UNIVERSIDADE FEDERAL DE SANTA CATARINA CURSO DE PÕS-GRADUAÇÃO EM INGLÊS
[NDiVIDUALISM AND THE PURSUIT OF THE UNCONSCIOUS IN
MELVILLE AND CONRAD
1
D is s e r t a ç ã o subm etida à U n iv e r s id a d e F e d e r a l de S an ta C a t a r in a p a ra a obtenção do Grau de M estre em L e tra s - Opção In g lê s e L i t e r a tu ra Corres pond ent e-.
JASON PII4ENTA MIRANDA
F l o r ia n ó p o l i s 1985
1 1
Esta D is s e r t a ç ã o f o i ju lg a d a adequad a p ara a obtenção do grau de
MESTRE EM LETRAS
Opção In g lê s e L i t e r a t u r a C o rre sp o n d e n te e aprovada em sua forma f i n a l p elo Programa de PÓs- Graduação.
P r p f . A rno ld S e l i g (ra rd en ste in . P h . D, ORIEOTADOR
P r o f f Carmen Rosa C ald as- C o ulth a r d , P h .D . (em T e s e )
C oordenado ra do Curso d e Pós-Graduação enl L e t ra s - Opção In g lê s e L i t e r a t u r a C o r r e s p o n d e n t e .
A p resen tad a p e r a n te a Comissão Exam inadora composta dos professo -res :
P r o f . A rno ld S e l i g ^ r d ^ n s t e i n , P h .D .
P r o f ^ S u s ana Bornéo F u n c k , P h .D ,
I l l
ao t h o s e r a r e c r e a tu r e s who do not a ccept c o e r c i o n , nor a u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m , nor t y r a n n y — th o se r a r e sam ples o f the human r a c e who never bow t h e i r heads and b a c k b o n e s .
I V AGRADECIMENTOS Ao P r o fe s s o r A rnold S e l i g G o r d e n s t e in à P r o fe s s o r a S u s an a Eornéo Funck Ao P r o fe s s o r S érg io B e l l e i Ao P r o fe s s o r John Bruce D e r r ic k
à M aria Pim enta d e Mi
à T â n ia F a r ah Prehn à I z a b e l de F . de 0 .
rand a
Brandão
à Gladys M a c ie l d e L a ra
Aos p r o fe s s o r e s do Piogram a d e Pós-Graduação em L ín g u a e L i t e r a t u r a I n g l e s a .
ABSTRACT
V
T his d i s s e r t a t i o n i s :he r e s u l t o f the a n a l y s is o f the novels B i l l y Budd, S a i l o r and Moby-Di c k , by the A m erican autho r Herman M e l v i l l e ; and The N ig g e r o f the "N a s c i s s u s " and H eart of D a r k n e s s , by the P o lis h - E n g lis h a u th o r Jo se p h C onrad.
A l l these fo u r novels have t h e w a te r s as t h e i r s e t t i n g : Heart o f Darkness i s a s t r a n g e a d v e n tu r e up the Congo R i v e r , and t h e o t h e r th ree are s e a a d v e n t u r e s . Ho w ever, they a re not mere a d v e n t u r e s . They a re sy m b o lic t r ip s t h a t stand fo r a p lu n g e o f th e i n d i v i d u a l in t o h is own i n t e r i o r . That i s the m a in s t u d y o f t h is d i s s e r t a t i o n : the m o t if
the i n d i v i d u a l has to make i h is u n c o n s c io u s . I t i s the
o f th e "j o u r n e y w i t h i n , " the jo u r n e y n h is own i n t e r i o r i n o rd e r to awaken q u e s t f o r kn ow ledge th at h e re i s examined i n the lig h t o f th e E a s t e r n concept o f " i l l u m i n a t i o n ," and a lso i n the l i g h t o f p s y c h o lo g y — e s p e c i a l l y the s t u d i e s t h a t C a r l Gustav Jung made o n th e s u b j e c t .
As t h is q u est fo r know ledge i s a q u e s t o f th e i n d i v i d u a l , t h e problon o f how t h e s e two authors t r e a t th e theme o f
i n d i v i d u a l i s m i s a lso exam ined i n d e p t h h e r e . My aim is to d em onstrate t h a t , i n a d d i t i o n to many c r i t i c s ' te n d en c y to c l a s s i f y th ese a u t h o r s ' p o s i t i o n s im p ly as c o n s e r v a t iv e or
i
l i b e r a l i n th ese w o r k s , i n terms o f i n d i v i d u a l i s m , i t must be c o n sid e r e d (and th a t i s v e r y im p o r t a n t) t h e i r b e in g a lso
So M e l v i l l e 's B i l l y B u d d , S a i l o r and ’N a s c i s s u s s " a re c o n tr a st e d w i t h Moby-p e s s im is t ic or o Moby-p t i m i s t i c .
C o n r a d 's The N ig g e r o f the
D ic k and Heart o f D a r k n e s s . I n the f i r s t p a i r o f n o v e l s , the p o s s i b i l i t y o f the i n d i v i d u a l 's f i n d i n g h is own way and a s s e r t i n g h is i n d i v i d u a l i t y i s s e e n by the autho rs i n a p e s s i m i s t i c l i g h t , w hereas i n the second p a i r , t h i s i s s e e n o p t i m i s t i c a l l y — but i n
V I
fo r the "s u p e r m a n ." I n both t h e aw akening o f the unconsc
both p a irs o f novels the a u t h o r s ' p o s i t io n i s l i b e r a l , that i s to s a y , th ey p r a is e i n d i v i d u a l i s m and c r i t i c i z e a system that
represses th e i n d i v i d u a l 's s e l f - a s s e r t i o n .
B esid e s the p s y c h o l o g is t , a p h ilo s o p h e r too i s examined i n I
t h is d i s s e r t a t i o n : F r i e d r i c h W ilhelm N i e t z s c h e . There are s i m i l a r i t i e s b etw een the q u e st fo r "i l l u m i n a t i o n " and the q u e s t
cases th e r e i s a "j o u r n e y w i t h i n , " :ious (or the e n co u n te r w i t h "t h e d o u b l e " ) , th e r e c o g n it io n and i n t e g r a t i o n o f e v i l , the
t r a n s c e n d e n c e , and the r e t u r n . But th e s i m i l a r i t i e s go o n ly to a c e r t a in e x t e n t , f o r , i n N i e t z s c h e 's "su p erm an " another
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i s a d d e d : po w er. So th e two p h ilo s o p h ie s are not only compared h e r e , but co n tr a ste d as w e l l .
A l l the fo u r novels examined h e r e c o n t a in the m o t if o f the "jo u r n e y w i t h i n , " but o n ly the two o p t i m i s t i c ones c o n t a in th e m o t if o f the "s u p e r m a n ," s i n c e th e "superm an " can o n ly sp ro u t i n
a con text w h e r e in d i v i d u a l i s m i s not r e p r e s s e d — from w it h o u t and e s p e c i a l l y from w i t h i n .
v i l
RESUMO
Esta d is s e r t a ç ã o é o r e s u lt a d o d a a n á l is e das . novelas B i l l y Budd, S a i l o r e Moby-Di
M e l v i l l e , e d e The N ig g e r o f
do a u to r am ericano Herman
D a r k n e s s , do a u to r polônio- i
Todas essas q u a tro no Heart o f D arkness é uma e s t r
the "N a s c i s s u s " e H eart o f iglês Jo se p h C onrad.
/e l a s têm as águas como s e u c e n á r io : anha a v e n tu ra r io Congo acima e as m ar. C o n tu d o , e la s não são meras s im bó lica s que correspondem a um
p r ó p rio i n t e r i o r . E s t e é o p r in c i- : o tema d a "viagem ao i n t e r i o r , " una o u tras tres s ao aventuras no
a v e n t u r a s . Elas são v ia g e n s m ergulho do in d iv í d u o no seu
p a l estudo d e s t a d is s e r t a ç ã o
viagem que o in d iv í d u o tem que f a z e r ao seu p r ó p r io i n t e r i o r d e modo a d e s p e r t a r o se u i n c o n s c i e n t e , é uma b usca do conhecim ento que aqui é exam inada à lu z do c o n c e it o o r i e n t a l d a "il u m in a ç ã o " e também ã luz d a p s i c o l o g i a — e s p e c ia lm e n te os estudos que C a r l Gustav Jung f e z s o b re c a s s u n t o .
Como e s sa b u sca do conhecim ento é uma b u sc a f e i t a p e lo i n d i v í d u o , a questã o de como e s se s autores tratam o tema do i n d iv id u a lis m o tambem é exam inada em p r o fu n d id a d e aqui . O meu o b j e t i v o é dem onstrar q u e , somando-se ã t e n d ê n c ia d e m uitos c r í t i cos em c l a s s i f i c a r a po siçã o d e s s e s auto res sim plesm en te como con servado ra ou l i b e r a l nesses t r a b a l h o s , em termos de i n d i v i d u a l is m o , d ev e s e r co n sid e r a d o (e i s t o é m uito im p o r ta n te ) o
fa t o d eles serem tambem p e s s im is t a s ou o t i m i s t a s . Então
Lie e The N ig g e r o f the "N a s c i s s u s " ::om Moby-Dick e Heart o f D arkness . No p r im e iro p a r de n o v e l a s , a p o s s i b i l i d a d e do in d iv í d u o e n c o n t ra r o s e u p ró p rio caminho e a fir m a r a s u a i n d i v i d u a l i d a d e é v i s t a pelo s autores sob uma luz p e s s i m i s t a , enquanto que no segundo par. B i l l y B udd, S a i l o r do M elvi
V l l l
i s t o é v i s t o o t im is t ic a m e n te mas em ambos os pares de novelas a p o siçã o dos autores é l i b e r a l , i s t o é , eles louvam o i n d i v i d u a lismo e c r it ic a m um s iste m a que reprim e a auto-afirm ação in d iv i-d u a l .
Além do p s i c ó l o g o , um
en tre a busca d a "ilu m in a ç ã o
f i l ó s o f o também é examinado n e s ta d is s e r t a ç ã o : F r i e d r i c h W ilhelm N i e t z s c h e . Existem s i m il a r id a d e s
e a b usca do "super-homem. " Em am-bos os c a s o s , há uma viagem ao i n t e r i o r , o d e s p e r t a r do i n c o n s c ie n t e (ou o enco ntro com "o
ção do m a l , a t r a n s c e n d ê n c ia
s ó s i a " ) , o reconhecim ento e integra- e o r e t o r n o , mas as s im il a r id a d e s vão somente a t é um certo p o n to , porque no "super-homem" de
N ie t z s c h e uma o u tr a c a r a c t e r í s t i c a é a c r e s c e n t a d a : o p o d e r . Então as duas f i l o s o f i a s são não sõmente comparadas aqioi , mas c o n tr a s tadas também.
Todas as q u atro no vel "viagem ao i n t e r i o r , " mas so contêm o tema do "sup er- home
as exam inadas aqui contêm o tema da nente Moby-Dick e Heart o f D arkness ■n," porque o "super-homem" só pode
— de
s u r g i r num c o n te x to onde o in d iv id u a l is m o não e rep rim id o fo r a e e s p e c ia lm e n te d e d e n t r o .
I X TABLE ( CHAPTER I STATEMENT OF PR O R T.FM ___ , , , . DF CONTENTS Page ... 1 REVIEW OF C R ITICISM ... ... 5
1. The C r it ic s View B i l l y Budd and The N ig g e r o f the
"N a s c is s u s " ... ... 5 2 . The C r it ic s View Moby-t)ic k and Heart o f Darkness ... 2 0 STATEMENT OF PURPOSE ... ... ... 36 Notes on C hapter One ... ... 39
CHAPTER I I
WESTERN AND EA.STERN CONCEPTS Nntf^s nn Chantp-r Two ... ..
; ... 43 ... ... 60
CHAPTER I I I
THE REPRESSION OF IN D IV ID U A LISM ... ... 62 1 . B i l l y Budd - P s y c h o lo g ic a l and S o c i a l Im p lic a t io n s . . . 62 2. James W ait - P s y c h o lo g ic a l and P o l i t i c a l I m p l i c a t i o n s . 83 3. De p r o fu n di s ... |... ... 116 Notes on C h ap ter Three . . . .j... ... 122
CHAPTER IV
THE HERO AND THE HEROIC QUEST Notes on C hap ter Four . . . .
123 141
CHAPTER V
THE ASSERTION OF INDIVIDUAJ!.ISM ... 143 1 . W hiteness
2 . Darkness
143 164 3. Sowers and Seeds - Homo novus. ... 195
X
CHAPTER V I
THE NARRATIVE A-ND THE AUTHORS' V IEW POINT Notes on Chapter S i x CONCLUSION ... Notes on the C o n c lu s io n GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY ... 203 215 216
221
222CHAPTER
STATEMENT pF PROBLEM
I f we exam ine M e l v i l l e 's and C o n r a d 's l e t t e r s , we can s e e that many times they sound r a t h e r N ie t z s c h e a n — a s , for
i n s t a n c e , w hen th e y u t t e r t h e i r o p in io n s c o n c e r n in g the id e a and id e a l s o f d em ocracy , or when they t a l k about i n d i v i d u a l i s m , or when they s t a t e the supremacy o f f e e l i n g s over p l a i n i n t e l l e c t
(lik e M e l v i l l e w r i t i n g " I stand fo r the h e a r t . To the dogs w i t h the h e a d . " )
Many p e o p le tend to s e e N i e t z s c h e as a c o n s e r v a tiv e p h il o s o p h e r , and n o t h in g , I
I agree t h a t N ie t z s c h e can b
t h i n k , i s fa r t h e r from t h e t r u t h , e s e e n as p o l i t i c a l l y c o n s e r v a t iv e i f you s e e l ib e r a l i s m as synonymous w i t h s o c ia lis m
regarded the s o c i a l i s t s w it h terms o f in d i v i d u a l i s m pure
N i e t z s c h e an O lym pic d i s d a i n — , b u t , i n and s i m p l e , he was more l i b e r a l th an most p h il o s o p h e r s . Due to t h i s . p r a i s e o f the i n d i v i d u a l , he
came to d i s l i k e dem ocracy al i d e a l s i s th a t a l l men a re e
s o , b e c a u s e one o f the d em o cratic g u a l — N ie t z s c h e could not s e e how i n d i v i d u a l i s m could be c o n c i l i a t e d w i t h e q u a l i t y : i f everybody w ere e q u a l , then th e r e could be no i n d i v i d u a l i t y , but u n ifo r m it y .
time (and o u r s ) , M e l v i l l e an N i e t z s c h e . I n h is The B ir t h p o e t :
3 Conrad could be compared to
o f T r a g e d y , N ie t z s c h e says about the
I
We t a l k so a b s t r a c t l y about p o e tr y b ecause a l l o f us a re u s u a l l y bad pojets. At b ottom , the a e s t h e t ic
phenomenon i s s im p le : le t anyone have the a b i l i t y to behold continually] a v i v i d p la y and to l i v e
c o n s t a n t ly surrounded by hosts o f s p i r i t s , and he w i l l be a p o e t ^ .
The p h ilo s o p h e r fo r h im , l i k e h is sup erm an, must s t e p beyond h is
I
own tim e , and e x p e r ie n c e the' s e n s a t io n s o f t im e l e s s n e s s .
What does the p h ilo s o p h e r demand o f h im s e lf f i r s t and l a s t ? To overcome h is time i n h i m s e l f , to become " t i m e l e s s " . W ith w hat must he t h e r e f o r e engage i n th e h a r d e s t combat? Wiith w h a te v e r marks him as the c h ild o f h is time^ .
I n d i v i d u a l i s m is N i e t z s c h e 's m ain c o n c e r n : the r e a l i z a t i o n i n the i n d i v i d u a l o f th e tremendous power he has i n s i d e h i m s e l f . and the consequent aw akening
get away from the m a s s , from N ie t z s c h e g l o r i f i e s w hat i s
o f t h a t po w er. The i n d i v i d u a l must the co n form ity o f the m a s s .
n o b le — the i n d i v i d u a l .
N oble m o r a l i t y , m a ster m o r a l i t y , c o n v e r s e ly , i s rooted i n a trium p hant Yes s a i d to o n e s e l f — i t i s s e lf- a ffir m a itio n , s e l f - g l o r i f i c a t i o n o f l i f e ^ .
The g r e a t f e a r o f pec p ie i n r e l a t i o n to N ie t z s c h e is bec au se they tend to l i n k him w i t h A d o l f H i t l e r , but th at i s a h o r r ib l e m is t a k e . H i t l e r , i n o r d e r to show t h a t he had a e s t h e t i c t a s t e , l i s t e n e d to W a g n e r , and i n o r d e r to show th at he had i d e a s . and i n an attem pt to j u s t i f y
However, H i t l e r 's id e a s are
th o se i d e a s , quoted N ie t z s c h e , not j u s t i f i e d i n N i e t z s c h e , on the c o n t r a r y . N ie t z s c h e nev e r p reach ed the r a c i a l supremacy o f A r ia n s
eve i n an a r i s t o c r a c y by b i r t h , but i n — and t h a t w ould e lim in a t e a l l o f
or w h a t e v e r ; he d i d not beli an a r is t o c r a c y o f the mind
N ie t z s c h e to a t t a i n h is p u r p o s e s ; and to condemn N ie t z s c h e for having been "a d o p t e d " by H i t l e r w o u ld be the same as to condemn C h r is t fo r a l l th e bad use the C hurch has made o f him fo r two thousand years — v i d e the C r u s a d e s , the I n q u i s i t i o n ,
J e s u i t i s m , e t c . The Crusades w e re a c t u a l l y n o th in g e l s e than lo o t in g masked by the p re ten ce o f th e "p r o p a g a t io n o f f a i t h " . The I n q u i s i t i o n showed n o th in g more than ig n o r a n c e , s u p e r s t i t i o n , and fe a r on the p a r t o f the i n q u i s i t o r s ; a n d , b e s i d e s , under the p r ete n c e o f f i g h t i n g w i t c h r a f t , the Church accused many r ic h fa m ilie s o f t h i s "c r im e " and
that the p r i e s t s and bishops
condemned them to the b o n f i r e , so could c o n f i s c a t e t h e i r w e a l t h . And J e s u it is m i s no le s s in d e c e n t t h a n th e o t h e r tw o. The "w o rk" the J e s u it s and m is s io n a r ie s p e r p e tr a te d (and they s t i l l do t h a t !) on t h e so - c alled "s a v a g e " or "h e a t h e n " communities i s som ething
to the j u n g l e , fo r exam ple , take p e r f e c t l y happy and proud and courageous m en, and te ach them that they are w ic k e d and t h a t they l i v e " i n s i n " . So th ey s t u f f th ese form erly proud men w i t h a m igh ty guilt- co m p lex th at s t a r t s to gnaw at t h e i r s o u ls and ends up by b e n d in g t h e i r b a c k b o n e s . They also t e a c h them th a t the w h it e m a n 's way o f l i v i n g i s the best a b s o lu t e ly h id e o u s . They go
and the r ig h t o n e , and th at t h a t they must be in t e g r a t e d are a b le t o transform those
the p r e te n c e o f " i n t e g r a t i n g " them i n s o c i e t y . But w hat a c t u a lly happens i s t h a t th e n a tiv e s
s o c i e t y , and t h e y can no loii
t h e y , the n a t i v e s , are i g n o r a n t , and i n c i v i l i z a t i o n . The m is s io n a r ie s fo rm erly proud men in t o t r a s h , under
a re not accepted i n the w h i t e m a n 's iger go back to t h e i r r o o t s , to t h e i r old way o f l i v i n g , and so they end up a c q u i r i n g , in s t e a d o f the w h it e m a n 's v i r t u e s ( i f a n y ) , the w h i t e m a n 's v i c e s . As an
a fte r m a t h , many o f th e s e form erly d i g n i f i e d men end up drunk i n o f the r o a d s , and t h e i r women become t h a t the n a t iv e s d i d not know b e fo r e
enough fo r th e so- called the gutters or by the s id e s
p r o s t it u t e s — b o t h , things and th at is "i n t e g r a t i o n
, 4
m i s s i o n a r i e s . C o n s id e r in g those n a tiv e s as "u n g o d l y ", w i l d , and s a v a g e s , l i k e a n im a ls , th e se p i o u s , god ly m is s io n a r ie s propose to
"tam e" them i n t o "good C h r i s t i a n s " . I n h is T w ilig h t o f the I d o l s , N ie t z s c h e says that
To c a l l the tam ing o f an anim al i t s "im provem ent" sounds almost l i k e
"im p r o v e d " t h e r e .
a jo k e t o our e a r s . Whoever knows what goes on i n m enageries doubts th at the b easts are
They are w e a k e n e d , they a re made less h a r m fu l, and through th e d e p r e s s iv e e f f e c t o f f e a r , through p a in
th ey become s i c k l y the tamed man whom
, through w o u n d s , and through hunger b e a s t s . I t i s no d i f f e r e n t w it h the p r ie s t has "im p r o v e d "“*.
Some c r i t i c s (as we w i l l s e e i n th e Review o f C r it ic is m ) tend to s e e i n Conrad the p rototyp e o f the V i c t o r i a n e t h i c , e s p e c i a l l y c o n c e r n in g the e t h ic o f w o r k , o f d u t y , but C o n r a d 's Marlow c r i t i c i z e s b i t t e r l y t h is "d u t y " when he fin d s i t i n A f r i c a as a d i s g u i s e fo r l o o t in g and e x p l o i t a t i o n o f the n a t i v e s . Marlow has a s e n s e o f d u t y , but h is i s a p e r s o n a l d u ty and not an
im p erso n a l one imposed by s o c i e t y . N ie t z s c h e too has som ething to s a y about t h is s u b j e c t o:^ d u t y . I n h is The A n t i c h r i s t , he says ,
N o th in g ruins us more p r o f o u n d l y , more i n t i m a t e l y , th an every "im p e r s o n a l" d u t y , every s a c r i f i c e to the M aloch o f a b s t r a c t i o n ^ .
And he adds ,
What cou ld d e stro y us more q u i c k l y than w o r k in g , t h i n k i n g , and f e e l i n g w ith o u t any i n n e r n e c e s s i t y , w ith o u t any d e e p ly p e r s o n a l c h o i c e , w ithout
p l e a s u r e — as an automaton o f duty?®
T h ere are many d e e p l { traced p a r a l l e l s between N ie t z s c h e and t h e s e two authors I a n a ly z e h e r e . Some c r i t i c s are a b le to n o t ic e t h i s , but many a re n
I n Moby-Di ck and i n Dt.
Heart o f D arkness we have th e f i g u r e o f the h e r o , w h o , i n N i e t z s c h e 's terms i s the "superm an " (at le a s t a p o t e n t i a l "s u p e r m a n "). There i s , h o w e v er, a d i f f e r e n c e betw een
the qu est o f the "superm an" ; hero — and th e quest fo r " i l i d e a b e fo r e a n y t h in g .
The problem to be exan c o n c i l i a t e t h e s e two concepts
— w hich i s a thoroughly W estern lu m in a t io n " — w h ic h i s an E a s te r n
in e d here is to determ ine how to - w it h the reserves t h a t , o f c o u r s e , w i l l have to be ta k e n i n c o n s id e r a t io n
REVI EW OF C R ITICISM
1. The C r i t ic s V iew B i l l y B u d d , S a i l o r and The N ig g e r o f the "Nas c is s u s "
The c r i t i c s ' o p in io n s about B i l l y Budd va ry w i d e l y from a theo ry o f "A c c e p t a n c e " to a th eo ry o f " R e s i s t a n c e " . I n the f i r s t c a s e , E . L . Grant W atson a ffir m s th at M e l v i l l e changed from a
r e b e l i n t o a c o n fo r m is t .
M e l v i l l e i s np lo n g e r a r e b e l . I t should be noted th at B i l l y Budd has n o t , even under the s e v e r e s t p r o v o c a t io n , any element o f r e b e l l i o n i n h im ; he i s too f r e e a s o u l to need a q u a l i t y w h ic h i s a v i r t u e o n ly i n s l a v e s . His n a tu re s p o n t a n e o u s ly a ccep ts w ha tev er may b e f a l l . When im pressed from th e m erch an t- sh ip , the "R ig h t s o f M a n ," he makes no demur to the v i s i t i n g l i e u t e n a n t 's o rd er to get ready h is th in g s fo r trans- ship m ent. The crew o f the
m erchant- ship a re s u r p r is e d and r e p r o a c h fu l at h is u n c o m p la in in g a c q u ie s c e n c e . Once aboard the
b a t t l e s h i p , the young s a i l o r b e g in s to look around fo r the advantages! o f chance and a d v e n t u r e . Such s im p le power to accept gives him buoyancy to o v e r r id e tr o u b le s and irritj'ations w h ic h w ould check i n f e r i o r n a tu res ^ .
Watson c l e a r l y takes C a p t a in V ere fo r a spokesm an o f the a u t h o r , and he concludes th at i f the; f i r s t i s s u b m is s iv e to the s y s te m , the l a t t e r must be th at way t o o .
And not only BjLlly Budd is marked by t h is
supreme q u a l i t y o f a c c e p t a n c e . C a p t a in V e r e , a l s o , p o ss e ss e s i t , but w;Lth f u l l c o n s c ie n c e , and weighed w i t h the res pons ib i^iity o f u n d e r s t a n d in g the n a t u r a l
n a t u r a ln e s s o f m an's v o l i t i o n and the u n n a t u r a l n a t u r a ln e s s o f the l a w ^ .
I t is i n t e r e s t i n g th a t even al sacred-cow l i k e M a t t h ie s s e n su g g e sts th at M e l v i l l e came to an a t t it u d e o f a c c e p t a n c e , w h ic h i s t o t a l l y w ro ng .
No lo n g e r does M e l v i l l e f e e l the f e a r and d e s l i k e o f Jehovah t h a t w ere o p p r e s s in g him through
:e . He is no lo n g e r p r o t e s t in g Moby-Dick and F ie r i
a g a in s t the determ ined laws as b e in g s a v a g e ly i n e x o r a b l e . He has come to r e s p e c t
necessity-On th e o t h e r h a n d , i n h is e s s a y " B i l l y B udd : Testam ent o f R e s i s t a n c e " , P h i l W it h in t r ie s to n u l l i f y a l l o f W a t s o n 's
h y p o t h e s is , and a ffirm s the -very o p p o s it e . He r e fu t e s the argument o f a c c e p ta n c e by a p p e a lin g to the l o g ic o f the
im p lic a t io n s t h a t would fo llo w as an a fterm ath o f th at argum ent. and by p o in t i n g out the fa c t
J a c k C h ase, the r e a l p erso n v
th a t i s a p r o t e s t a g a in s t im pressm ent — W h ite J a c k e t .
th a t M e l v i l l e d e d ic a t e d the book to ho i n s p i r e d him to c r e a t e a no vel
A l o g i c a l e x te n s io n o f t h is argioment i s t h a t man s h o u ld a b d ic a t e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r u n j u s t law and e n fo r c e i t m e c h a n ic a lly . Man sh o u ld not t r y to chance t h a t w h ic h i s w r o n g , but m er ely accept
i n j u s t i c e and tyranny and l i e s u p i n e l y b e n e a th them; man i s to stand by and w atch the in n o c e n t as
i n d i s c r i m i n a t e l y ground under th e h e e l o f u n r e s is t e d law as a re the e v i l .
M e l v i l l e makes h is o p p o s i t i o n to t h is view c l e a r by d e d i c a t i n g th e book to J a c k C h a s e , his com panion years b e fo r e on th e f r i g a t e "U n it e d S t a t e s " . I t was t
o f "W h i t e - J a c k e t ", e lo q u e n t ly a g a in s t c a p t a i n 's tyran n y .
lis voyage t h a t became th e s t o r y the no v e l t h a t c r ie d out so im p re ssm en t, f l o g g i n g , the
Jac k Chase is here m entioned by name and is r e fe r r e d to as "a s t i c k l e r fo r th e R ights o f Man and the l i b e r t i e s o f the w o r l d ." I t w ould be i r o n i c in d e e d to d e d i c a t e B i l l y Budd to such a man i f the novel was devoted to subm ission**.
W it h in o b je c t s to the p o in t o f v ie w t h a t B i l l y i s s u b m is s iv e at a l l , and s u g g e s t s th at his l a s t words ("God b le s s C a p t a in V e r e " )
should be taken as an i r o n i c a l rem ark.
i f the e p is o d e i s t a k e n i r o n i c a l l y , th en i t f i t s the rest o f th e s t o r y as so fa r in t e r p r e t e d and a c q u ire s tremendous p o w er. For B i l l y i s w i l l i n g to d i e as Is a a c or as C h ris t was w i l l i n g ; he accepts a l l th e c a p t a i n 's arguments!, but i t is B i l l y alone who is n o b le . The c a p t a in s u f f e r s and w is h e s he could avoid t h is d u t y , but he has no n o b i l i t y and above a l l no tru st i n man. Yet B i l l y 's v e r y accep ta n ce o f his r o le i s the e v id e n c e t h a t proves man can be t r u s t e d , that man can r i s e above t h e need fo r forms®.
The obvious im p lic a t io n h ere Would be t h a t B i l l y knows he is d y i n g u n j u s t l y a n d , knowing t h a t , he su g g ests w i t h his remark that
C a p t a in V ere is i n r e a lity , h is t o r t u r e r . Now, the problem that I see here — b esid es the o b v io
d ie fo r som ething t h a t he bel c a l l s our a t t e n t io n to the fc i n s t i n c t i v e b e in g who lacks i im p o s s ib le fo r a p e r so n l i k e t o t a l l y i n t e l l e c t u a l d e v i c e , out i n his essa y " M e l v i l l e 's N a r r a t i v e '" . He s a y s . us fa c t t h a t C h r is t was w i l l i n g t o ie v e d — is t h a t M e l v i l l e h im s e lf ct that E i l l y i s a t o t a l l y n t e l l i g e n c e , so i t w ould be t h a t to make use o f i r o n y w h ic h i s a W il l ia m B r a s w e ll to o p o in ts t h a t B IL L Y BUDD as 'A n I n s i d e His f i n a l w o r d s , u t te r e d j u s t b e f o r e h is e x e c u t i o n , a r e , "God b le s s C a p t a in V e r e " . I t has b een
s u g g e ste d t h a t t h is remark i s i r o n i c a l , but B i l l y , we are e x p l i c i t l y t o l d , i s i n c a p a b l e o f conscio us
i r o n y , and nobody has yet p r e se n te d c o n v in c in g
argioment t h a t M e l v i l l e meant the remark t o be tak e n s o ®.
I t is i n t e r e s t i n g that W i t h i n h im s e l f i s aware o f that and he loses t h is v e r y argument o f B i l l y ' s i n c a p a c i t y t o t h in k to c o n t r a d ic t the t h e o r y o f a c c e p t a n c e .
A g a in , w ould i t not be c o n t r a d ic t o r y fo r M e l v i l l e to r ep re s e n t B i l l y asi i n a r t i c u l a t e , n o n t h i n k in g , n a i v e , em o tio n a lly a d o l e s c e n t , and m o r a lly u n d e v e lo p e d , and then expect the r e a d e r to a cce p t h is c r y , "God b le s s C ap tain V e r e , " as i n d i c a t i v e o f f u l l u n d e r s t a n d in g , i n s t i n c t i v e or o t h e r w i s e ? ’
is the crow ning ir o n y and re a l l y the clim ax o f the s t o r y , for he was hanged u n j u s t l y " . As we s e e , the man c o n tr a d ic t s h i m s e l f .
The fa c t i s t h a t B i l l y b l e s s i n g C a p t a in V ere i n d i c a t e s no i r o n y , but an obvious s u b m is s io n . And t h a t su b m is sio n V ere
managed to o b t a in i n the p r i v a t e i n t e r v ie w he had w it h the s a i l o r i n a locked c a b in . We never
c o n v e r sa tio n t h a t takes plac c a p ta in and h is foretopm an.
know the e x a c t g is t o f the e i n s i d e the c a b in betw een the but i t seems t h a t V e re managed to convince B i l l y th at the lattier w ou ld s a c r i f i c e h im s e lf fo r a
noble c a u s e , that i s , the p r e v e n t io n o f m u tin y i n the K i n g 's s h i p . W ithim gives as proof
the f o llo w in g argiament:
O bserve t h a t b e f o r e he has "a t t
o f V e r e 's u n s u i t a b i l i t y as a h e r o .
V e re d ie s drug ged and on shore a in e d to the f u l l n e s s o f fa m e ".
I n o th e r w o r d s , V e r e 's end i s s u i t a b l e to one who d i d not d e s e r v e such renown as the d a r i n g and im prudent N e l s o n , a man c a p a b l e , as V ere i s n o t , o f i n s p i r i n g h is men to l o y a l t y , o r s u b s t i t u t i n g p e r s u a s io n fo r c o e r c io n ® .
But "fa m e" cannot be ta k e n cs a p r o o f t h a t a p e rso n i s r ig h t or ju s t i n h is a t t i t u d e s , s i n c e fame i s som ething v e r y r e l a t i v e . S t a l i n too became fam ous, and so d id P i n o c h e t . . . M e l v i l l e uses other d e v ic e s to show t h a t V e r e i s no h e r o , e s p e c i a l l y by the
t r i c k he plays c o n ce rn in g the r e p o r t e r 's r e fe r e n c e to Dr J o h n s o n 's famous s e n te n c e about s c o u n d r e ls and p a t r i o t i s m .
W ithim ends up by e m p h a s iz in g a g a in B i l l y 's "h e r o i c " d e a t h as co n tra sted w it h V e r e 's c o n s e r v a t iv e a t t i t u d e .
A nother c o n t r a d i c t i o n in h e r e n t i n the "a c c e p t a n c e " th e o r y l ie s i n M e l v i l l e 's argument t h a t b a r b a r ia n s w it h t h e i r i n s t i n c t s and warm h e a rts have s o u n d er v a lu e s th an c i v i l i z e d men w i t h t h e i r i n t r i c a t e i n t e l l e c t s and t h e i r rab ie d h e a r t s . Would i t not be c o n t r a d ic t o r y fo r M e l v i l l e to s u g g e s t t h is not o n c e , but t w i c e , and t h e n have V e r e , M e l v i l l e 's forem ost spokesm an, w ea v e a
complex in t e lle c t v ia l argum ent? Would i t not be c o n t r a d ic t o r y fo r
c r y in g "God b le s s s a y d i r e c t l y t h a t
M e l v i l l e to have B i l l y d i e b r a v e l y . C a p t a in V e r e " , and th e n have V ere mankind is a d e n i z e n o f the f o r e s t
and must be c o n tr o lle d by form and r o u t in e ?1 0
B u t , as I have a lr e a d y p o inted o u t , B i l l y 's d e a t h has n o th in g r e a l l y h e r o ic i n i t , and one more p ro o f is g iv e n by W ithim h im s e lf at the end o f t h is l a s t q u o t a t io n , "and then have V ere say d i r e c t l y t h a t m ankind is a d e n i z e n o f th e f o r e s t and must be c o n tr o lle d by form and r o u t i :i e ." V ere i s v e r y s u r e o f t h a t , and t h at is b ecause he has r e a l l y convinced B i l l y , d u r in g th e
2 locked c a b i n . And t h a t "form and
the w h o le c r e w , f o r , im m ed iate ly a f t e r B i l l y 's e x e c u t i o n , orders are g iv e n to b r in g th e men b ack to the n o rm a lity o f t h e s h i p 's r o u t i n e .
m ysterious in t e r c o u r s e i n th r o u t in e " i s th en extended to
W e n d ell C l i c k , i n h is e s s a y "E x p e d ie n c y and A b s o lu t e
M o r a lit y i n B i l l y B u d d , " comes up w it h i n t e r e s t i n g a rg u m en ts, but he too makes M e l v i l l e 's V ere 's p o s i t i o n .
But he agreed w it h the C a p ta in t h a t j u s t i c e to the in d iv id .u a l i s not the u lt im a t e l o y a l t y i n a complex c u l t u r e ; the s t a b i l i t y o f th e c u l t u r e has the h ig h e r
2 two c o n f l i c t , j u s t i c e to the abrogated to keep the o r d e r o f c l a im , and when th
i n d i v i d u a l must be s o c i e t y i n t a c t ^ ^ .
But M e l v i l l e i s not a d v o c a t in g t h i s p h ilo s o p h y at a l l , b ec au s e he is always b i t t e r l y c r i t i c a l o f C a p t a in V e r e . And th e c r i t i c t r i e s to show V ere as a h e r o ic p e r so n who has t o do th in g s a g a in s t his w i l l fo r the sak e o f the community.
No p r i c e was too g r e a t to pay to keep such u n h in g in g forces o f anarchy i n c h e c k ; i n g i v i n g his l i f e to d e s t r o y the "A t h e i 's t e ," C a p t a in V e re s a c r i f i c e d h im s e lf i n d e f e n s e o f t h e s i n e qua non o f c i v i l i z e d e x i s t e n c e and i n o p p o s it io n to the f a l s e , unw orkable d o c t r in e s o f the Fjrench R e v o l u t io n . The trium ph o f the "I n d o m i t a b l e " o v e r the " A t h i i s t e " was t h e trium ph o f o r d e r o v e r chaos 12
T h e 'p r o b le m i s t h a t V ere does not s a c r i f i c e h i m s e l f , but B i l l y . V e r e 's d e a t h takes p la c e a s h o r e , l a t e r o n ,B i l l y i s t h e one who is s a c r i f i c e d fo r th e s t a b i l i t y o f s o c i e t y .
10
However, C l ic k manages r a t h e r i n t e r e s t i n g :
to s av e his essa y by s a y i n g som ething
S o c ia l s t a b i l i t y b ased upon e x p e d ie n c y i s p a id fo r a lso w it h a g en era^ b l i g h t i n g , human m e d i o c r i t y . The sta n d ards o f any c i v i l i z e d s o c i e t y a re the s ta n d a r d s o f the g re a t mass o f men who make up i t s b u l k ; and when m ainten an ce o f the s t a b i l i t y o f s o c i e t y becomes the supreme o b l i g a t i o n o f e v ery p e r s o n , the r e s u l t i s a l e v e l l i n g o f th e s u p e r i o r persons down to the l e v e l o f the m ass. The c h i e f p e r s o n a l v i r t u e becomes
" p r u d e n c e ;" the end most w orth s e e k in g fo r becomes "t h a t m a n u fa c tu r a b le t h in g known as r e s p e c t a b i l i t y , " so o ft e n a l l i e d w it h "m o ra l o b l i q u i t i e s , " and o c c a s i o n a l l y , as i n the ca se o f C l a g g a r t , i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e even from "n a t u r a l d e p r a v i t y " . " C i v i l i z a t i o n , " M e l v i l l e remarks c a t e g o r i c a l l y , " e s p e c i a l l y o f t h e ]a u s t e r e r s o r t , i s a u s p i c i o u s " to n a t u r a l d e p r a v it y b e c a u s e n a t u r a l d e p r a v i t y "f o l d s i t s e l f i n the m antle o f r e s p e c t a b i l i t y " by a v o id in g "v ic e s or s m all s i n s " and by r e f r a i n i n g from a l l e x c e s s e s ; i n sh o rt^ by e x h i b i t i n g t h e pru de n ce w h ic h i s t h e o n ly v i r t u e s o c i e t y dem ands. . . . P r u d e n c e , w h il e b e in g t h e mark o f t h e s o c i a l l y a d ju s t e d man who r i g i d l y adheres t o the u t i l i t a r i a n p r i n c i p l e o f
e x p e d ie n c y , may a ls o be t h e l a s t r e fu g e o f s c o u n d r e ls ^ ^
Mow, how is i t p o s s i b l e t h a t , s e e i n g a l l t h i s , and know ing t h a t M e l v i l l e a lso saw i t , t h is c r i t i c a s s o c ia t e s M e l v i l l e w i t h V e r e ? Here is his c o n t r a d i c t i o n . I f he h im s e l f r e c o g n ize s t h a t
M e l v i l l e 's p o s i t io n towards c i v i l i z a t i o n and th e s o c i a l f a b r i c is l i n k M e l v i l l e 's p o s i t i o n w i t h t h a t poses the f o l l o w i n g q u e s t i o n ; s u c h , he should never t r y to o f C a p t a in V e r e . The c r i t i c A s o c ie t y w h ic h e le v a t e d p ru d e n ce above a l l o t h e r v ir t u e s seemed to be anathem a to th e s o r t o f m oral adventuresom eness w h ic h M e l v i l l e l o v e d , and w h ic h fo r him s e t th e g re a t man o f f from th e m ed io cre o n e . Yet such a s o c i e t y seemed to be t h e o n ly s o r t w h ic h cou ld s a fe g u a r d men from th e p e r i l s o f " i r r a t i o n a l co m b ustio n" w h ic h fo llo w e d hard upon an id e a l i s m p e rm itted to run
i t s fr e e co u rse u n r e s t r a i n e d . H ere la y a c r u c i a l dilem m a: was t h e r a c e doomed t o a ccept m e d io c r it y as
the p r i c e o f i t s s e l f - p r e s e r v a t i o n , o r was i t s t i l l p o s s i b l e i n a complex s o c i e t y f o r g reat p r iv a t e v ir t u e s to g e n e r a t e and grow?^**
C arl Gustav Jung has s a i d t h a t .
S o c i e t y , by a u t o m a t ic a lly s t r e s s i n g a l l th e c o l l e c t i v e q u a l i t i e s i n i t s i n d i v i d u a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , puts a premium on m e d i o c r i t y , on e v e r y t h in g t h a t s e t t l e s down to v e g e t a t e i n an leasy, i r r e s p o n s i b l e w a y . I n d i v i d u a l i t y
11
w i l l i n e v i t a b l y be d r i v e n to the w a l l1 5
As we s e e , J u n g 's answer seems to be But the c r i t i c h im s e lf provid es the answer i n r e l a t i o n t o M e l v i l l e 's p o s i t i o n .
The q u e s t i o n n|3turally a r is e s w hether M e l v i l l e in t e n d e d the d i g r e s s i o n on N e ls o n to i l l u m i n a t e the f i n a l s c e n e o f the n o v e l. M ig ht the answer be t h a t th e han g in g o f B ill'y Budd i s M e l v i l l e 's f i n a l
commentary upon the| theme o f the i m p r a c t i c a b i l i t y o f a b s o lu t e standarids i n a w o r ld n e c e s s a r i l y r u led by ex p ed ien c y ? Bill<y's n o b le d e v o t io n to a b s o lu t e j u s t i c e and r ig h t throughout the no vel made him a s o rt o f p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n o f the moral la w ; h is d e a t h must have meant forj M e l v i l l e , c o n s e q u e n t ly , t h a t the sta n d ard o f behavioir to w h ic h B i l l y gave h is
a l l e g i a n c e , th o u g h ja n o b le o n e , is sim ply unw o rk ab le when a p p lie d to complex s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s ^ ® .
The c o n c lu s io n t h a t I draw fi t h a t I m y s e lf would come t o , i n terms o f i n d i v i d u a l i s m , iii om t h is la s t q u o t a t io n i s the same t h a t M e l v i l l e is not c o n s e r v a t i v e , his p o s i t i o n i n B i l l y B u d d , but sim ply p e s s i m i s t i c . P e s s i m i s t i c i n r e l a t i o n to the f ig h t o f the i n d i v i d u a l fo r s e l f - a s s e r t i o n i n a s o c i e t y dom inated by form . N e v e r t h e le s s , the a u th o r i s l i b e r a l s i n c e he d is a p p ro v e s o f V e r e 's a t t i t u d e th ro u g h o u t.
I n "T he U nit o f B i l l y B u d d , " Ray B . W e s t , J r . attem pts to t ra ce a p a r a l l e l b etw een B i l l y ' s s t o r y and t h a t o f C h r i s t . He con trasts the "R ig h t s o f Man
t h at
' w i t h the "I n d o m it a b l e " by s t a t i n g
The "I n d o m i t a b l e " i s r u le d by a concept o f a b s o lu t e o rd er imposed by a u t h o r it y and d e p e n d in g upon f e a l t y to the so u r c e o f l e g i s l a t e d p o w e r. H i s t o r i c a l l y , h o w ever, i t i s the| d i s t i n c t i o n betw een p r i m it i v e s o c ie t y (w h ic h , o f c o u r s e , M e l v i l l e knew w e l l and at f i r s t hand) and th e er a o f w h a t he c a lle d " c i t i f i e d m a n ." T h e o lo g ic a ljly , i t is the c o n tra st o f pagan
and C h r i s t i a n o rd dr
I n my v i e w , t h is ord er i s not e x a c t l y C h r i s t i a n , but M o s a ic . The c r i t i c goes on and s a y s :
The r e l i g i o u s l e v e l i s prim ary d u r in g t h e p e r io d o f B i l l y 's e x e c u t io n fo r t e c h n i c a l m utiny and the
12
c r u c i f i x i o n have been commonly s e e n . C h r i s t 's g o d lik e in n o ce n ce i s mirrowed i n B i l l y 's n a tu ra l in n o c e n c e ; C h r i s t 's agony i n s u b m it t in g to the W i l l o f Heaven is B i l l y ' ^ s u b m is s io n to th e a u th o r it y o f C a p t a in V e r e . C a p t a in V e r e 's ex c la m a tio n fo llo w in g the d e a th o f C la g g a r t (the n a t u r a l l y d e p ra v ed ) by the
:ru c k d e ad by an a n g e l o f God. Yet r e f l e c t s the paradox o f
hand o f B i l l y
the Angel must hang atonement by w h ich i n ord er to r e le a s e e v i l ^ ® .
-hrist s u f f e r e d the agony o f d e a t h m ankind from the bondage o f
Things are not e x a c t ly l i k e t l a t . cannot be compared to th a t o f d e a t h to p r e se r v e the s o c i a l subvert that o r d e r , to change
C h r i s t 's s u b m is sio n to d e a t h B i l l y . C h r is t d id not submit to Drder — his d e a t h was meant to
m a n 's m e n t a lit y — , whereas B i l l y 's d e a t h is meant to m a in t a in the s o c i a l o r d e r , to p r e s e r v e the
sta tu s q u o . Both are subm issio ns to d e a t h , but the purposes a re w i d e l y d i f f e r e n t .
The c r i t i c pushes s t i l l f u r t h e r t h is B i l l y /C h r i s t p a r a l l e l .
The q u e s t io n I i s t h i s : I f the Kir w hat then supports
h is l i p s . A l i t t l e F rench w a r s h ip
"Atl-t a k e i "Atl-t M e l v i l l e i s r a i s i n g here g 's a u t h o r it y i s g o n e , and N a t u r e 's , us? B i l l y d ie s f o r h is im p u ls iv e act w i t h a p r a y e r fo r C a p t a in Vere (v i r — man) upon
l a t e r th e "I n d o m i t a b l e " meets the e i s t e " (form erly the K i n g 's s h i p . the " S t . L o u i s ") aiKl engages h e r . The "In d o m it a b le " su r v iv e s the engagem ent, s i n k i n g t h e " A t h i i s t e " , but C a p t a in V e r e , who i s a ls o the old g o d , perhaps even the f a t h e r o f B i l l y , d ie s w i t h B i l l y ' s name upon h is l i p s , n o t , as M e l v | l l e s a y s , " i n accents o f r e m o r s e ," but as though t r a n s f e r r i n g h is a u t h o r it y to his s o n : B i l l y the Son o f God and the Son o f M an; God become Man and Man become God1 9
But h ere we fa c e a s e r io u s p;:o blem : t h is t r a n s f e r r i n g o f a u t h o r it y from f a t h e r to so n does not w o r k , s i n c e B i l l y is d e a d . The s t o r y
no i n d i v i d u a l at the end to ta k e up the p r o p h e t 's r o d , and so the c r i t i c 's argument i s i n v a l i d a t e d .
O th er c r i t i c s , such as N a t h a l i a W right ( " M e l v i l l e 's Use o f the B i b l e " ) , come up w it h t h is B i l l y / C h r i s t p a r a l l e l . She not o n ly does t h a t , but makes s t i l l an o th e r p a r a l l e l w it h the s t o r y o f Abraham and I s a a c ; but her p a r a l l e l cannot be pushed f a r w it h o u t
13
coming to a cul-de-sac^ and s he h e r s e l f reco g n izes t h a t .
The f i g u r e i s m oving, but the p a r a l l e l can be c a r r ie d no f u r t h e r . For I s a a c d i d not d i e . Even w a iv in g t h e fa c t th a t h is near s a c r i f i c e is a d e l i b e r a t e scheme o f the Old Testament J^ehovah, the o b e d ie n c e o f I s a a c and o f B i l l y Budd are two d i f f e r e n t t h in g s . I s a a c was not taken in t o Abraham 's c o n fid e n c e any more th an Abraham was tak e n i n t o J e h o v a h 's . A l l i s b lin d o b e d i e n c e , dep end ent on a je a lo u s and c a p r ic io u s d e it y ^ ® .
S in c e we are t a l k i n g about "g o in g too f a r , " some c r i t i c s r e a l l y do t h a t . Some a b s u r d it ie s can be found i n exam in ing
chard C h a s e 's " B i l l y B u d d , A n t i g o n e , c r i t i c s a y s .
c r i t i c i s m . As fo r exam p le , Ri and The W i n t e r 's T a l e . " The
And so we are enabled to f e e l t h a t B i l l y B u d d , though not q u it e s u c c e s s f u l as t r a g i c d ram a, remains m yth. I n t h is r e s p e c t , i t s k i n s h i p i s w i t h the la t e plays o f S h a k esp e are and w it h the New T e sta m e n t, i n i t s a f f ir m a t io n that out o f the d e a t h a f l i c t e d by n a tu re and s o c i e t y th e re is s u e s new l i f e ^ ^ .
I cannot p o s s i b l y ag ree w it h legend i t does not mean that i t i s r e q u ire d t h a t some cha
t h a t . W it h th e mere c r e a t io n o f a "t h e r e i s s u e s new l i f e . " For t h a t , :ige o f v a lu e s and b e h a v io r should a p p e a r , s in c e "new l i f e " means a r e b i r t h , and a r e b i r t h im p lie s the a c q u i s i t i o n o f new v a lu e s and not the p e r p e t u a t io n o f the old
Budd le a v e s no h e i r . W it h his d e a t h e v e r y t h in g goes back t o "n o r m a l ," t h a t i s , the r e p r e s s io n of
i n d i v i d u a l i t y . I t i s d i f f e r e n t from Moby-Dick and Heart o f
Darkness w here we have an Ish m a e l and a Marlow as th e h e ir s o f th e superm en, the c o n t in u a t io n o f th e c u lt o f i n d i v i d u a l i t y , a n d , i n o n e s. As I have s a i d , B i l l y th a t c a s e , "t h e r e is s u e s new B i l l y Budd (as w e l l as i n ^ c r i t i c c loses s a y in g th at C l a g g a r t 's d e a t h i l i f e . " T h is h e r it a g e i s m i s s in g i n e N ig g e r o f the " N a s c i s s u s . " ) . The _____________ _______-^s s u d d e n and f i n a l . C a p t a in V e re d ie s w ith o u t havir^g a c h ie v e d the fame t h a t m ight o t h e r w ise h ^ve come t o him . But "t h e fr e s h young image o f the Handsome S a i l o r " l iv e s on i n the h e a rt o f men^ ^ .
14
Y e s , but t h e r e i s no change o f b e h a v io r , th e re has been no d e ep e f f e c t i n the m en, t h e r e i s r o nom inal h e i r .
a b s u r d it i T here a re gross and O e d i p u s ," two c r i t i c s , H say the f o l l o w i n g : e s . I n an e s sa y e n t it l e d " B i l l y er b e r t W e is in g e r and A d r ie n J . J a f f e , L ik e O e d ip u s , Budd n a crime he d i d not
ust s u f f e r fo r the commission o f in te n d to commit and w hich w a s . m oreover, forced upon him . And l i k e O e d ip u s , B i l l y Budd r e c o g n ize s at
d e c i s i o n and c a lls y o u , [sic] C a p t a in
u n d e r s t a n d in g on B u d d 's p a rt the t ra g e d y would have no more mearãng tha
d is c o v e r in g t h a t De a d u lt e r y w it h Cassi Greek t r a g e d y , i s q p u lle d toward acqui V e r e 's d e c i s i o n i t as we know t h a t div
the end the j u s t i c e o f V e r e 's out b e fo r e h is d e a t h , "God b le ss V e r e ," fo r w ith o u t th is
n i f O t h e llo had d ie d w ith o u t sdemona was i n fa c t inn ocent o f
o . Thus the m oral o r d e r , as i n
u estio n e d as the human b e in g is t t i n g B i l l y B u d d , and then i n
i s a g a in reafir m e d and str e n g th e n e d in e law s t i l l p r e v a ils on e a r t h and th at e v e r y t h in g is i n i t s proper p l a c e . I t i s a harsh and d i f f i c u l t acceptance t h a t we must m a k e , one th at goes a g a in s t every f i v e r o f our human
f e e l i n g , but i t i s o f the v e r y n a tu re o f the problem t h a t t h is should be the way i t i s * ^ .
W e l l , ad i n t r o i t u m , th e re is no way o f com paring B i l l y to O edipus
except r e a c t i n s e lf- d e fe n c e
i t makes no s e n s e . B esid es t h e fa c t th a t Oedipus had a
p r iv il e g e d mind (the d e c ip h e r e r o f enigm as) and B i l l y i s t o t a l l y ig n o r a n t and n a i v e , t h e r e i s th e fa c t t h a t O edip us committed a s i n or a crim e (even t r y in g M s b e st to avoid com m itting i t ) ,
whereas B i l l y , as a m atter o f f a c t , does n o th in g wrong ( n a t u r a l l y ) , (which i s n a t u r a l ) . There i s a ls o the fa c t that O e d i p u s 's punishm ent was s e l f - i n f l i c t e d , w h e r e a s , i n B i l l y 's c a s e , i t i s imposed by an e x t e r n a l a u t h o r i t y . A no ther "h e r e s y " t h e s e c r i t i c s commi]: i s t h e i r absurd com parison o f B i l l y
B i l l y to O t h e l l o , they a r e , o f c o u r s e , comparing C la g g a rt to Desdem ona, and t h a t i s r i d i c u l o u s , s i n c e
Desdemona was n o ta b ly in n o c e n t (e r g o , O t h e llo was g u i l t y ) , but (e r g o , B i l l y i s i n n o c e n t ) . The end o f the q u o t a t io n (the p a rts I u n d e r lin e d ) a ls o shows t h a t t h e s e two c r i t i c s are v e r y f a t a l i s t i c and c o n s e r v a t iv e .
to O t h e l l o . I f they compare
15
M ilt o n R. Stern ("T h e Case For C a p t a in V e r e ") b rin g s back a g a in the i d e a o f Vere as a hero w it h an enormous c a p a c it y fo r s e l f - s a c r i f i c e , assuming th e " r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f command." And t h is s a c r i f i c e i s l o s t , as w e l l as " B i l l y B u d d 's f i n a l
r e a l i z a t i o n " w hich i s also lo c r i t i c is r ig h t when he says
s t , and "t h e c y c le c o n tin u e s "^**. The th a t e v e r y t h in g i s lo s t and that the c y c le c o n t in u e s , but he is wrong when he sees heroism i n e i t h e r B i l l y or V e r e .
O p p o s in g th is c r i t i c 's v i e w , th e re i s Leonard C a s p e r 's "The Case A g a in s t C a p ta in V e r e " ir
V e r e 's a t t i t u d e s . A n a ly s in g s ays ,
w h ic h he shows the demagogy o f the e p is o d e o f B i l l y 's t r i a l , C asper
The court- m artial i t s e l f i s im properly conducted by V e r e , w ho , as a w i t n e s s , should have d is r e g a r d e d h is r a n k ; yet he k n o w in g ly t e s t i f i e s from the s h i p 's w e a th e r s i d e . A f t $ r s e v e r a l moments o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n have p a s s e d , he s u d d e n ly term inates i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f m otives and circ\m stances and l im it s the c o u r t 's
judgem ent to the d e a t h blow i t s e l f . This is
tantam ount to h a v in g the cou rt- m artial s i t m erely as a c o r o n e r 's j u r y . They are to d e c id e t h e cause and c a u se r o f d e a t h , j’unishm ent fo llo w s i n e v i t a b l y . V e r e 's reported s tr a n g e n e s s o f manner re v ea ls th at M e l v i l l e i s c a r e f u l l y i n d i c a t i n g t h a t a l l t h is i s a m i s t r i a l , a m is c a r p ia g e o f j u s t i c e . The o f f i c e r s are shocked at the pre
u t teran ces ^ ^ .
S o , h e r e , the c r i t i c i s r ig h
judgement e v id e n t i n V e r e 's
:l y s u g g e s t in g t h a t t h e r e i s not much d i f f e r e n c e betw een V ere and C la g g a r t a f t e r a l l . S t i l l about
C a p t a in V e r e , the c r i t i c c lo se s t h is w a y :
H is d eath i s ;connected w i t h B i l l y ' s through an i n t e r e s t i n g and s u b t l e d e v i c e , an i r o n i c newspaper report o f the l a t t e r 's d e a t h . The r e p o r te r says th a t C l a g g a r t 's spilendid c h a r a c t e r r e fu t e s D r. J o h n s o n 's statem ent t h a t p a t r io t i s m i s the l a s t r e fu g e of a s c o u n d r e l . S in c e C la g g a r t i s a c t u a l l y a depraved p e r s o n , i t must be ob viou s th at M e l v i l l e 's o p in io n c o in c id e s w h o l l y w i t h D r . J o h n s o n 's . And S t a r r y V e r e , o f c o u r s e , i s the p r i n c i p a l p a t r io t i n the story2 6.
And I agree e n t i r e l y w it h hi m. * * *
L ik e M e l v i l l e 's B i l l y "N a s c i s s u s " a ls o arouses man
16
B u d d , C o n r a d 's The N ig g e r o f th e
they have v er y d i f f e r e n t opim ions about the author and h is w o r k . I a n W a t t , i n h is c r it
N in e t e e n t h C e n t u r y , i s hard on Conrad as f a r as l i t e r a r y tech niq ues o f n a r r a t iv e a re c o n c e r n e d .
r c o n t r o v e r s ie s among the c r i t i c s as
c a l b io g r a p h y Conrad i n the
Such c o l l e c t i v e s u b je c t s s u f f e r from at l e a s t one s e r io u s l i t e r a r y d x f f i c u l t y : the o r d in a r in e s s o f o r d in a r y l i f e . However w id e our sym pathies and i n t e r e s t s , i t i s d i f f i c u l t not to s t i f l e a yawn at the thought o f r e a d in g many pages docum enting how a group o f p e o p le y o r k h arm o niou sly t o g e th e r i n t h e i r normal q u o t i d i a n r o u t i n e . At the le v e l o f p l o t , as we have s e e n , C o n r a d 's s o l u t i o n o f the
v a r io u s e x c i t i n g or p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y e p i s o d e s ; but th e r e remained the an a p p r o p r ia t e n a r r a t iv e method he o r d in a r y l i f e o f the crew seem s im u lt a n e o u s ly r e a l , i n t e r e s t i n g , and r e p r e s e n t a t i v e . C o n r a d 's s o l u t io n was a s p e c i a l kin d o f p a r t ic ip a n t n a r r a t o r who fu n c t io n s as a c o l l e c t i v e v o i c e ^ ’ . problem was to add
a b s o r b in g in v en te d problem o f f i n d i n g w h ic h would make t:
W att i s , as we s e e , d e s c r i b i n g a v e r y s u p e r f i c i a l kind o f r e a d in g , The same k in d o f r e a d in g t h a t w ould tend to se e Moby-Dick as a mere adventure o f w h a l i n g .
The c r i t i c , and here lie i s r i g h t , p o in ts out flaw s i n the use made by Conrad o f a n a r r a t o r i n t h e n o v e l .
O nly a p a r t i c i p a n t , a member o f the c r e w , could p r o v id e th e necessjary s e n s o r y , e m o t io n a l, and
i n t e l l e c t u a l clo s e n e ss to th e l i f e o f the f o r e c a s t l e ; but no one perso n could p l a u s i b l y have access to so much e ls e ^ ® .
And he c a lls the r e a d e r 's a t t e n t io n to the i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s brought about by C o n r a d 's m a n ip u la tio n s o f the n a r r a t o r .
There are a ls o v a rio u s i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s o f a l o g i c a l k i n d , e s p e c i a l l y when the n a r r a t o r b r i e f l y goes i n t o the minds o f p a r t i c u l a r c h a r a c t e r s , as he does
o c c a s io n a l l y w it h W ait and D o n k i n , or when he m y s t e r io u s ly w it n e s s e s s cen e s w here o n ly c e r t a in s p e c i f i e d g h aracters w e r e p r e s e n t , as when Podmore and D onk in t a l k p r i v a t e l y to W a i t , or A l l i s t o u n to B aker i n the o f f i c e r 's c a b in ^ ® .
In terms o f form , I agree en i n t e r e s t i n g th at M e l v i l l e a l his B i l l y B u d d , though less
the s t r u c t u r a l i s t i c aspects p s y c h o lo g ic a l c o n t e n t s . And
17
t i r e l y w i t h him , o f c o u r s e , and i t i s 30 in c u r r e d the same in co n g ru e n ces i n e x t e n s i v e l y . But my a n a ly s is i n t h is t h e s is is fa r from b e in g fo r m a l; I am not in t e r e s t e d m erely i n
Df the n o v e l , but e s p e c i a l l y i n i t s W att has some i n s i g h t s i n t h is aspect t o o , i n c l u d i n g one s e e i n g D o n k in as a s o c i a l i s t , w it h w h ic h I agree com p letely .
W att c a lls a t t e n t io n to C o n r a d 's p l a y in g w i t h d a r k and lig h t s y m b o ls, show ing S i n g l e t o n , a lth o u g h I d o n 't e x a c t ly agree w it h h is i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .
C o n r a d 's most s i g n i f i c a n t v i s u a l a d d i t i o n i s "step p ed out o f hi
This a lso serves t sym bolic c o n tr a st c o n tr a st con tin ues
s l ig h t e d c a b in i n t o the d arkness
0
e s t a b l i s h the n o v e l 's c e n t r a l Detween l i g h t and d a r k n e s s . Thewhen we loo k at the f o r e c a s t l e : " i n the i l l u m in a t e d d o o r w a y s , s i l h o u e t t e s o f moving men appeared fo r a r e l i e f ; " the f i r s t moment, v e r y b l a c k , w ith o u t seaman we s e e c l e a r l y , "w i t h his s p e c t a c le s and a v e n e r a b l e w h i t e b e a r d ," is "O ld S i n g l e t o n , the oldjest able-seaman on the s h i p , set a p art on the d eck r ig h t under the l a m p s ." Baker has a lr e a d y b een connected w i t h the im agery o f l i g h t when he o rders a "goo d ^lamp" f o r the m u s t e r ; and i t is thro ugh B a k e r 's agency t h a t the men i n the f o r e c a s t l e come from the darkjness i n t o the la m p 's em blem atic c i r c l e o f l i g h t , ^nd a r e t h e r e fo r m a lly transform ed i n t o t h e crew o f the " N a s c i s s u s . " One m an, ho w e v e r, i s m i s s i n g . Then |an i n v i s i b l e l a t e a r r i v a l
pronounces the wor^d " W a i t ! " He comes down toward
B a k e r , but i s too |tall fo r t h e la m p lig h t to i l l u m i n a t e h is f a c e . The omi>nous m ystery i s o n ly d i s p e l l e d when th e s h i p 's "b o y , a,mazed l i k e the r e s t , r a is e d t h e l ig h t to th e m a n 's
Conrad makes W ait so t h a t d a rk n ess i s p h y s i c a l l y
f a c e . I t was b la c kII 3 0
e x p l i c i t l y connected w i t h d ark n e ss m a n ife s t e d i n him . But W att s p o ils e v e r y t h in g by r e d u c in g the u n iv e r s e o f W a i t 's symbology to a mere " f e a r o f d e a t h ."
W ait i s a sym bol, d e a t h , and t h e re fc human r e lu c t a n c e t o f a n t i c l i m a x , the th ey l a t e r w i l l th
Most o f th e crew b e l i e v e t h a t t h e i r b e h a v io r not o f d e a t h but o f the f e a r o f r e , more w i d e l y , o f the u n iv e r s a l o fa c e t h o s e most u n iv e r s a l agents
f a c t s ; and fa c ts fin d him o u t , as e c r e w , and everyo ne e ls e ,
18
towards Wait is d ic t a t e d by t h e i r g e n e r o s it y o f s p i r i t and t h e ir f e l l o w - f e e l i n g ; but th at i s s u r e ly the i l l u s i o n p r o je c te d by s e l f - p i t y at the thought o f t h e ir own m o r t a lit y ® ^.
O f course W ait i s much more than t h a t . F e a r o f d e a t h i s not the same as a w i s h fo r l i f e , and
n e g a tiv e e s p e c t , but also as
W ait canno t be s e e n as a mere
som ething p o s i t i v e : the s t r u g g l e to a s s e r t o n e 's i n d i v i d u a l i t y , o n e 's d i f f e r e n c e s , the things that set i n d i v i d u a l s a p a r t , make them o u t s t a n d i n g , make them u n iq u e . But W att i n s i s t s on r e g a r d in g e v e r y t h in g i n a t o t a l l y n e g a t iv e way.
The crew , t h e n , and t h e i r sy m b o lic r e p r e s e n t a t iv e S i n g l e t o n , seem to f e e l bound to n a tu r e o n ly i n the n e g a t iv e s e n s e that fo r the most p a r t they accept t h e i r common servil|:ude to i t s p o w e r. The o th er
q u e s t i o n , th at o f v/hether th e v i s i b l e world b in ds the men on the "N a s c i s s u s " to ea c h o t h e r , r e c e iv e s no more i n s p i r i n g answer^
W att a lso spots the d times o f calm i n the s e a , and
f f e r e n c e o f a t t i t u d e i n the crew i n i n the p e r io d s o f storm .
D u r in g th e g a le t h e crew have o t h e r things to t h in k about b e s id e s W a i t ; but w hen calm supervenes th e f u l l am bivalence o f t h e i r f e e l i n g s comes to a h e a d , and they are
m an, u r g in g them one w a y , and h o s t i l i t y to the s h i r k e r , p u n is h in g
And he n o tic e s th at when the
to rn b etw een p it y fo r the s i c k them th e o t h e r ^ ^ .
crew have t o s a v e W ait trapped i n h is c a b i n , they d e c id e t h a t s p o n t a n e o u s l y , w ith o u t b e in g ord ered by t h e ir h i e r a r c h i c a l l y s u p e r i o r s . T h e i r a ct i s c o l l e c t i v e , o f c o u r s e , but th e r e is a ls o an i n d i v i d u a l act o f Podm ore, the cook.
I n the sto rm , i t i s t r u e , the c r e w 's p sycho log y e x h i b i t s a m oral u n a n im ity w h ic h has a much more humanly a f f i r m a t i v e c h a r a c t e r than th at d e s c r ib e d by Le Bon. The s t r u c t u r e o f command, o f c o u r s e , i s s t i l l n e e d e d ; but some members o f the crew are a ls o shown as c a p a b le o f sp ontaneous c o l l e c t i v e and i n d i v i d u a l
e f f o r t , not on ly i n the r e sc u e o f Viait but a lso i n Podm ore's niiraculous p r o d u c t io n o f c o f f e e . Conrad p la c e s the storm i n t h e c e n t r a l p o s i t io n o f the
n a r r a t i v e , and t h i s , combined w i t h power o f the w r i t i n g , makes the so lid arijty e x h i b i t e d t h e r e the most p o w e rfu l
