , con/pl ex i d a d e da s i n t a x e , f a l t a de uma e s q u e m a t i z a ç ã o q u e os a l u n o ? não p o s s u e m p a r a d e s e n v o l v e r a c o m p r e e n s ã o a u d i t i v a , e, s o b r e t u d o , a f a l t á de f a m i l i a r i d a d e com a l í n g u a , t e n d o em v i s t a não t e r e m s i d o e x p o s t o s ã m e s m a antes. A a n á l i s e b a s e o u - s e nas p o u c a s b i b l i o g r a f i a s e n c o n t r a d a s s o b r e o a s s u n t o , r e s s a l t a n d o e n t r e e l a s o a r t i g o de V Í V I A N C O O K " C o g n i t i v e P r o c e s s e s in S e c o n d L a n g u a g e L e a r n i n g " .
| A a n a l i s e r e a l i z a d a p r o v o u q ue a comp.l exi d a d e da siji t a x e , a; f a l t a da c o d i f i c a ç ã o f o n é t i c a e o d e s c o n h e c i m e n t o total de c e r t o s ite ns da l í n g u a a f e t a m o p r o c e s s o de con.preensão oral.
T h e lack of l i s t e n i n g c o m p e t e n c e f o u n d in t he a v e r a g e s t u d e n t s in our B r a z i l i a n s c h o o l s led us to l o ok i n t o t he c a u s e s w h i c h m a k e this skill the on e l e a s t u n d e r s t o o d o f ; t h e f o u r l a n g u a g e s k il l s.
We h y p o t h e s i z e that the p o s s i b l e d i f f i c u l t i e s the s t u d e n t s f a c e in l i s t e n i n g c o m p r e h e n s i o n t a s k s are c a u s e d by p h o n e t i c m i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , s y n t a c t i c c o m p l e x i t y , and la ck of s c h e m a t i c f r a m e w o r k . We a l s o e m p h a s i z e t h a t e-xposure to the l a n g u a g e h e l p s to d e v e l o p t h e aur al c a p a c i t y to understand it.
The s t u d y is b a s e d on some, b i b l i o g r a p h y r e l a t e d to the s u b j e c t , n o t a b l y a m o n g t h e m V i v i a m C o o k ' s a r t i c l e " C o g n i t i v e P r o c e s s e s in S e c o n d L a n g u a g e L e a r n i n g " .
i : '
The s t u d y u n d e r t a k e n has p r o v e d t h a t s y n t a c t i c c o m p l e x i t y , lack of p h o n e t i c c o d i n g ’a b i1ity ,and u n f a m i l i a r l a n g u a g e items a f f e c t the p r o c e s s of l i s t e n i n g c o m p r e h e n s i o n a c t i v i t i e s .
T h e l i s t e n i n g c o m p r e h e n s i o n a b i l i t y has not y e t b e e n d e v e l o p e d as an i n d e p e n d e n t s k i l l . T e a c h e r s in ou r s c h o o l s h av e n o t t a u g h t l i s t e n i n g c o m p r e h e n s i o n e x p l i c i t l y t h r o u g h s y s t e m a t i c well p l a n n e d c l a s s r o o m a nd l a b o r a t o r y a c t i v i t i e s . T h e y h a v e be e n c o n s i d e r i n g this a b i l i t y as a m e r e a d j u n c t to s p e a k i n g . As a r e s u l t , it has b e e n the l e a s t u n d e r s t o o d of the f o u r l a n g u a g e s k i l l s.
I n n u m e r a b l e are the d i f f i c u l t i e s f e l t by the B r a z i l i a n s t u d e n t s w h e n f a c e d w i t h any k i n d of a c t i v i t y i n v o l v i n g an aural p a s s a g e . T h e y lack l i s t e n i n g c o m p e t e n c e and c a n n o t m a k e s e n s e of w h a t t h e y l i s t en . .To build:, a s c h e m e to p r o c e s s t he
i n f o r m a t i o n into s om e c o m p r e h e n s i b l e , f o r m b e c o m e s a h a r d task in w h a t t h e y c a n n o t a c c o m p l i s h . T h i s can be d u e to t he f a c t t h a t the s t u d e n t s h a v e no t b e e n e x p o s e d long e n o u g h to v a r i o u s c o m m u n i c a t i v e s i t u a t i o n s to be a b l e to cope w i t h them. It m a y alio.be b e c a u s e of the l i m i t e d m e m o r y c a p a c i t y of the
s t u d e n t f o r the t a r g e t l a n g u a g e . M e m o r y p l a y s an e s s e n t i a l r o l e :in u n d e r s t a n d i n g a s p o k e n l a n g u a g e , it r e t r i e v e s and s t o r e s the i n f o r m a t i o n f o r l a t e r r e c a l l i n g . The a b i l i t y to r e m e m b e r m a y a l s o i n f l u e n c e the k i n d s of d i s t i n c t i o n s w h i c h m u s t be m a d e in v o c a b u l a r y or in o t h e r a s p e c t s of s e m a n t i c s to s h o w the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e c o g n i t i v e s y s t e m w i t h the r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r l a n g u a g e p e r f o r m a n c e .
The p u r p o s e of this s t u d y is to e x a m i n e how f i r s t s e m e s t e r s t u d e n t s of the E n g l i s h P r o g r a m at the S c h o o l of L e t r a s d e v e l o p t h e i r a u d i t o r y a b i l i t y to c o m p r e h e n d s p o k e n E n g l i s h ; to d e t e c t the d i f f i c u l t i e s t h e y f i n d w i t h l i s t e n i n g c o m p r e h e n s i o n a c t i v i t i e s d e v e l o p e d in t he l a b o r a t o r y s e s s i o n s ; to o b s e r v e t h e i r m e m o r y c a p a c i t y to s t o r e i n f o r m a t i o n a n d the s t r a t e g i e s u s e d to a c h i e v e the v a r i o u s l e v e l s of l i s t e n i n g c o m p r e h e n s i o n . 01
We h y p o t h e s i z e the f o l l o w i n g s o u r c e s f o r the p o s s i b l e d i f f i c u l t i e s t he s t u d e n t s f ac e in l i s t e n i n g c o m p r e h e n s i o n tasks: 1) p h o n e t i c m i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n ; 2) s y n t a t i c c o m p l e x i t y ; 3) lack of s c h e m a t i c f r a m e w o r k . A l s o , t h e r e are i n n a t e p e r c e p t u a l s t r a t e g i e s in ea c h i n d i v i d u a l to d e v e l o p l i s t e n i n g c o m p r e h e n s i o n s k i l l s , b ut m o s t of the t im e the i n d i v i d u a l is n o t c o n s c i o u s of the m; e x p o s u r e to the l a n g u a g e ( w h e n it o c c u r s w i t h i n a s i t u a t i o n of m e a n i n g f u l use) h e l p s to d e v e l o p t he aural c a p a c i t y to u n d e r s t a n d t h e l a n g u a g e . T h e s t u d e n t s b e c o m e b e t t e r l i s t e n e r s w h e n t r a i n e d and a c q u a i n t e d as well w i t h a v a r i e t y of d e l i v e r i e s in s p e e c h ; l i s t e n i n g comprehension . i n v o l v e s q u i t e d i f f e r e n t s k i l l s f r o m s p e a k i n g o r r e a d i n g : | ; C h a p t e r o n e p r e s e n t s a c r i t i c a l r e v i e w of l i s t e n i n g c o m p r e h e n s i o n a b i l i t y . C h a p t e r t wo c o n s i s t s of the r e s e a r c h | i t s e l f and a n a l y s i s of the data. C h a p t e r t h r e e p r e s e n t s the
i i ■
g e n e r a l c o n c l u s i o n of the s t udy. It a l s o p r e s e n t s a pedagogical i m p l i c a t i o n fo r a b e t t e r a c c o m p l i s h m e n t of the l i s t e n i n g
| .
G e n e r a l R e v i e w
1,0,
C o m p r e h e n s i o n a n d L e a r n i n gT h e b a s i c p o i n t of c o m p r e h e n s i o n is t h a t all h u m a n s ,regardless o'f a ge t ry to m a k e s e n s e of the w o r l d a r o u n d . .and w i t h i n them. M a k i n g s e n s e m e a n s c o m p r e h e n s i o n . T h e w a y . . |we ^co m pr e he n d is by r e l a t i n g n e w i n f o r m a t i o n to w h a t we
i al reaidy; k n o w , by f i t t i n g it i n t o w h a t is c a l l e d by S m i t h j" o u r c o g n i t i v e s t r u c t u r e " (cf. S m i t h 1 9 7 5 : 2 2 7 ) . L e a r n i n g , !l ik e c o m p r e h e n s i o n , r e q u i r e s f i t t i n g new i n f o r m a t i o n i n to
o l d , but l e a r n i n g also i n v o l v e s a r e o r g a n i z a t i o n of the ^ c o g n i t i v e s t r u c t u r e to a c c o m o d a t e the ne w i n f o r m a t i o n . We !c a n n o t m a k e s e n s e of n o i s e e v e n i m m e d i a t e l y r e l a t i n g it to w h a t we a l r e a d y k n o w or r e o r g a n i z i n g w h a t we k n o w so t h a t the n e w i n f o r m a t i o n fits. T h e b i o l o g i c a l l i m i t a t i o n s on o n e ’s a b i l i t y to p r o c e s s i n f o r m a t i o n r e q u i r e s to c h u n k i n f o r m a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n to p r o c e s s it by t i n y bit. F o r i n s t a n c e , p a y i n g a t t e n t i o n to t i n y bits of vi s u a l i n f o r m a t i o n , sa y to letters, r e s u l t s in " t un n el v i s i o n " , w i t h a c o n c o m i t a n t r e d u c t i o n in the a m o u n t of v i s u a l i n f o r m a t i o n one can p r o c e s s . R i g g ( 1 9 7 6 : 4 4 7 ) says: "if f o u r s p a c e s b e t w e e n e v e r y l e t t e r a r e
t y p e d , s o r t o f 1 i k e t
h i s, "one is f o r c e d to r ea d l e t t e r by l e t t e r , it w o u l d t a k e a g r e a t deal m o r e t i m e to get the m e s s a g e t h a n w h e n t he l e t t e r s of e a c h w o r d a r e p u t t o g e t h e r and the w o r d s e p a r a t e d by s p a c e s " . Of c o u r s e w e d o n ’t r ea d l e t t e r by l e t t e r , a n y m o r e th a n we l i s t e n p h o n e m e by p h o n e m e . We a re a b l e to u n d e r s t a n d m e s s a g e s c o m i n g t h r o u g h o u r eyes a nd o u r e a r s b e c a u s e we g u e s s w h a t ' s c o m i n g to us and we s a m p l e t h e i n c o m i n g si g na l to c o n f i r m our g u e s s , c h a n g i n g o u r p r e d i c t i o n w h e n we c a n n o t g e t c o n f i r m a t i o n . 03
It is known t h at it is c o m m o n f o r d i f f e r e n t l i s t e n e r s to u n d e r s t a n d the same s p e e c h d i f f e r e n t l y . T h e f i f e r e n c e s or V-. d i s a g r e e m e n t s are o f t e n b r u s h e d o f f as b e i n g n o t h i n g , m o r e t h a n an e v a s i o n o v e r s e m a n t i c s . " D i f f e r e n t s e m a n t i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o c c u r b e c a u s e m e a n i n g is n ot i n h e r e n t to a n y s p e e c h , t e x t , or a c t i v i t y . M e a n i n g is a s s i g n e d by s p e a k e r , t he l i s t e n e r , the w r i t e r , the r e a d e r , the p a r t i c i p a n t , t he o b s e r v e r " ( R i g g 1 9 7 6 : 4 4 8 ) . And t h e b a s i s f or a s s i g n i n g meaning is a l w a y s w h a t is a l r e a d y k n o w n
[ | i h F o r Hal 1 i day, f r o m b i r t h o n w a r d s a p e r s o n is
■■■ ■ 1 ' j
s u r r o u n d e d by text. T h e t e r m t e x t a c c o r d i n g to h i m c o v e r s i ;both: s p e e c h a nd w r i t i n g 4 and is 'quite n e u t r a l ' as r e g a r d P t o j s t y l e and c o n t e n t . It m a y be l a n g u a g e .' in a c t i o n , c o n v e r s a t i o n , t e l e p h o n e t a l k , d e b a t e , d r a m a t i c d i a l o g u e , i n a r r a t i v e f i c t i o n , p o e t r y , p r a y e r s , i n s c r i p t i o n s , p u b l i c n o t i c e s , m o n o l o g u e or a n y t h i n g e lse. He c o n s i d e r s m e a n i n g and c h o i c e t he e s s e n t i a l p r o p e r t i e s of a text. O n e t h i n k s of t e x t f i r s t of all as w o r d s and s e n t e n c e s : "and it is c e r t a i n l y e n c o d e d in w o r d s a nd s e n t e n c e s in j u s t th e s a m e w a y as t h o s e w o r d s and s e n t e n c e s are f u r t h e r e n c o d e d i n t o s o u n d s o r l e t t e r s " ( H a l l i d a y 1 9 7 5 : 1 2 3 ) " B u t . h e says t h a t t e x t is n o t m a d e of s o u n d s or l e t t e r s ; neither is it m a d e o f w o r d s , p h r a s e s or c l a u s e s . It is m a d e of m e a n i n g s , and e n c o d e d in w o r d i n g s , s o u n d i n g s a nd s p e l l i n g s . T e x t is l o c a t e d at the s e m a n t i c le ve l . T h u s a t e x t is "a s e m a n t i c u n i t , r e a l i z e d as ( r e c o d e d in) 1 e x i c o g r a m m a t i c a l u n i t s w h i c h a r e f u r t h e r r e a l i z e d as ( r e c o d e d in) p h o n o l o g i c a l o r o r t h o g r a p h i c u n i t s " ( H a l l i d a y 1 9 7 5 : 1 2 3 ) . As c h o i c e t e x t " r e p r e s e n t s a s e l e c t i o n w i t h i n n u m e r o u s set of o p t i o n s ; e v e r y t h i n g t h a t is said presupposes a b a c k g r o u n d of w h a t m i g h t h a v e b ee n s a i d but w a s not" ( H a l l i d a y 1 9 7 5 : 1 2 3 - 1 2 4 ) . T h u s a s t u d e n t of .a s e c o n d l a n g u a g e m u s t l e a r n s h o w to co p e w i t h w h a t m i g h t h a v e b e e n
m e a n t but was not in a t e x t by the s p e a k e r . H a l l i d a y s says: "t he m i c r o l i n g u i s t i c a c t s or c o u n t l e s s c h o i c e t h a t the s p e a k e r m a k e s as he g o es a l o n g , a re a c t u a l l y m i c r o s e m a n t i c a c t s ; w h a t t he s p e a k e r is d o i n g is m e a n i n g . A t e x t t h e n is a s e m a n t i c s t r u c t u r e t h a t is f o r m e d out of a c o n t i n u o u s p r o c e s s of c h o i c e a m o n g i n n u m e r a b l e interrelated s et s of s e m a n t i c o p t i o n s " ( H a l l i d a y 1 9 7 5 : 1 2 4 ) ^ M.A.K. H a l l i d a y in his b o o k L e a r n i n g H o w to M e a n (1975) says t h a t t h e a d u l t l a n g u a g e i n v o l v e s a t h r e e level s y s t e m.1 T h e l a n g u a g e is n o t o n l y m e a n i n g s and s o u n d s , b u t it h a s i a n o t h e r level of c o d i n g in b e t w e e n , w h i c h c o u l d be a level of w o r d i n g s . Th is m e a n s t h a t b e s i d e s s e m a n t i c s a nd p h o n o l o g y t h e r e is the n ee d of a level of l i n g u i s t i c f o r m , 1 a . *1e x i c o - g r a m m a r ' . " T h e n e e d fo r t he 1 e x i c o g r a m m a t i c a l level of c o d i n g i n t e r m e d i a t e b e t w e e n m e a n i n g and s o u n d a r i s e s not m e r e l y b e c a u s e of t he i n c r e a s e d s e m a n t i c l o a d t h a t t he s y s t e m has to bea r, b ut a l s o b e c a u s e t h e r e has to be a m e a n s of m a p p i n g o n t o one a n o t h e r m e a n i n g d e r i v i n g f r o m d i f f e r e n t f u n c t i o n a l o r i g i n s . T h i s is a c h i e v e d by grammatical s t r u c t u r e " ( H a l l i d a y 1 9 7 5 : 3 0 ) .
L i k e a c h i l d , one of the s t e p s the a d u l t f a c e s in l e a r n i n g a l a n g u a g e is to l e a r n to e n g a g e in and u n d e r s t a n d a d i a l o g u e as we l l . " D i a l o g u e is a n e w c o n c e p t f o r him and i n v o l v e s t h e a d o p t i o n of r o l e s w h i c h are social r o l e s of a n e w and s p e c i a l kin d, n a m e l y t h o s e w h i c h ar e d e f i n e d by l a n g u a g e i t s e l f " ( H a l l i d a y 1 9 7 5 : 3 0 ) . H a l l i d a y r e f e r s to t h e s e as c o m m u n i c a t i o n r o l e s . And w h e n t he a d u l t l i k e the c h i l d s t a r t s to e n g a g e in d i a l o g u e he b e g i n s to b u i l d a g r a m m a r and v o c a b u l a r y as well as he l e a r n s t o i n t e r a c t linguistically in a l i m i t e d n u m b e r of w ays. He l e a r n s to r e s p o n d to an i n f o r m a t i o n or WH t y p e q u e s t i o n , to fill in a m i s s i n g i t e m s u c h as 'what a r e y o u e a t i n g ? ' . He a l s o l e a r n s to r e s p o n d to a s t a t e m e n t , n o t o n l y r e p e a t i n g it but c o n t i n u i n g the . ' c o n v e r s a t i o n by a d d i n g his own c o n t r i b u t i o n . He l e a r n s t h e n to i n i t i a t e d i a l o g u e h i m s e l f a nd c l e a r l y i n t e r n a l i z e the n o t i o n t h a t l a n g u a g e d e f i n e s a s et of s o c i a l r o l e s w h i c h a re
t a k e n on by t he p a r t i c i p a n t in t h e s p e e c h s i t u a t i o n .
1,1, L
i s t e n i n gC
o m p r e h e n s i o nT e a c h e r s h a v e f a l s e l y - a s s u m e d / .that l i s t e n i n g c o m p r e h e n s i o n c o u l d d e v e l o p all by i t s e l f if s t u d e n t s w e r e t a u g h t how to speak. R e s e a r c h d o n e on the s u b j e c t has provided f u r t h e r e v i d e n c e in the s e n s e t h a t l i s t e n i n g is n ot a m e r e a d j u n c t to s p e a k i n g b u t an i n d e p e n d e n t skill t h a t m u s t be t a u g h t explicitly t h r o u g h s y s t e m a t i c , well p l a n n e d c l a s s r o o m an d l a b o r a t o r y a c t i v i t i e s as well .
S i n c e l i s t e n i n g has b ee n the l e a s t u n d e r s t o o d of the f o u r l a n g u a g e s k i l l s and c o n s e q u e n t l y the l e a s t well t a u g h t } the m a j o r i t y of the s t u d e n t s w h o b e g i n to s t u d y E n g l i s h as a f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e has s h o w n t h a t the m a j o r difficulties r e l y on u n d e r s t a n d i n g . T h e s e f a c t s can be a t t e s t e d to by the a d d i t i o n a l la c k of l i s t e n i n g a b i l i t y f o u n d in the a v e r a g e s t u d e n t s in our B r a z i l i a n s c h o o l s ; s u ch s t u d e n t s 1 ack 1 istening c o m p r e h e n s i o n c o m p e t e n c e w h e n t h e y l i s t e n to a 1e c t u r e , 'hear a n o r m a l c o n v e r s a t i o n c a r r i e d o u t by n a t i v e s p e a k e r s , l i s t e n to r a d i o n e w s , a d i a l o g u e or a ny o t h e r f o r m of l i s t e n i n g
a c t i v i t y . T h e y c a n n o t m a k e s e n s e of w h a t t h e y l i s t e n to. T h e y h a v e d i f f i c u l t i e s in b u i l d i n g a s c h e m e to: p r o c e s s the i n f o r m a t i o n into s o m e c o m p r e h e n s i b l e form. T h i s can i m p l y t h a t t h e y h a v e not be en a b l e to b u i l d up so me s t r a t e g i e s f o r d e c o d i n g oral l a n g u a g e b e c a u s e they, h a v e n ot b e e n e x p o s e d long e n o u g h to v a r i o u s c o m m u n i c a t i v e s i t u a t i o n s to be a b l e to c o p e w i t h them. A n o t h e r p r o b l e m o b s e r v e d in o u r cl a s s r o o m in connection w i t h u n d e r s t a n d i n g of an aural p a s s a g e , is the i n c a p a c i t y to r e m e m b e r the e s s e n t i a l u n i t s of i n f o r m a t i o n of the te x t to be a b l e to put t h e s e u n i t s t o g e t h e r as a m e a n i n g f u l w h o l e . T h e a b i l i t y to u n d e r s t a n d o r , t o p r o d u c e s e n t e n c e s d e p e n d s u p o n t h e a b i l i t y to r e t a i n c e r t a i n c o n s t i t u e n t s of the m e s s a g e w h i l e p r o c e s s i n g o t h e r s . In f a c t , w i t h o u t t e m p o r a r y s t o r a g e
t h e r e s e e m s to be no w a y for the s t u d e n t s to s p e a k or to u n d e r s t a n d t he s p e e c h of the o t h e r s . P i m s l e u r et a l i i ( 1977) b e l i e v e t h a t the p r o b l e m of l i s t e n i n g c o m p r e h e n s i o n can be a l l e v i a t e d by d e v o t i n g m o r e c l a s s t i m e to this skill. T h e a s s u m p t i o n is t h a t s t u d e n t s w h o a r e not a c a d e m i c a l l y i n c l i n e d and t h o s e t u r n e d o ff by
l a n g u a g e s t u d y f in d l i s t e n i n g less s t r e s s f u l and less
e m b a r a s s i n g than s p e a k i n g . B e c a u s e t h e y en j o y 1 i stem* ng a c t i v i t i e s , t h e y t en d to s t a y w i t h the p r o g r a m l o n g e r i A c c o r d i n g to them, l i s t e n i n g is a skill li ke r e a d i n g in w h i c h one can r e a l i s t i c a l l y ho p e to a c q u i r e a f a i r d e g r e e of p r o f i c i e n c y in two y e a r s of s t u d y ; w h e r e a s profic-iency in s p e a k i n g g e n e r a l l y t a k e s m u c h l o n g e r . ; P i m s l e y et a l i i ( 1 9 7 7 ) s m e n t i o n t h a t the g r o w i n g i n t e r e s t in t e a c h i n g l i s t e n i n g has c r e a t e d a d e m a n d for s t i m u l a t i n g ' c u l t u r a l l y a u t h e n t i c ' r e c o r d e d m a t e r i a l . T h e a s s u m p t i o n is t h a t r a d i o b r o a d c a s t s , fo r i n s t a n c e , can fill s o m e of the n e e d , w h a t c a n n o t be p r e p a r e d for is the she.er f l o w of w o r d s . T h e y say t h a t , w h e n l a n g u a g e is s p o k e n at n o rm a l s p e e d the f o r e i g n w o r d s r e a c h t he 1 i s t e n e r ' p ar so. r a p i d l y t h a t t h e y s oo n 'pile u p ' , b e c a u s e of the s h o r t - t e r m o v e r l o a d s , a n d the l i s t e n e r s i m p l y 'tunes out' . T h u s , it is i m p o r t a n t to c o n t r o l th i s f a c t o r in o r d e r to r e a c h l i s t e n i n g c o m p r e h e n s i o n m o r e e f f e c t i v e l l y .
F o r S n o w and P e r k i n s (Tesol 13/1 m a r c h 1979) the l i s t e n i n g a c t i v i t i e s and m a t e r i a l s m u s t be n e i t h e r too e a s y n or t oo d i f f i c u l t , b u t in an a p p r o p r i a t e level in o r d e r to c h a l l e n g e the s t u d e n t to a c t i v e l y u n d e r s t a n d , from hypothesis, and t r y to c l e a r up a m b i g u i t i e s . T h e y sa y tha the l i s t e n i n g c o m p r e h e n s i o n m a t e r i a l s b e c o m e d i f f i c u l t to cal i b r a t e because no w o r k a b l e l i s t e n i n g a b i l i t y s c a l e has be e n d e v e l o p e d . B u t w i t h o u t a n y d o u b t l i s t e n i n g c o m p r e h e n s i o n m a t e r i a l s m u s t be m e a n i n g f u l and p r o p o s e f u l so t h a t s t u d e n t s can u n d e r s t a n d w h y t h e y a r e d o i n g a p a r t i c u l a r a c t i v i t y , h o w t h e y are to
p r o c e e d w i t h it, and w h a t t h e y are e x p e c t e d to do w i t h it. W i th this in m i n d , o ne can d e s i g n a set of l i s t e n i n g
c o m p r e h e n s i o n m a t e r i a l s w h i c h w o u l d be a p p r o p r i a t e a c c o r d i n g to the l e v e l of the s t u d e n t s , s y s t e m a t i c a l l y i m p r o v i n g t h e i r
listening skills.
; It s e e m s t h a t one of the c r u c i a l s t a g e s for a c q u i r i n g l i s t e n i n g c o m p r e h e n s i o n in a s e c o n d l a n g u a g e is to d e v e l o p a b a s i c s c h e m e for understand!' n g . Thi s a l l o w s t he l e a r n e r to h av e s o m e i m p r o v e m e n t in the d e c o d i n g of the s p e e c h f l o w , to h e l p 1him r e c o g n i z e the w o r d s and t h e i r r e l a t i o n s in the s t r u c t u r e . T h e r e f o r e , t h i s i m p l i e s t h a t e x p o s u r e s is t h e f i r s t [step in! the l a n g u a g e a c q u i s i t i o n p r o c e s s ; in o t h i r w o r d s , '
r e c e p t i v e s k i l l s e i t h e r r e a d i n g or l i s t e n i n g are the s k i l l s t h a t s h o u l d be f i r s t d e v e l o p e d to a c c o m p l i s h a b e t t e r s c h e m e f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g . A s t u d y in d e l a y e d oral p r a c t i c e a p p r o a c h was d o n e by Gary ( 1 975) , w h o e x p e r i m e n t e d w i t h e l e m e n t a r y s c ho o l c h i l d r e n l e a r n i n g S p a n i s h as a s e c o n d l a n g u a g e . H e r 22 w e e k e x p e r i m e n t c o n t a i n e d an e x p e r i m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n in w h i c h oral p r a c t i c e w a s t o t a l l y a b s e n t fo r t he f i r s t 14 w e e k s and f o r the f i r s t h a l f of e a c h l e s s o n t h e r e a f t e r , and a c o n t r o l c o n d i t i o n in w h i c h c h i l d r e n f r o m the s t a r t w e r e r e q u i r e d to s p e a k i m m e d i a t e l y u p o n h e a r i n g t he m o de l u t t e r a n c e . C o m p r e h e n s i o n in the e x p e r i m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n was a s s e s s e d by r e q u i r i n g a n o n v e r b a l g r o s s m o t o r r e s p o n s e , su c h as n o d d i n g or p o i n t i n g to o b j e c t ; in t he c o n t r o l c o n d i t i o n , s u b j e c t s w e r e r e q u i r e d to r e p e a t c o m m a n d s and q u e s t i o n s a f t e r the t e a c h e r as well as to r e s p o n d to t h e m p h y s i c a l l y . U p o n c o m p l e t i o n of the s t u d y O l m s t e d G a r y f o u n d s u p e r i o r i t y of the e x p e r i m e n t a l s u b j e c t s in l i s t e n i n g c o m p r e h e n s i o n w i t h no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n g r o u p s in oral p r o d u c t i o n , a l t h o u g h t he r a te of the l e a r n i n g b e t w e e n t he 1 4 6 h and 2 2nd w e e k s a p p e a r e d to f a v o r the e x p e r i m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n » s u g g e s t i n g , p e r h a p s , a l a t e n c y e f f e c t in the t r a n s f e r l e a r n i n g . J u d i t h a n d N o r m a n G a r y ( 1 98 1 ) b e l i e v e that concentration on p r o d u c t i o n s k i l l s s uc h as s p e a k i n g d u r i n g the e a r l y s t a g e of l a n g u a g e i n s t r u c t i o n r e t a r d s l a n g u a g e 1e a r n i n g .T h e y a r g u e
l a n g u a g e i n s t r u c t i o n s h o u l d e m p h a s i z e d e v e l o p i n g s u b s t a n t i a l c o m p e t e n c e in l i s t e n i n g c o m p r e h e n s i o n or p e r h a p s in r e a d i n g c o m p r e h e n s i o n b e f o r e r e q u i r i n g l e a r n e r s to t a l k the ne w l a n g u a g e . S e v e r a l o t h e r r e s e a r c h e r s , u s i n g d i f f e r e n t m o d e l s of n o n v o c a l r e s p o n s e in d e v e l o p m e n t of l i s t e n i n g comprehensions ; h a v e r e p o r t e d s i m i l a r f i n d i n g s . N o t a b l e a m o n g t h e m are: A s h e r ( 1 9 6 5 , 1 9 6 9 , 1 9 7 2 ) , W i n i t z a n d R e e d s ( 1 9 7 3 , 1973) , Si ttl er ;.( 1975) , and I n g r a m , N o r d , and D r a g t ( 1 974). T h e s e r e s e a r c h e r s and o t h e r s h a v e c l e a r l y d e m o n s t r a t e d t ha t the : i • i d e v e l o p m e n t of l i n g u i s t i c c o m p e t e n c e is e n h a n c e d w h e n m a s s i v e ; p r a c t i c e in l i s t e n i n g c o m p r e h e n s i o n p r e c e e d s oral p r a c t i c e . , i : i ' D i s c u s s i n g t he s u b j e c t of l i s t e n i n g c o m p r e h e n s i o n , R i v e r s (1968) p r o p o s e s two l e v e l s of th i s a b i l i t y : the ' r e c o g n i t i o n level and the s e l e c t i o n 1 e v e l . At the f i r s t level the student, d e a i s w i t h t he i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of w o r d s and p h r a s e s , s t r u c t u r a l i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s , t i m e s e q u e n c e , l o g i c a l a nd m o d i f y i n g t e r m s , a nd o t h e r s . At the s e c o n d level o r ' s e l e c t i o n level t he s t u d e n t s e i z e s the e l e m e n t s of the s p e a k e r ’s l a n g u a g e w h i c h s e e m to e x p r e s s the p u r p o s e s of the s p e a k e r ! It has b e e n o b s e r v e d in o u r c l a s s r o o m t h a t , at t h e r e c o g n i t i o n l e v e l , the s t u d e n t o f t e n has d i f f i c u l t y in
r e t a i n i n g and p r o c e s s i n g w h a t he h ea r s. P e r h a p s , t h is h a p p e n s b e c a u s e ; o f the l i m i t e d m e m o r y c a p a c i t y of the s t u d e n t f o r the t a r g e t l a n g u a g e .
1,2, M
e m o r yD
e v e l o p m e n t In r e c e n t y e a r s i n c r e a s i n g a t t e n t i o n has b e e n g i v e n to m e m o r y d e v e l o p m e n t , a nd p e r h a p s it will be p o s s i b l e to r e a c h a f e w c o n c l u s i o n s a b o u t l a n g u a g e d e v e l o p m e n t f r o m the p o i n t of v i e w of the d e v e l o p m e n t a l p s y c h o l o g y of m e m o r y . In a l i s t e n i n g c o m p r e h e n s i o n s t u d y the p r e s e n c e of the ^ i m m e d i a t e m e m o r y or s h o r t - t e r m m e m o r y is f u n d a m e n t a l . It r e p r e s e n t s , f or e x a m p l e the f i r s t s t a g e of p r o c e s s i n g b e t w e e n p e r c e p t i o nand s u b s e q u e n t h i g h e r o r d e r p r o c e s s i n g . "It -is l a r g e l y o r i e n t e d t o w a r d p r e s e r v i n g transi en t ' f e a t u r e s of environment long e n o u g h so t h at r e l a t i v e l y s l o w m e n t a l processes h a v e a ! c h a n c e to o p e r a t e u p o n e n v i r o n m e n t a l i n p u t " ( O l s o n 1 9 7 3 : 1 4 6 ) . O s l o n r e f e r s to s h o r t - t e r m m e m o r y as the l i m i t e d c a p a c i t y s t o r e w i t h i n the initial or t e r m i n a l c o m p u t a t i ons of perception or of p r o d u c t i o n .
It is i m p o r t a n t to c o n s i d e r s o m e t h i n g s k n o w n a b o u t the w a y s in w h i c h a d u l t s r e m e m b e r . M i l l e r (1956) in a p a p e r on i m m e d i a t e m e m o r y , c a l l e d a t t e n t i o n to • somte .basic
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of i m m e d i a t e m e m o r y . F i r s t t h a t t h e r e is isome u p p e r b o u n d on the n u m b e r of i n f o r m a t i o n unit-s we can
r e t a i n in our i m m e d i a t e m e m o r y , a n d th i s u p p e r b o u n d is r e l a t i v e l y small as the r a n g e of n u m b e r s t h a t h a v e b e e n : m e n t i o n e d w o u l d i n d i c a t e . M i l l e r s a y s t h a t the a d v a n t a g e s of a s i m p l e m e c h a n i c a l d e s k c a l c u l a t o r ,j is t h a t its i m m e d i a t e - - m e m o r y s p a n is not so s e v e r e l y r e s t r i c t e d . A c c o r d i n g t E T h i m lit is d i f f i c u l t f o r s o m e of us to m u l t i p l y two s i x - d i g i t
n u m b e r s in our h e a d s w h i l e such f e a t s are r o u t i n e f or calculators . T h e s e c o n d p o i n t M i l l e r makes is t h a t t h e r e is i f l e x i b i l i t y as to w h a t the f i v e to s e v e n i n f o r m a t i o n u n i t s in
i m m e d i a t e m e m o r y can be. He s ay s t h a t if we e n c o d e our i n f o r m a t i o n c l e v e r l y we can s t o r e f i v e to s e v e n u n i t s of i n c r e d i b l e r i c h n e s s w h i l e still c o n s t r a i n e d by the s a m e
o v e r a l l , r e s t r i c t i o n s on c a p a c i t y . T h i s m e a n s t h e a b i l i t y to m o n i t o r or a s s e s s the s t a t e of th i s p l a n n i n g and the readiness to p e r f o r m ; and a l s o the a b i l i t y to i n t e g r a t e in real t i m e the f l o w of i n f o r m a t i o n t h r o u g h i m m e d i a t e m e m o r y and retrieval of i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m l o n g - t e r m m e m o r y .
A d u l t s u s u a l l y r e m e m b e r the n a m e of a c l a s s r a t h e r t ha n e a c h of its m e m b e r s ; t h e y r e m e m b e r r u l e s r a t h e r t h a n e x a m p l e s of the r u l e s , or t h e y u s e o t h e r s t r a t e g i e s w h i c h e n a b l e t h e m to let a small u n i t of i n f o r m a t i o n s t a n d f o r a p r o c e d u r e t h a t can be u s e d to g e n e r a t e a set or s u b s e t of the m a t e r i a l t h a t ar e to be r e m e m b e r e d . B l o o m et alii (1970)
a b i l i t y to r e m e m b e r , m a y a l s o i n f l u e n c e the k i n d s of distinction w h i c h m u s t be m a d e in v o c a b u l a r y or in o t h e r a s p e c t s of
s e m a n t i c s in o r d e r to a n n o u n c e the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t he c o g n i t i v e s y s t e m w i t h the r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r language performance. F u r t h e r m o r e , d i f f e r e n c e in s t r a t e g i e s fo r 1 a n g u a g e acquisition m a y be r e l a t e d to c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of b o t h s h o r t - l o n g t e r m m e m o r y o r g a n i z a t i o n . 1.2.1. S P E E C H P R O C E S S I N G M E M O R Y In l i s t e n i n g c o m p r e h e n s i o n a c t i v i t i e s m e m o r y is f u n d a m e n t a l . W i t h o u t m e m o r y t h e r e will be no r e t e n t i o n of a g i v e n i n f o r m a t i o n . It is a l s o in m e m o r y t h a t the i n f o r m a t i o n is s t o r e d and p r o c e s s e d f o r a l a t e r r e c a l l i n g .
A lot of s t u d e n t s fail to u n d e r s t a n d - the s p o k e n l a n g u a g e b e c a u s e t h ey do n o t h a v e a g o o d m e m o r y to r e t r i e v e t he i n f o r m a t i o n . C o o k (1977) r e f e r s to d i f f e r e n t k i nd s of m e m o r y r e l a t e d to the c o g n i t i v e p r o c e s s of l e a r n i n g s : the s p e e c h p r o c e s s i n g m e m o r y , the p r i m a r y m e m o r y , t h e s e c o n d a r y m e m o r y , a n d the l a n g u a g e m e m o r y . T h i s f r a m e w o r k is u s e d by
Cook in s o m e of her e x p e r i m e n t to s h o w the i m p o r t a n c e t h e y h a v e in the s e c o n d .1a n g u a g e l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s .
By d e f i n i t i o n , s p e e c h p r o c e s s i n g m e m o r y is t he mental a c t i v i t y of s t o r i n g p a r t of the i n f o r m a t i o n a n d p r o c e s s i n g the r e s t of it w h i l e the s e n t e n c e is b e i n g u t t e r e d . All l a n g u a g e u s e r s h a v e to f a c e t h is p r o c e s s , o t h e r w i s e it c o u l d be i m p o s s i b l e f o r t h e m to d e v e l o p t h e i r a b i l i t y to understand the s p o k e n 1a n g u a g e . ' I n f o r m a t i o n b e c o m e s h a r d to r e t a i n w h e n the s p e e c h p r o c e s s i n g m e m o r y is o v e r l o a d e d , t h a t is, w h e n t h e r e is t oo m u c h i n f o r m a t i o n . L i n g u i s t i c r e s e a r c h in this a r e a has e s t a b l i s h e d a s t r o n g c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n s p e e c h p r o c e s s i n g m e m o r y (SPM) and s y n t a x . In o t h e r w o r d s , the c a p a c i t y the s t u d e n t s h a v e to g r a s p and u n d e r s t a n d the u n i t s t ha t f o r m t he s e n t e n c e and t h e i r r e l a t i o n s is c o n n e c t e d to their speech p r o c e s s i n g m e m o r y c a p a c i t y .
Y n g v e (1960) says t h a t s o m e s t r u c t u r e s h a v e " d e e p e r s u n t a x " than o t h e r s . F or i n s t a n c e a s t r u c t u r e s u c h as "his m o t h e r ' s b r o t h e r ' s s o n 's d a u g h t e r ' s hat" is m o r e d i f f i c u l t
to p r o c e s s th a n " t he hat of the d a u g h t e r of the son of his m o t h e r " . S a v i n and P e r c h o n o c k ( 1965) c l a i m t h a t a s e n t e n c e w i t h m o r e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s t a k e s g r e a t e r m e m o r y c a p a c i t y . K i m b a l l (1973) sa ys t ha t s y n t a c t i c c o m p l e x i t y l e a d s to a loss of c o m p r e h e n s i o n ; it d o e s n ot m a t t e r in w h i c h l a n g u a g e the s e n t e n c e is spo ke n . Cook (1975) h y p o t h e s i z e s in her e x p e r i m e n t t h a t c o m p r e h e n s i o n e r r o r s a re c a u s e d by p e r c e p t u a l s t r a t e g i e s t h a t r e s o r t e d to w h e n the normal c a p a c i t y of s p e e c h p r o c e s s i n g is o v e r l o a d e d . She t e s t e d this h y p o t h e s i s by the c o m p r e h e n s i o n of the E n g l i s h r e l a t i v e c l a u s e , by n a t i v e c h i l d r e n , n a t i v e a d u l t s and f o r e i g n a d u l t s . Sh e f o u n d t h a t t h e s e t h r e e g r o u p s t e n d e d to u se the s a m e s t r a t e g y w h e n the m e m o r y was too
o v e r l o a d e d . Th i s s t r a t e g y w as t h a t the f i r s t Noun P h r a s e in t he s e n t e n c e w as the s u b j e c t and the f i r s t N o u n P h r a s e a f t e r the v e r b th e o b j e c t . Th e s y n t a x wa s w r o n g l y i n t e r p r e t e d and so was the c o m p r e h e n s i o n . Th e f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e "The cat t he dog b i t e s l i ke s the h o r s e " was i n t e r p r e t e d as " T h e cat was biting the dog". It was a l s o f o u n d t h a t s y n t a c t i c p o i n t g i v e s problem to all t h r e e g r o u p s ( n a t i v e c h i l d , n a t i v e a d u l t and f o r e i g n a d u l t s ) p r o c e s s i n g E n g l i s h . T h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n n a t i v e a d u l t and f o r e i g n a d u l t s or b e t w e e n ch i l d a nd n a t i v e a d u l t s is o ne of d e g r e e r a t h e r t h a n of kind. S y n t a c t i c c o m p l e x i t y is e a s i e r to u n d e r s t a n d as s p e e c h p r o c e s s i n g m e m o r y e x p a n d s . T h i s w a s o b s e r v e d in n a t i v e c h i l d r e n ' s g r a d u a l i m p r o v e m e n t on t he a c q u i s i t i o n of c e r t a i n s t r u c t u r e s . H o w e v e r , S P M w o r k s in t he s a m e w a y in all s p e a k e r s of E n g l i s h , as to s y n t a c t i c p oint. It d e p e n d s on o n e ' s k n o w l e d g e of s y n t a x . T h e f o r e i g n l e a r n e r ' s b e h a v i o r is s i m i l a r to t h a t of a n a t i v e a d u l t b e c a u s e he has a m o r e 1i m i t e d c a p a c i t y f o r s y n t a x s p e e c h p r o c e s s i n g t h an t he n a t i v e a d u l d does. C o o k ' s e x p e r i m e n t r e v e a l s t h a t c o m p r e h e n s i o n e r r o r s
d e p e n d on s p e e c h p r o c e s s i n g m e m o r y ; w h e n it h a p p e n s to be too o v e r l o a d e d s y n t a x e r r o r s o cc ur . T h u s w h e n the s t u d e n t 'expands his s p e e c h p r o c e s s i n g m e m o r y b e t t e r he b e c o m e s in his s y n t a x a p p r o a c h of the l a n g u a g e . His c a p a c i t y fo r s p e e c h p r o c e s s i n g d e p e n d s u p o n his c a p a c i t y f o r s y n t a x . 1.2.2. P R I M A R Y M E M O R Y P r i m a r y or s h o r t - t e r m m e m o r y is the t y p e of m e m o r y i n v o l v e d in p r o c e s s i n g i n f o r m a t i o n f o r a s h o r t p e r i o d of t i m e ; !f o r i n s t a n c e , s e c o n d s . W h e n the i n f o r m a t i o n has to be s t o r e d f o r a l o n g e r p e r i o d of t i m e t h e n t he s e c o n d a r y or l o n g - t e r m m e m o r y ta k e s place. In p r i m a r y m e m o r y the s u b j e c t s are r e q u i r e d to i m m e d i a t e l y recall the w o r d s t h e y hear. T h i s is the t y p i c a l e x p e r i e n c e in a l a n g u a g e l a b o r a t o r y e x e r c i s e w h e r e the students l i s t e n to a t ap e a nd th e n the t e a c h e r asks t h e m to p e r f o r m c e r t a i n ta sks. The s t u d e n t s w h o are a b l e to r e t a i n the i n f o r m a t i o n will cope w i t h t he p r o b l e m in a s u c e s s f u l w ay , t h o s e w h o c a n n o t r e t a i n the b a s i c i n f o r m a t i o n will fail.
: A n y n e w i t e m p r e s e n t e d to l i s t e n e r s r e m a i n5 for s e v e r a l s e c o n d s in the p r i m a r y m e m o r y if it is no t r e p l a c e d or d i s t u r b e d d u r i n g t h a t t i m e by f u r t h e r n e w i n p u t s . According to S t e v i c k ( 1 9 7 6 : 1 3 ) : " a f t e r an y v e rb a l i n p u t to the s t u d e n t ' s e y e s o r e a r s , t h e r e is a p e r i o d of t im e this i n p u t m a y r e m a i n i m m e d i a t e l y and u n c o n d it i o n a11 y a v a i l a b l e f o r r e - e x a m i n a t i o n and for a ny of . a n u m b e r of k i n ds of m a n i p u l a t i o n . " C o o k (1977) points o u t two c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of p r i m a r y m e m o r y : 1) t ha t it b a s i c a l l y p r o c e s s e s i n f o r m a t i o n in t e r m s of s o u n d s ( w h i l e in s e m a n t i c i n f o r m a t i o n it is l a r g e l y a b s e n t ) a n d 2) th a t it is e x t r e m e l y l i m i t e d in c a p a c i t y and p r o c e s s e s o n l y 3 to 4 u n i t s of i n f o r m a t i o n at a time. One g o o d e x a m p l e of p r i m a r y m e m o r y in the l a n g u a g e f i e l d is the c a s e of i n t e r p r e t e r s and r e p o r t e r s , wh o n o r m a l l y p r o d u c e t h e i r o u t p u t in s p o k e n word's s e v e r a l s e c o n d s b e h i n d the
i n p u t t ha t th e y re c ei v e. T h e r e is v e r y l i t t l e i n f o r m a t i o n in r e l a t i o n to the d e v e l o p m e n t of chi 1d r en 1 s p r i m a r y m e m o r y : "So far as c h i l d d e v e l o p m e n t is c o n c e r n e d , l i t t l e is y e t c e r t a i n a b o u t how p r i m a r y m e m o r y d e v e l o p s ; c a p a c i t y as m e a s u r e d in d i g i t s has, h o w e v e r , f o r m e d p a r t o f the c l a s s i c t e s t s of I.Q. ( B i n e t and S i m o n , 1913) and s h o w s an i n c r e a s e a c c o r d i n g to the m e n t a l age of the c h i l d ; it has been
e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t up to the age of 5 c h i l d r e n do n o t use s o u n d s in p r i m a r y m e m o r y ( C o n r a d , 1971) but s o m e t y p e of vi s ua l c o d i n g ( C o n r a d , 1972) C o o k ( 1 9 7 7 ) . " T h e q u e s t i o n t h a t we are m o s t l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h h e r e is how the f o r e i g n l e a r n e r ' s p r i m a r y m e m o r y c a p a c i t y w o r k s "if r e d u c e d in the s e c o n d l a n g u a g e , in w h a t w a y this capacity is l i n k e d to his level of k n o w l e d g e of the f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e , and w h e t h e r f r o m the b e g i n n i n g the f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e l e a r n e r t e n d s to u s e s o u n d r e c o r d i n g , l i k e n a t i v e a d u l t s , or s o m e o t h e r f o r m of c o d i n g , l i k e n a t i v e ' c h i l d r e n " ( C o o k 1 9 7 7 : 5 ) . L a d o (1965) g a v e so m e a n s w e r s to t h e s e q u e s t i o n s t h r o u g h a s e r i e s of e x p e r i m e n t s in w h i c h v a r i o u s a s p e c t s of p r i m a r y m e m o r y w e r e r e s e a r c h e d in n a t i v e a d u l t s a nd f o r e i g n « a - m e r s . One of his c o n c l u s i o n s was t h a t m e m o r y s pa n i n c r e a s e s w i t h m a s t e r y of l a n g u a g e . C o o k ( 1 977 ) m a d e the f o l l o w i n g experiment on p r i m a r y m e m o r y w i t h a d u l t f o r e i g n l e a r n e r s of E n g l i s h .
She d i v i d e d the p o p u l a t i o n i nt o t wo g r o u p s : a d v a n c e d and b e g i n n e r s . Th e s u b j e c t s w e r e a s k e d to r e p e a t s t r i n g s of r a n d o m i s e d d i g i t s . T h e y s t a r t e d w i t h a l e n g t h of 4 and e a c h t i m e the s t u d e n t r e p e a t e d the s t r i n g c o r r e c t l y a n o t h e r
d i g i t was a d d e d up to w h e n he m a d e a m i s t a k e . S i n c e his m i s t a k e c o u l d h a v e b ee n a c c i d e n t a l , he was g i v e n one or two f u r t h e r s t r i n g s of the s am e l e n g t h . If he r e p e a t e d 2 o u t of t h r e e c o r r e c t l y he w e n t on to a l o n g e r s t r i n g ; if he was u n s u c c e s s f u l f o r 2 o ut of 3 the t e s t f i n i s h e d . Th e i n t e n t i o n w as to e s t a b l i s h the m a x i m u m n u m b e r of d i g i t s t h a t the students c o u l d r e p e a t . T h e s t r i n g s c o n s i s t e d of numbers f r o m 1 to 9 ,
r a n d o m l y j u m b l e d w i t h no n u m b e r o c c u r r i n g m o r e t h a n o n c e in a g i v e n stri ng .
C o o k ' s s t u d y a i m e d at i n v e s t i g a t i n g w h e r e the capacity for d i g i t s b e t w e e n t h e s e two g r o u p s w i t h d i f f e r e n t k n o w l e d g e of E n g l i s h w a s the same. She c a m e to the c o n c l u s i o n t ha t t h e r e was a l i t t l e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e s e g r o u p s for d i g i t c a p a c i t y . W h i l e the b e g i n n e r s had 5.9 c a p a c i t y for d i g i t s , the a d v a n c e d p r e s e n t e d a c a p a c i t y of 6.7; the d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t he m w a s 0.8. She a l s o c a m e to t he c o n c l u s i o n t h a t the f o r e i g n a d u l t b e h a v e s like an a d u l t not l i k e a c h i l d as far as d i g i t is c o n c e r n e d . T h e f o r e i g n a d u l t has m o r e capacity than a ch i l d f o r d i g i t s . W h i l e the c h i l d w h o a l r e a d y k n e w E n g l i s h :s h o w e d a c a p a c i t y in d i g i t of 2 and 5 d i g i t s the forei gn a d u 1 1 b e g i n n e r w i t h l i t t l e k n o w l e d g e of E n g l i s h s h o w e d a c a p a c i t y of 5.9. W h e n m e m o r y p r o c e s s is d e p e n d a b l e on l a n g u a g e , such as s y n t a x , both c h i l d r e n and f o r e i g n adults h a v e the s a m e d i f f i c u l t i e s . Bu t w h e n m e m o r y p r o c e s s is minimum d e p e n d a b l e on l a n g u a g e li k e d i g i t s f o r i n s t a n c e , the f o r e i g n a d u l t s p r e s e n t m o r e c a p a c i t y t ha n a n a t i v e c h i l d e s p e c i a l l y b e c a u s e :t h e y h a ve a f i r s t l a n g u a g e and can use the s t r a t e g y of t r a n s f e r e n c e .
TABLE 1 - Maximum average capacity for digits
Digits
Beginners 5.9
Advanced 6.7
Difference 0.8
The d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n the r e s u l t s of this e x p e r i m e n t and t h a t of the p r e v i o u s e x p e r i m e n t p r o v i d e s the "eaioii f or d i s t i n g u i s h i n g b e t w e e n s p e e c h p r o c e s s i n g m e m o r y and p r i m a r y m e m o r y in a s e c o n d l a n g u a g e l e a r n i n g . T h e m e m o r y p r o c e s s d e p e n d s on f e a t u r e s of s y n t a x , w h e r e a s p r i m a r y m e m o r y has to do w i t h r e m e m b e r i n g the v o c a b u l a r y i t e ms in the n e w l a n g u a g e w i t h o u t a n y f u r t h e r l a n g u a g e cod i ng .
1 . 2. 2 . 1 . W h a t F o r m of C o d i n g F o r e i g n A d u l t s Use in P r i m a r y M e m o r y ?
C oo k (1977: ) m a d e a n o t h e r e x p e r i m e n t w i t h a d u l t f o r e i g n l e a r n e r s of E n g l i s h ( b e g i n n e r s + a d v a n c e d ) to
e s t a b l i s h the m a x i m u m s p a n ' f o r s t r i n g s of w o r d s of d i f f e r e n t t y p e s and a l s o w h e t h e r p r i m a r y m e m o r y c a p a c i t y in the foreign a d u l t is a f f e c t e d by p h o n o l o g i c a l a n d l e x i c a l c o d i n g . N o u n s w i t h h o m o p h o n e s (H) and n o n - h o m o p h o n e s (NH) w e r e p r e s e n t e d to the s u b j e c t s . The H g r o u p w e r e e i g h t s i m i l a r s o u n d i n g n o u n s : " ca t , bat, m a t , bag, m a n , h a t, tap". T h e NH g r o u p w e r e d i s s i m i l a r s o u n d i n g n o un s : "bus, s p o o n , f i s h , c l o c k , h o r s e , t r a i n , g i r l , hand". R a n d o m i s e d s t r i n g s w e r e constructed f r o m t h e s e two set s, r a n g i n g in l e n g t h f r o m 3 to 8 and the i d e n t i c a l m e t h o d w as u s e d to a r r i v e at the m a x i m u m m e m o r y c a p a c i t y in e a c h s u b j e c t for H w o r d s a nd f o r NH w o r d s as w as u s ed to e s t a b l i s h d i g i t span. T h e r e s u l t s s h o w e d th at t h e a v e r a g e c a p a c i t y f or NH w o r d s in b e g i n n e r s w a s 4.5 and in a d v a n c e d 5.0. B o t h - b e g i n n e r s and a d v a n c e d r e m e m b e r e d less NH w o r d s t h a n d i g i t s . T h e a v e r a g e c a p a c i t y f o r H w o r d s w a s 3.5 in b e g i n n e r s and 3.7 in a d v a n c e d . B o t h b e g i n n e r s and a d v a n c e d r e m e m b e r e d less H w o r d s t h a n NH wo r d s . T h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n b e g i n n e r s and a d v a n c e d was t h e r e f o r e 0 . 8 for d i g i t s 0 .5 f o r NH w o r d s , and 0.2 f o r H w o r d s . The f i r s t of this d i f f e r e n c e is statistically s i g n i f i c a n t w h e r e a s the last two w e r e not. F r o m t h e s e s t u d i e s we can c o n c l u d e t h a t p r i m a r y m e m o r y c a p a c i t y v a r i e s a c c o r d i n g to the t y p e of i te m i n v o l v e d : c a p a c i t y for d i g i t s is g r e a t e r ; c a p a c i t y f o r NH is s e c o n d g r e a t e s t : c a p a c i t y f or H w o r d s is l east. T h i s supports'the a s s e r t i o n t h a t f o r e i g n a d u1ts , e v e n b e g i n n e r s u se m o r e phonol o g ic a l c o d i n g in p r i m a r y m e m o r y t h a n y o u n g n a t i v e c h i l d r e n .
TABLE II - Maximum average capacity for different strings (Experiment I and II).
Digi ts Non-Homophones (NH) Homophones (H)
Beginners 5.9 4.5 3.5 Advanced 6.7 5.0 3.7 Difference 0.8 0.5 0.2 In 1964 C o n r a d s h o w e d t h a t n a t i v e a d u l t s use p h o n o l o g i c a l c o d i n g in p r i m a r y „ m e m o r y b e c a u s e t h e y a r e m o r e l i k e l y to c o n f u s e l e t t e r s w i t h s i m i l a r s o u n d s than, l e t t e r s w i t h s i m i l a r s h a p e s , r e g a r d l e s s of w h e t h e r the l e t t e r s are p r e s e n t e d o r a l l y . o r v i s u a l l y . He a l s o s h o w e d that cn'ilJren d e v e l o p :p h o n o l o g i c a l c o d i n g at the age of 5. T h i s p r o b l e m of c o n f u s i n g l e t t e r s w i t h s i m i l a r s o u n d s is v e r y , c o m m o n and it is p r e s e n t l y o b s e r v e d in o u r a d u l t f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s at F e d e r a l U n i v e r s i t y of S a n t a C a t a r i n a . For i n s t a n c e t h e y c o n f u s e the H w o r d s s u c h as " s h e e p and s h i p " , " m e a t and m e e t " , "it and e a t " , " y e a r a n d ear" , and so fo r t h . O n l y w h e n t h e y s t a r t u s i n g t h e s e w o r d s in a c o m m u n i c a t i v e w a y and b e c o m e m o r e f a m i l i a r w i t h the l a n g u a g e as do t h e i r m i s t a k e s g r a d u a l l y d i s a p p e a r . M a y b e the f o r e i g n a d u l t s u se m o r e p h o n o l o g i c a l c o d i n g in p r i m a r y m e m o r y b e c a u s e t h e y h a v e t h e i r f i r s t l a n g u a g e a v a i l a b l e for t h e i r m e m o r y p r o c e s s . 1.2.3. S E C O N D A R Y M E M O R Y By d e f i n i t i o n , s e c o n d a r y or long t e r m m e m o r y is the t y p e of m e m o r y t h a t p r o c e s s e s i n f o r m a t i o n f o r a l o n g e r p e r i o d of t i m e . t h a n s e c o n d s . T h i s k i n d of m e m o r y is b e l i e v e d to s t o r e i n f o r m a t i o n in t e r m s of s e m a n t i c n e t w o r k s and m e a n i n g s . T hi s i m p l i e s t ha t l e x i c a l i t e m s a r e not s t o r e d as i s o l a t e d i t e m s but are o r g a n i z e d in c o n s i s t e n t t r e n d s of s y n t a g m a t i c or p a r a d i g m a t i c a s s o c i a t i o n s .
P s y c h o l o g i c a l w o r k in s e c o n d a r y m e m o r y ( K i n t s c h , 1 9 70, R u n e l h a r t , L i n d s a y and N o r m a n 1 9 72 , A t k i n s o n and S h i f f r i n
1968) c o n f i r m this a p p r o a c h . E r v i n (1961) says t h a t c h i l d r e n p r e s e n t s y n t a g m a t i c w o r d a s s o c i a t i o n s l i n k i n g for i n s t a n c e " blue" and " s k y " , and the a d u l t s p r e s e n t p a r a d i g m a t i c a s s o c i a t i o n s l i n k i n g f o r e x a m p l e " b l u e " and "red". Ros si
(1964) D e n n e y and Z i o b r o w s k i (1 9 72 ) say t h a t the d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n a d u l t and c h i l d a s s o c i a t i o n s r e l i e s in the a m o u n t of c l u s t e r i n g the a d u l t g i v e s to w o r d s and a l s o the f o r m of c l u s t e r i n g e m p l o y e d . T h e f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e l e a r n e r s e e m s to be a b l e to c h o o s e a m o n g a l t e r n a t i v e m e m o r y s t r a t e g i e s as he d e v e l o p s his l a n g u a g e c a p a c i t y . S t o l z and T i f f a n y (1972) m a d e s o m e e x p e r i m e n t s and s h o w e d t h a t c h a n g i n g f r o m s y n t a g m a t i c to p a r a d i g m a t i c a s s o c i a t i o n s can be a r e s u l t of the f u n c t i o n of the f r e q u e n c e of o c c u r r e n c e of the items: a d u l t s p r e s e n t s y n t a g m a t i c a s s o c i a t i o n s to " r a r e w o r d s " c o m p a r e d t u : " f a m i l i a r w o r d s " . .Perhaps f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e l e a r n e r s m a y p r e s e n t s i m i l a r b e h a v i o r b e c a u s e the w o r d s a re r e l a t i v e l y u n k n o w n to them. C o o k (1977) did an e x p e r i m e n t to d e t e c t if a d u l t s c l u s t e r w o r d s m o r e as t h e y g r a d u a l l y b e c o m e m o r e f a m i l i a r w i t h the f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e . T h e r e s u l t s of t hi s t e s t s h o w e d t h a t b e g i n n e r s r e m e m b e r f e w e r w o r d s than a d v a n c e d s t u d e n t s c o r r e c t l y ; in c l u s t e r i n g b e h a v i o u r t h e y do not d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y f r o m a d v a n c e d s t u d e n t s . W it h this experiment C o o k c a m e to the c o n c l u s i o n t h a t i n c r e a s i n g k n o w l e d g e of the s e c o n d l a n g u a g e d oe s not h e l p too m u c h the a d u l t s in clustering v o c a b u l a r y .
S U M M A R Y
F o r d e v e l o p i n g l i s t e n i n g c o m p r e h e n s i o n , it s e e m s t h a t b e t w e e n t he p r o d u c t i v e s k i l l s and r e c e p t i v e s k i l l s the l a t t e r s h o u l d be th e one t ha t the s t u d e n t s s h o u l d f a c e f irst. T h i s i m p l i e s t h a t the l e a r n e r s w o u l d be e x p o s e d to the oral
l a n g u a g e f a m i l i a r i z i n g w i t h t he s o u n d s and l e a r n i n g h ow to d i s c r i m i n a t e them. T h e l i s t e n i n g p r o c e s s d e m a n d s f r o m the
l e a r n e r s p e c i a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n on the f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e s o u n d s , or w o r d s , to i d e n t i f y t h e m as d i s t i n c t i v e , and then s t o r e them in m e m o r y so t h at t h e y can l a t e r be r e c a l l e d w i t h i n t he f r a m e w o r k of c h u n k s of i n f o r m a t i o n w h i c h b e l o n g t o g e t h e r as a m e s s a g e . .Thus itis v e r y i m p o r t a n t t h at the l e a r n e r d e v e l o p some p h o n e t i c c o d i n g a b i l i t y to t r a n s f o r m a u d i t o r y i n p u t i n t o m e a n i n g . T hi s p r o c e s s s e r v e s to i n p u t the i n t e g r a t e d s t r u c t u r e of l a n g u a g e in h u m a n m e m o r y onh the level of r e c o g n i ti o n . Init i al d e l a y in oral p r o d u c t i o n p r o v i d e s g r e a t e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n on the a m o u n t of l e a r n i n g f o r l i s t e n i n g c o m p r e h e n s i o n . R e s e a r c h d o n e in t h i s a r e a s h o w s t h a t d e v e l o p m e n t in l i n g u i s t i c c o m p e t e n c e is e n h a n c e d w h e n massive p r a c t i c e in l i s t e n i n g c o m p r e h e n s i o n p r e c e e d s oral p r a c t i c e . i T he n a t u r e of a c o g n i t i v e s y s t e m , m a y be i n f l u e n c e d by the k i n d s of d i s t i n c t i o n s w h i c h m u s t be m a d e in vocabulary or in o t h e r a s p e c t s of s e m a n t i c s . D i f f e r e n c e in s t r a t e g i e s f or l a n g u a g e a c q u i s i t i o n , s uc h as t he a b i l i t y to r e m e m b e r m a y be r e l a t e d to c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of s p e e c h p r o c e s s i n g m emory, p r i m a r y m e m o r y and s e c o n d a r y m e m o r y . M e m o r y is e s s e n t i a l in d e v e l o p i n g 1 is teni ng comprehension. W i t h o u t m e m o r y n o b o d y can r e t a i n or s t o r e the i n f o r m a t i o n fo r 1 a t e r recal 1 i n g . R e m e m b e r i n g is o f t e n s ai d to be a reconstructive p r o c e s s ; p e o p l e r e m e m b e r passages.by p i e c i n g t o g e t h e r w h a t i n f o r m a t i o n t h e y can r e t r i e v e , a d d i n g o u t s i d e i n f o r m a t i o n and m a k i n g c o r r e c t i o n s w h e r e v e r n e c e s s a r y to get t h e m to m a k e s e n s e . T h e k i n d s of m e m o r y m e n t i o n e d in this w o r k r e v e a l s t h at t h e r e a re s p e c i f i c m e m o r i e s t h a t f it s p e c i f i c t a s k s w h e n t e s t i n g l i s t e n i n g c o m p r e h e n s i o n . S p e e c h p r o c e s s i n g m e m o r y r e q u i r e s a m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s an a b i l i t y to c o r r e l a t e s y n t a x and m e a n i n g s . T h is f a c i l i t a t e s the m e m o r y p r o c e s s i n g . H o w e v e r , s y n t a c t i c e r r o r s can o c c u r w h e n the m e m o r y is too o v e r - l o a d e d . P r i m a r y m e m o r y t e n d s to p r e s e r v e verbatim content w h e r e the k n o w l e d g e of t he l a n g u a g e is not r e q u i r e d
P s y c h o l o g i s t s h a v e t r a d i t i o n a l l y s t u d i e d p r i m a r y m e m o r y ( s h o r t - t e r m m e m o r y ) by a s k i n g p e o p l e to r ecall d ig i ts , 1e t t e r s , or u n r e l a t e d w o r d s . S e c o n d a r y m e m o r y t e n d s do p r e s e r v e m e a n i n g . I n f o r m a t i o n is o f t e n r e p r e s e n t e d as a n e t w o r k of p r o p o s i t i o n s . T h e c o n t r a t s b e t w e e n p r i m a r y m e m o r y and s e c o n d a r y m e m o r y has be e n d e m o n s t r a t e d in r e t r i e v a l t i m e as well.
In r e m e m b e r i n g , the s t u d e n t s r e t r i e v e bits and p i e c e s f r o m m e m o r y in o r d e r to r e c o n s t r u c t the i n f o r m a t i o n g i v e n in a s e n t e n c e t h at t h e y can c l a i m to h a v e h e a r d or read before.! I T h e s e a s p e c t s of m e m o r y , p h o n e t i c c o d i n g " a b i 1 i t y , a n d s y n t a c t i c c o m p l e x i t y i n t e r a c t m a i n l y d u r i n g t he s t u d e n t s ' d e v e l o p m e n t of l i s t e n i n g c o m p r e h e n s i o n . S p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n s h o u l d be d e v o t e d to t h e m in a n y a n a l y t i c a l s t u d y of e r r o r s in l i s t e n i n g c o m p r e h e n s i o n of a f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e .
Th e Re s e a r c h 2.0. Sc o p e o f t h e Re s e a r c h T h e p u r p o s e of this s t u d y is to e x a m i n e h o w s t u d e n t s of t he i n it ia l s t a g e of L e t r a s E n g l i s h P r o g r a m of the F e d e r a l U n i v e r s i t y of S a n t a C a t a r i n a ( f i r s t s e m e s t e r students) d e v e l o p t h e i r a u d i t o r y a b i l i t y to c o m p r e h e n d s p o k e n E n g l i s h : we will try to d e t e c t the d i f i c u l t i e s t h e y f i n d with- 1 Sstening c o m p r e h e n s i o n a c t i v i t i e s d e v e l o p e d in the l a b o r a t o r y s e s s i o n s ; a n d o b s e r v e t h e i r m e m o r y c a p a c i t y to s t o r e i n f o r m a t i o n and the s t r a t e g i e s u s e d to a c h i e v e the l e v e l s of l i s t e n i n g c o m p r e h e n s i o n . T h e p r e s e n t f r a m e w o r k was u s e d as a r e f e r e n c e to trace e r r o r s f o u n d in the s t u d e n t s ' l i s t e n i n g c o m p r e h e n s i o n ta s k s . A q u e s t i o n n a i r e was a d m i n i s t e r e d to f i n d o ut the s t u d e n t ' s b a c k g r o u n d in the f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e . It was f o u n d t h a t t h e i r k n o w l e d g e of the l a n g u a g e was e l e m e n t a r y a c q u i r e d m o s t l y in h i gh s chool w h e r e the a i m of Eng 1 ish teaching is m a i n l y t r a n s l a t i o n . T h e n , an i n i t i a l t es t was g i v e n at the b e g i n n i n g of the c o u r s e in o r d e r to d e t e r m i n e the level o f c o m p r e h e n s i o n of the s p o k e n l a n g u a g e the s t u d e n t s had. D u r i n g the s e m e s t e r t h e s t u d e n t s a t t e n d e d two h o u r s of
l a b o r a t o r y s e s s i o n s p er w e e k in o r d e r to d e v e l o p t h e i r 1 istening s k i l l s . S i n c e it is t h o u g h t t h a t t h e r e a r e i n n a t e p e r c e p t u a l s t r a t e g i e s in e ac h i n d i v i d u a l t h a t h e l p to d e v e l o p l i s t e n i n g c o m p r e h e n s i o n s k i l l s , but m o s t ot the t i m e the i n d i v i d u a l is n o t c o n s c i o u s of t he m , a s h e e t of p a p e r w a s h a n d e d to t h e m t r y i n g to m a k e t h e m c o n s c i o u s of the d i f f i c u l t i e s and f a c i l i t i e s t h e y f a c e d in ea c h a c t i v i t y . An a p p r a i s a l of the s t u d e n t s ' final c o m p e t e n c e at the end o f the s e m e s t e r w a s d o n e by u s i n g the s a m e i n i t ia l t e s t f o r c o m p a r i ng and evaluating the s t u d e n t s ' p r o g r e s s d u r i n g the s e m e s t e r .
It is c o n v e n i e n t to c l a r i f y t h a t in o ur s t u d y we w e r e
