VIII Simpósio Nacional de Ensino e História de Ciências da Terra / EnsinoGEO-2018
– Geociências para Todos – Campinas – Sao Paulo – Brazil, july 2018
DIDACTIC ENVIRONMENTS FOR TEACHING AND DEVELOPING
ABILITIES IN GEOLOGICAL 3D VISUALIZATION
AMBIENTES DIDÁTICOS PARA ENSINO E DESENVOLVIMENTO DE HABILIDADES
DE VISUALIZAÇÃO TRIDIMENSIONAL EM GEOLOGIA
WAGNER DA SILVA ANDRADE1,CELSO DAL RÉ CARNEIRO2,3,GIORGIO BASILICI2,3
1Geosciences Institute, University of Campinas, Graduate student, doctor degree. Campinas, SP 2Geosciences Institute, University of Campinas, Graduate Program of Teaching and History of
Earth Sciences, PO Box 6152, 13083-970 Campinas, SP, Brasil.
3Researcher of CNPq.
E-mails: wagnerandrade@ige.unicamp.br, cedrec@ige.unicamp.br, basilici@ige.unicamp.br
Abstract Any geologist or student of Geology should be able to identify the geometric arrangement of units (the geological structures)
within a solid mass of rock. The process involves visualization, orientation and establishment of relationships. This article focus on the construction of spatial reasoning in the teaching-learning process. It explores the theme from recent developments, seeking to identify al-ternatives, examples and new ideas to improve teaching-learning of Geology. Visualization covers a set of abilities related to the construc-tion of spatial reasoning. 3D visualizaconstruc-tion assumes a critical role in the Geosciences, since representaconstruc-tions are frequent in this field of Sci-ence. Visualization of structures also requires building arguments about temporal relationships; these elements allow to interpret the geo-logical history of a given region. Human knowledge is essentially interdisciplinary; since Geology is an interpretive and historical science, the development of qualities of 3D vision in students helps solving different types of problems, which are not exclusive to Geosciences. Visualization abilities help constructing a broader view of the world in which we live.
Keywords Teaching-learning, visualization, spatial thinking, Geology, Geosciences. Thematic line Geosciences in Higher Education
1 Introduction
Geosciences teaching involves the reconstitution and interpretation of features observed in three-dimensional space. Therefore, this special circumstance requires stu-dents to develop spatial abilities The daily practice of Earth Sciences requires participation of all human senses, especially when a professional geoscientist carries out fieldwork. Vision, essential for the most activities of geo-scientific research, encompasses more than a mere ability to see; it includes the ability to manipulate, represent, and reason in a three-dimensional way.
During fieldwork, a geologist uses vision to locate himself and to recognize details, colors and brightness of the studied place; hearing helps to feel movements of water and wind, sounds of birds and other animals, while touch allows one to sense the texture of rocks and sedi-ments. Sensations of thermal comfort/discomfort (cold-heat, wet-dry etc.) are linked to touch. Smell, by its turn, helps to explore the aromas of rocks and vegetation, the smell of damp clay, smells of a contamination, organic fumes and decaying materials etc. The palate accompa-nies the olfactory perception for appreciation of the ma-terials we examine, such as clays, salts and other
materi-als. Learning, in this case, requires caution when testing them (Carneiro 2015).
Spatial abilities are unevenly distributed among peo-ple (Kastens et al. 2009); each person has a greater or lesser facility to acquire them. Developing such skills is the responsibility of schools and formal education, by means of instruction and practice. Kastens et al. (2009) emphasize that formal education does not recognize the unequal needs of students, failing to build a full aware-ness of the space challenge. Since the natural world is dynamic and complex, many phenomena are described using simplified models and visual representations. A great part of the communication involves texts and imag-es, whose complexity may hinder understanding. It is therefore necessary that teachers be fluent, effective and able to develop visual pedagogical content, in order to teach the student to “read” models and representations.
This article examines paths for construction of spa-tial reasoning in the teaching-learning process of Geosci-ences, seeking to identify alternatives and ideas for teach-ing-learning Geology.
Since human knowledge has an interdisciplinary character and Geology is an interpretive and historical science, such qualities can provide a better understanding of the problems the society is experiencing in the present.
2 3D visualizing as a condition for learning science
Learning science by students involves a personal con-struction and production of mental models. These should be as close as possible to scientific or historical models (Gilbert 2005). The modes of representation can be con-crete (three-dimensional), verbal (a description of the features and the relationships between them), symbolic (equations and mathematical expressions), visual (graphics, diagrams and 2D animations) or gestural (movements of the body or a part of it). As a way of cov-ering the different categories, Gilbert (2005) proposes the concept of metacognition in visualization.
Metacognition is an environment or a set of interre-lated constructs pertaining to cognition about cognition (Gilbert 2005). A metacognitive learner is one who un-derstands the tasks of monitoring, integrating, and ex-panding his/her own learning. Spatial intelligence is the ability to accurately perceive the physical world by mak-ing transformations and modifications over a visual expe-rience, even in the absence of physical stimuli.
Visualization plays a central role in learning, espe-cially in science (Gilbert 2005); students need to learn how to navigate within – and between – different modes of representation. In order to do so, the meta-visual ca-pacity must be expanded in order to reduce the difficulty of carrying out the activities. Visualization involves the formation of a mental image; this requires the capacity of to imagine an object and, at the same time, to make it mentally visible to the eyes. When presenting examples of a phenomenon, simplifications may aid to build a vis-ualization (visual perception) of what happens at the macro level (Gilbert 2005).
Descriptions and/or simplifications of phenomena are models, which play a central role in the dissemination and acceptance of knowledge. Models also play a central role in science education, since they provide the basis for predictions about scientific explanations. Complexity and uncertainty of records of natural processes can be envi-sioned using a type of thinking that is greatly benefited by taking into account the kind of interpretive and histor-ical reasoning that characterizes Earth Sciences (Frode-man 1995). The relationship between visualization and thinking involves:
(A) to apply a reasoning associated with the generation of new images to recombine elements of existing im-ages (visual analogy);
(B) to develop a skill, such as a visual perception, which defines the nature of the physical movement in-volved in the exercise of the task (observation); (C) to produce verbal descriptions of a preexisting
im-age, employing creativity and the reinterpretation of meanings.
When meta-skills are poorly developed – a common situ-ation in high school students – there is a serious preju-dice to learning. Gilbert (2005) also states that to stimu-late visual interpretation, students should invest in the ability: (A) to make a transition between modes and
sub-modes (3D to 2D); (B) to mentally change perspective; (C) to perform a representation in themselves (as if they were in front of a mirror). For developing meta-visualization skills, students must know the conventions of representation (Gilbert 2005), as well as the limita-tions and scope of each mode or sub-mode, which in-volves the skills of:
spatial visualization: ability to understand a 3D representation of a 2D representation;
visual orientation: ability to imagine if a 3D repre-sentation may change, and in what way, if viewed from a different perspective;
spatial relationships: ability to visualize reflection and inversion effects.
Good practices should start with simpler shapes and use a variety of modes of representation to maximize the shapes' outline, their limits, shadows and patterns, as well as vary shading degrees and color usage. Among other approaches, Gilbert (2005) proposes the use of stereodi-agrams, teaching lanes, rotation and reflection.
The three-dimensional visualization externalizes thoughts that facilitate, among other human activities: memorization, information processing and collaboration (Tversky 2005); its purpose is to communicate spatial relationships. Among the communication elements that can be used are the icons, morphograms, graphs, route maps and mechanical diagrams that suggest asymmetric relationships. Cognitive design follows the principle of congruence, because the structure and content of visuali-zation must correspond to the desired mental structure and content. Another principle of cognitive design is ap-prehension: the structure and content of visualization must be perceived fast and accurately understood.
Mental models are the internalized representation of concepts and ideas (Rapp 2005), which facilitate the con-struction of models about scientific information and lend themselves to the use of visualizations as educational methodology. Generally the difficulty of defining mental models is related not to direct observation of abstract concepts, but to abstract descriptions of memories. This kind of dynamic representation changes all the time. Mental models represent perceptual and conceptual fea-tures of the external world, but they are not a replica of that world. Tversky (2005) divides the diagrams into: (a) narrative diagrams, such as those seen in textbooks. Spa-tial and conceptual relationships predominate in narrative diagrams, as well as the structures and structural process-es illustrating parts of a system; and (b) procprocess-ess dia-grams, which mark changes over time.
Rapp (2005) recalls that visualization in learning should not be viewed as a panacea, since poor or weak visualizations are no better than poor reading. Among the factors that influence learning, Rapp (2005) states: a) Cognitive commitment: By integrating new
infor-mation with previous knowledge, stronger links are built, which increase the likelihood of their storage. The deeper the information processing, the greater the probability of later reminding it. The process
triggers motivation of cognitive activity at deep lev-els.
b) Interactivity: Mental models are interactive; their success depends on the degree of control that the students have about the pace or direction of the les-sons and their active involvement with the situation. c) Multimedia learning: it can be useful in specific
circumstances and environments, as representations are not always effective insofar as they can cause in-terference and confusion
3 Geosciences and visualization skills
The ability to visualize geological structures within solid rock masses depends on the learner to develop, or to con-struct, a visual penetrative ability (Kastens et al. 2009, Kuiper 2008). Computer use may help or hinder (Oppen-heimer 1997) the attainment of many skills (Schlische & Ackermann 1998, Wells 2002), but research on this sub-ject has little advance in Brazil.
3.1 Geology as a visual science
Geology is a markedly visual science. Therefore, in this field visualization is essential in undergraduate courses (Reynolds et al. 2005). Students need to develop three-dimensional thinking skills during the course of Geology because they are continually challenged to visualize and construct relief shapes or three-dimensional images from, for example, two-dimensional topographic maps or geo-metric arrays of survey data; an effort is required to learn the three-dimensional nature of geological structures.
Solving certain mathematical problems is common in geological-structural problems, especially because field geologists are not satisfied with merely visual judgments. It has been frequent in Geology the use of trigonometric formulas, supported in trigonometric and logarithmic tables and the use of special tables for field-work (Badgley 1959, Ragan 1973, 2009, Harker 2009). The use of methods requiring ruler, scale and protractor is required, for example, in the graphical determination of the actual position of exposed sedimentary strata in natural or artificial sections such as road crossings.
Spatial ability is “an important component of intel-lectual ability”; it is generally defined as the “skill in representing, transforming, generating and remembering symbolic, non-linguistic information” (Linn & Petersen 1985, p.1.482). Spatial ability is a cognitive factor relat-ed to high performance in science and mathematics. Black (2005) evaluated, using multiple choice questions of Earth Sciences, misunderstandings and conceptual difficulties in undergraduate courses of applied natural sciences. The research was done in conjunction with de-partments of Geosciences, Chemistry, Physics and Biol-ogy of the University of the North American Midwest. The author verified that mental rotation is the spatial ability most associated with misconceptions, suggesting
that this may be the type of skill directly related to low performance in tests on concepts of Earth Sciences, as well as problems of scale and difficulty to transform 2D images into 3D. He admits that the neglect of educators in valuing space skills is related to a history of associa-tion with practical rather than academic skills. It is possi-ble that many educators have assumed that nothing can be done to improve spatial skills. The author relates the misconceptions in Earth Sciences with conceptual diffi-culties and spatial abilities, concluding that the study suggests an opportunity to improve the understanding of Earth Science concepts from the development of curricu-la and interventions that focus on the spatial aspect of the concepts.
3.2 Stereology and 3D visualization
In general, a geological model consists of three parts or aspects: (1) a model that describes the geometry and properties of several units and /or lithological domains at various scales; (2) a structural model that describes the geometry and properties of a geological arrangement or a deformation zone (Munier 2004). The third element (3) that integrates the model is the fracture arrays and/or other structures within the lithological units:
However, fractures and small deformation zones are too small to be deterministically described and therefore must be statis-tically described in terms of the various distributions and their relationships (Munier 2004, p.6).
The models operate as bridges between scientific theory and the world of experiences, making abstractions visible by means of simplified representations. In order to construct a 3D geological model it is necessary to have an adequate sample of three-dimensional data (Pollard & Fletcher 2005). The quality of a model is a direct func-tion of the quality and quantity of field data. The difficul-ty increases if the data are poorly distributed or insuffi-cient (Wu et al. 2005). The development of geological interpretations can explore the three-dimensional envi-ronment from sketch, to enhance a 3D representation of rock formations (Groshong, Jr. 2006).
The Geosciences educator should help learners to develop skills that enable them to understand models as well as to solve problems related to space. Kastens et al. (2009) enumerate fundamental skills for professional geoscientists, such as:
a) Developing temporal thinking, that is, internalizing the vastness of time and recognizing the brevity of human history, in addition to thinking time on a geo-logical scale, where a low frequency of high impact events dominate.
b) Designing the Earth as a complex system, which exhibits concomitant and non-linear interactions, as well as multiple stable states, formed by multiple mechanical, chemical, biological and anthropogenic processes.
c) Stimulating learning in the field, in situations in which the observation of Earth, oceans, atmosphere
or planets plays a fundamental role. Field experience is essential in this training (Carneiro et al. 1993, Compiani & Carneiro 1993), as it contributes to the development of a “professional vision”. Fieldwork stimulates the learner to see features useful to his/her practical life and to acquire capacity of critical think-ing.
d) Students need to translate the raw material of nature into words, signs, and symbols that geoscientists routinely use to capture and communicate observa-tions.
Finally, Kastens et al. (2009) state that students need to deal with spatial tasks by building spatial reasoning, which greatly contributes to the acquisition, representa-tion, manipularepresenta-tion, and exploration of objects, processes, or phenomena, in space.
4 Teaching Strategies
Different types of visualization skills are valued for de-veloping visualization among undergraduate students; therefore, introduction of specific curricular materials is expected. Constructivist strategies can lead the student to assimilate new knowledge through association with con-cepts that he/she has previously constructed (Reynolds et al. 2005). The creation of didactic strategies is based on simple tasks such as three-dimensional modeling work-shops of geological structures produced with recyclable materials such as cardboard boxes, fabrics, paints and other materials (Andrade 2015) towards using new tech-nologies with devices and equipments such as virtual reality, augmented reality and computer aided design (CAD).
Wells (2002) has developed a series of stereoscopic diagrams for the study of earthquakes and earthquakes in various parts of the globe that allow a spatial visualiza-tion of the distribuvisualiza-tion and incidence of hypocenters. At the same time, the diagrams provide the student with an understanding of the large amount of data involved in the construction of seismic databases. The ability to pene-trate any structure is known as penetrative visualization.
4.1 Stereographic projection and 3D modeling
Teaching-learning of Structural Geology seeks to im-prove students' ability to visualize structures in space, an essential requirement for understanding rock arrange-ments and their spatial distribution, as presented in maps. Stereographic projection techniques are a decisive teach-ing-learning resource, as long as they offer the student the possibility of acquiring spatial abilities to visualize a structure (Miguel et al. 2017, Carneiro et al. 2017) or the configuration of the layers of a rock exposure. Blen-kinsop (1999) warns that many students simply apply rules to solve exercises using stereographic projection without understanding the operations or the fundamental
principles of projection. The author recognizes two groups of problems:
Learning problems, related to lack of confidence and confusion in the attitudes recorded by a compass (di-rection, dip, plunge), poor visualization and lack of interest caused by frustration with learning itself, de-spite the initial enthusiasm.
Teaching problems, associated with an introduction without any appreciation of the usefulness and im-portance of the technique, and a mere application of rules, which are incapable of solving complex prob-lems.
Peskins & Ballard (1999) report the growing appli-cation of stereographic environments in other areas, as the use of magnetic resonance and tomography. These technologies allow a visualization of oil reservoir rocks in stereographic viewing theaters, creating a 3D illusion that permits visual interactions, combining vibrant imag-es and convincing primag-esentations. Such a promising envi-ronment can have a new impact on the production of sci-ence.
Visualization has grown in importance since new improved applications are developed, using experimental apparatus, projection systems and computational capaci-ty. Mezzomo (2007) produced a 3D model of a volcanic-sedimentary succession, outcroping in a border area of Paraná Basin, comprehending geological units ranging from Devonian to Cretaceous. The model, produced in three different scales, is based on many sources of infor-mation: geological and geophysical maps, satellite imag-es, interpreted alignments, well profilimag-es, Laser Scanner (LIDAR, Light Detection And Ranging) data, outcrop data and digital elevation models.
4.2 Computer-aided design (CAD)
Texts in Portuguese on Computer Aided Design (CAD) are scarce in Geology. Jacobson (2001a, 2001b) provides examples of the use of CAD to solve exercises in Struc-tural Geology, such as strucStruc-tural contour lines, depth and thickness of layers, three-point problem and determina-tion of the real angle of dip from apparent dips. Exercises that use CAD in two and three dimensions hold identity with manual resolutions (Carneiro & Carvalho 2008, 2012).
Chiozza (2017) presents the solution of two hypo-thetical problems, in which the student can represent, measure and analyze the geometry of geological struc-tures in a CAD environment. The AutoCADfromdesktop program offered free of charge for teachers, students and schools has been chosen for Windows and Mac OS plat-forms. AutoCAD allows one to represent geological situ-ations, adding accuracy and facilitating the process of technical drawing. Many problems solved by manual drawing techniques, descriptive geometry, and trigonom-etry are treated in 3D space using real spatial relation-ships and relative positions. More realistic approaches do reduce the abstraction of graphical representations
in-volving projections. The technique does not involve cal-culations, since the results are obtained by direct meas-urement. The author recommends not to abandon the traditional treatment by manual methods, as it provides the student with concrete measurement and scaling expe-riences. In computer environments, this is more difficult. The 3D modeling contributes to the construction of the concept that geological structures have volume and help in the learning process to see beyond the surface of the outcrop (Chiozza 2017).
Problem solving in a CAD environment requires fa-miliarity with basic program functions, including creation of simple objects such as lines and texts, as well as ma-nipulation of objects (Jacobson 2001a, 2001b, Chiozza 2017). It is necessary to study the creation of layers, col-or control and types of lines, master the movement of an object from one layer to another and know techniques of manipulation of the graphic area, coordinate systems, control of viewing angles. The function of programs is to process vector-type images, but they also allow you to insert photo-type or bitmap-format files to be used as the basis for scanning. Inserted data is organized into layers or layers, sorting information according to different col-ors and attributes, such as line thicknesses, solid colcol-ors, gradations of tones or textures.
4.3 Virtual Reality (RV)
Virtual reality can be considered as a “mirror” of physi-cal reality, in which the individual exists in three dimen-sions. He/she has the sensation of real time and the abil-ity to interact with the world around him/her (Valerio Netto 2002). Virtual Reality (VR) is an “advanced user interface” for accessing applications running on the com-puter, providing real-time visualization, movement and user interaction in three-dimensional computer generated environments. The sense of vision is usually preponder-ant in applications of virtual reality, but the other senses, like touch, hearing etc. can also be used to enrich the user experience (Kirner & Siscoutto 2007).
Using interactive visualization training, Reynolds (2005) used Quick Time Virtual Reality (QTVR) images available on the internet, applying them to two groups of students from a large university in the southwestern Unit-ed States of America in courses in which the discipline of Introductory Geology was required and in a course of Structural Geology for undergraduate students in Geolo-gy. The exercises were applied in a virtual way. Later the students went to the field to locate the features and to navigate in a topographic map. They produced a geologi-cal mapping and determined orientations using topo-graphic profiling. In the evaluation of results Reynolds (2005) observed a significant improvement of the spatial visualization, geospatial measurements and the use of topographic maps. The author concludes that virtual vis-ualization helps students to better describe a topography, to understand the geometry of the geological structures and to locate in the field. The authors report that
lower-ing costs in the digital area has brought benefits, such as increased visualization software capacity, citing the ex-ample of Geowall, a 3D stereographic projection system that narrows the gap and serves as a bridge between 2D representations and 3D objects (Reynolds 2005).
4.4 Augmented Reality (AR)
Augmented Reality (AR) may be defined in several ways: (A) AR is the enrichment of the real environment with
virtual objects, using some technological device, working in real time;
(B) AR is a real world improvement with computer-generated texts, images and virtual objects (Insley 2003 apud Kirner & Siscoutto 2007);
(C) AR is the mixture of real and virtual worlds at some point of reality/continuous virtuality, which connects completely real environments to completely virtual environments (Milgran 1994 apud Kirner & Siscout-to 2007);
(D) AR is a system that supplements the real world with virtual objects generated by computer, seeming to coexist in the same space and presenting the follow-ing properties:
a. AR combines real and virtual objects in the real environment;
b. AR performs interactively in real time;
c. AR aligns real and virtual objects to each other; it applies to all senses, including hearing, touch, strength and smell (Azuma 2001 apud Kirner & Siscoutto 2007).
4 Conclusions
This article synthesizes several recent contributions for 3D visualization teaching techniques and identifies a lack of research in this field in Brazil. Many contributions from the specialized literature enhance that teachers of basic education often do not realize the need of stimula-tion of students to develop 3D visualizastimula-tion as early as possible. Those who enter into higher education may transfer such deficiencies to the academic environments.
As new technological resources for digital data pro-cessing evolve, more resources are available to enhance the ability of penetrative visualization, resulting from studies on 3D visualization applications. If spatial rea-soning skills are fundamental for learning Science, spa-tial envisioning assumes a critical role in Geosciences because representations are part of the research routine of any geoscientist and compose a professional task for many, if not all, geologists. A collection of teaching strategies is presented above. They help teachers and students to develop 3D vision qualities: 3D modeling, stereographic projection, CAD, Virtual Reality Aug-mented Reality can help them to solve a variety of prob-lems and enable them to form a broader view of the world in which they live.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge the support from the Coordina-tion for Improvement of Higher Level EducaCoordina-tion Person-nel (CAPES) for a doctor's degree grant to the first au-thor as well as to the National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq), for a productivity research grant, level 2, to the second and third authors.
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