Conservation in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest
MARCELO TABARELLI,
∗LUIZ PAULO PINTO,† JOS´
E M. C. SILVA,‡ M´
ARCIA HIROTA,
§
AND L ´
UCIO BEDˆ
E†
∗Departamento de Botˆanica, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Recife 50670-901, Pernambuco, Brasil, email mtrelli@ufpe.br †Conserva¸c˜ao Internacional—Brasil, Avenida Get´ulio Vargas 1300, Belo Horizonte 30112-021, Minas Gerais, Brasil
‡Conserva¸c˜ao Internacional—Brasil, Avenida Nazar´e 541/310, Bel´em 66035-170, Par´a, Brasil
§Funda¸c˜ao SOS Mata Atlˆantica, Rua Manoel da N´obrega 456, S˜ao Paulo 04001-001, S˜ao Paulo, Brasil
Abstract: With endangered status and more than 8,000 endemic species, the Atlantic Forest is one of the world’s 25 biodiversity hotspots. Less than 100,000 km2(about 7%) of the forest remains. In some areas of
endemism, all that is left are immense archipelagos of tiny and widely separated forest fragments. In addition to habitat loss, other threats contributing to forest degradation include the harvesting of firewood, illegal logging, hunting, plant collecting, and invasion by alien species—all despite the legislation that exists for the forest’s protection. More than 530 plants and animals occurring in the forest are now officially threatened, some at the biome level, some throughout Brazil, and some globally. Many species have not been recorded in any protected areas, indicating the need to rationalize and expand the parks system. Although conservation initiatives have increased in number and scale during the last two decades, they are still insufficient to guarantee the conservation of Atlantic Forest biodiversity. To avoid further deforestation and massive species loss in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest, the challenge is to integrate the diverse regulations, public policies, new opportunities, and incentive mechanisms for forest protection and restoration and the various independent projects and programs carried out by governments and nongovernmental organizations into a single and comprehensive strategy for establishing networks of sustainable landscapes throughout the region.
Retos y Oportunidades para la Conservaci´on de Biodiversidad en el Bosque Atl´antico Brasile˜no
Resumen: En peligro y con m´as de 8,000 especies end´emicas, el Bosque Atl´antico es uno de los 25 sitios de importancia para la conservaci´on de biodiversidad en el mundo. Actualmente quedan menos de 100,000 km2
(cerca de 7%) de bosque. En algunas ´areas de endemismo, lo ´unico que queda son inmensos archipi´elagos de fragmentos de bosque peque˜nos y muy aislados. Adicionalmente a la p´erdida de h´abitat, otras amenazas que contribuyen a la degradaci´on del bosque incluyen – a pesar de la legislaci´on existente para la protecci´on del bosque – la recolecci´on de le˜na, la tala ilegal, la cacer´ıa, la recolecci´on de plantas y la invasi´on de especies ex´oticas. M´as de 530 especies de plantas y animales ah´ı presentes est´an amenazadas oficialmente, algunas a nivel de bioma, algunas en Brasil y algunas globalmente. Muchas especies no han sido registradas en ning´un ´
area protegida, lo que indica la necesidad de racionalizar y expandir el sistema de parques. Aunque las iniciativas de conservaci´on han aumentado en n´umero y escala durante las dos ´ultimas d´ecadas, aun son insuficientes para garantizar la conservaci´on de la biodiversidad del Bosque Atl´antico Brasile˜no. El reto, para evitar mayor deforestaci´on y p´erdida masiva de especies en el Bosque Atl´antico Brasile˜no, es integrar a las diversas regulaciones, pol´ıticas p´ublicas, nuevas oportunidades y mecanismos para incentivar la protecci´on y restauraci´on del bosque y los diversos proyectos y programas independientes llevados a cabo por los gobiernos y organizaciones no gubernamentales en una estrategia amplia y ´unica para el establecimiento de redes de paisajes sustentables en toda la regi´on.
The Atlantic Forest
The Atlantic Forest is the second largest rainforest of the American continent, once stretching almost continuously along the Brazilian coast and extending inland in the south and into eastern Paraguay and northeastern Argentina. In the past, it covered more than 1.5 million km2—92% of it in Brazil (Funda¸c˜ao SOS Mata Atlˆantica & INPE 2001; Galindo-Leal & Cˆamara 2003). It is one of the world’s 25 biodiversity hotspots. Even though it has been largely destroyed, it is still home to more than 8000 endemic species of vascular plants, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals (Myers et al. 2000).
Extremely heterogeneous in composition, the Atlantic Forest extends from 4◦to 32◦S and covers a wide range of climatic belts and vegetation formations, from trop-ical to subtroptrop-ical. Elevation ranges from sea level to 2900 m, with abrupt changes in soil type and depth and average air temperature (Mantovani 2003). Longitu-dinal variation is also marked. Forests further inland are increasingly seasonal, with average annual rainfall drop-ping from 4000 mm to 1000 mm in some areas of the Serra do Mar (Oliveira-Filho & Fontes 2000; Mantovani 2003). Along with the tropical rainforest, the Atlantic For-est encompasses mixed Araucaria pine forFor-ests and dis-tinct Lauraceae-dominated forest in the south and decidu-ous and semidecidudecidu-ous forests inland. A number of asso-ciated formations include mangroves, restingas (coastal forest and scrub on sandy soils), high-elevation grassland (campo rupestre), and brejos (humid forests resulting from orographic rainfall in otherwise semidesert scrub in the northeast of Brazil; Cˆamara 2003).
The history of the Atlantic Forest has been marked by periods of connection with other South American forests (e.g., Amazon and Andean forests) that resulted in biotic interchange, followed by periods of isolation that led to geographic speciation (Silva et al. 2004). Consequently, the forest’s biota is composed of both old ( pre-Pliocene) and young (Pleistocene) species (Silva & Casteleti 2003), and a number of areas of endemism (defined by both old and young species) have been identified (Silva et al. 2004). Although the extent and the current location of these ar-eas are still controversial, at lar-east five can be recognized based on the distribution of terrestrial vertebrates and plants: Brejos Nordestinos, Pernambuco, Central Bahia, Coastal Bahia, and Serra do Mar, all in Brazil (Silva & Casteleti 2003; Silva et al. 2004).
Habitat Loss
More than 93% of the original forest is already gone (My-ers et al. 2000), and <100,000 km2 of vegetation re-mains. Some areas of endemism, such as Pernambuco, now have <5% of their original forest (Galindo-Leal &
Cˆamara 2003). Ten percent of its remaining cover was lost just between 1989 and 2000, despite considerable investments in surveillance and protection (A. Amarante, unpublished data). Covering enormous areas, remaining forest has been reduced to immense archipelagos of small to tiny, widely separated forest fragments (Gascon et al. 2000). Forests in the northeast were already largely dev-astated (cattle ranching and timber shipped to Europe) in the sixteenth century (Coimbra-Filho & Cˆamara 1996). Dean (1996) identified the proximal causes of habitat loss: overexploitation of forest resources by human popula-tions (timber, fruits, firewood, poaching) and the expro-priation of land for human activities ( pasture, agriculture, and silviculture). Brazilian government subsidies have fu-eled agricultural expansion, stimulating high-yield agricul-ture (sugar, coffee, and soybean; Galindo-Leal et al. 2003; Young 2003). Forest clearance has been especially severe in the last three decades; 11,650 km2of forest have been lost in the last 15 years (2.84 km2per day; Funda¸c˜ao SOS Mata Atlˆantica & INPE 2001; Hirota 2003).
Deforestation rates defy the legislation that exists to protect the Brazilian Atlantic Forest. The Forest Code of 1965 requires that 20% of the area of any rural property in the region be managed as a legal forest reserve (reserva legal) and that gallery forest (the width determined by the width of the river) and forest on steep slopes (for example) be areas of permanent protection (areas de protec¸˜ao permanente) and preserved as such (Schaffer & Prochnow 2002). Federal Decree 750 of 1993 delim-ited the Brazilian Atlantic Forest and its associated ecosys-tems and determined that any logging, forest cutting, or disturbance requires prior permission by the appropriate government agencies (reviewed by Cˆamara 2003).
Many threats persist despite this legal protection; for example, there is a permanent lobby to expand agricul-tural lands ( by changing the legislation governing the le-gal forest reserve), residential areas, and land settlements. From 1985 to 1998, for example, the National Institute for Colonization and Agrarian Reform (INCRA) converted 50 large rural properties into land settlements, resulting in the clearance of at least 150 km2of forest—10% of the
re-maining forest in southern Bahia (Rocha 2002). Despite recent improvements in staff capacity, the Brazilian In-stitute for the Environment (IBAMA) and state agencies are still generally unable to penalize offenders with any alacrity, and only a negligible portion of fines are ever paid (Laurance 1999).
In addition to the relentless loss of habitat, the remain-ing forests continue to be degraded through the harvest-ing of firewood, illegal loggharvest-ing, collection of plants and plant products, and invasion by alien species (Galetti & Fernandez 1998; Tabarelli et al. 2004). Poaching contin-ues to deplete wildlife even within protected areas in the regions that contain the last few large forest rem-nants, such as the cacao-growing region of southern Bahia and the coastal mountain ranges (Serra do Mar) in Rio de
Janeiro, S˜ao Paulo, and Paran´a (Chiarello 1999; Cullen Jr. et al. 2000; M. Galetti, personal communication).
The majority of the species officially threatened with extinction in Brazil are inhabitants of the Atlantic Forest (Tabarelli et al. 2003). Currently, more than 530 plants, birds, mammals, reptiles, and amphibians of the Atlantic Forest are threatened—some at the biome level, some at the country level, and the endemic species at the global level. It is reasonable to speculate that as global warming occurs and habitats change, this already alarm-ing number of threatened species will increase because the widespread fragmentation of the Atlantic Forest lim-its species migration and colonization necessary for the long-term persistence of their populations.
Conservation Status
The Brazilian Atlantic Forest is probably one of the South American regions with the highest number of strictly pro-tected areas ( parks, reserves, ecological stations, and pri-vate reserves)—more than 600 new areas were created during the last 40 years (Fonseca et al. 1997; Galindo-Leal & Cˆamara 2003). Large numbers alone are insuffi-cient, however. The system is far from adequate: (1) pro-tected areas cover <2% of the entire biome; (2) strictly protected areas ( World Conservation Union’s [IUCN] cat-egories I and II) protect only 24% of the remnants; (3) most are too small (about 75% of protected areas are<100 km2) to guarantee long-term species persistence (Silva &
Tabarelli 2000); and (4) among the 104 threatened verte-brate species, 57 have not been recorded in any protected area (Paglia et al. 2004).
The fragility of the Atlantic Forest protected area sys-tem is not restricted to its extent and distribution. The lack of trained staff and adequate financing in govern-ment environgovern-mental agencies severely limits protected area management (Fonseca et al. 1997), and there is conflict with indigenous and local communities over a number of protected areas, both within and around park boundaries (Arruda 1997; Rocha 1997; Galetti 2001). In-digenous peoples have claims that overlap a large number of protected areas in Brazil, notably in two key parks in the Atlantic Forest (Monte Pascoal National Park and Ilha do Cardoso State Park; Galetti 2001).
Much of what is left to preserve in the Atlantic Forest is on private land (Rambaldi & Oliveira 2003), and the estab-lishment of a large and well-designated network of private reserves is now recognized as indispensable in the protec-tion of the region’s biodiversity. The Reservas Particulares do Patrimˆonio Natural (RPPN) is an official protected area category that private landowners can create voluntarily and in perpetuity. There are now 443 RPPNs in the At-lantic Forest, totaling almost 1000 km2(Vieira & Mesquita 2004). Several, such as the RPPN Frei Caneca in Pernam-buco, which protects one of the two known populations
of the critically endangered Alagoas Foliage-Gleaner (Phi-lydor novaesi) and a number of other threatened birds (Barnett et al. 2003), are of global importance.
Reversing current levels of habitat loss and fragmen-tation will require improved law enforcement and inno-vative incentive mechanisms, including those aimed at alleviating poverty and promoting social development. This is essential because more than 100 million people live in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest (Funda¸c˜ao SOS Mata Atlˆantica & INPE 2001; Hirota 2003), and most forest frag-ments are privately owned (Rambaldi & Oliveira 2003). One promising instrument is fiscal compensation, based on area under official protection, given by states to mu-nicipalities (ecological ICMS). Since the state of Paran´a adopted a program of this sort, the number of protected areas in the state increased by 165% (Alger & Lima 2003). This initiative is expected to enhance the interest of de-cision makers in creating new protected areas and in im-plementing and improving the management and admin-istration of existing protected areas (Alger & Lima 2003). Further public policies, incentive mechanisms, and eco-nomic opportunities (including the Kyoto Protocol) for the protection and restoration of the Atlantic Forest have been developed recently (Alger & Lima 2003).
Major Conservation Initiatives
The massive wave of industrialization, economic develop-ment, and environmental degradation that began in Brazil in the 1950s has, since the mid-1970s, resulted in a surge in concern and actions dealing with now grave environ-mental issues, particularly in terms of effective mecha-nisms for protecting biodiversity. Initiatives are emerg-ing from public policies and from an escalatemerg-ing involve-ment of nongoverninvolve-mental organizations (NGOs) ( Jacobi 2003). A brief review of the major conservation programs, projects, and investments in the Atlantic Forest is in Criti-cal Ecosystem Partnership Fund (2001). Here we mention a few.
The National Biodiversity Program is a biome-level conservation-planning initiative, launched in 1996 by the Brazilian Ministry of the Environment and supported by the World Bank and the Global Environment Facility. An important component of this strategy is the Project for the Conservation and Sustainable Use of Brazilian Biological Diversity (PROBIO), for which the Ministry of the Envi-ronment has partnered with numerous organizations— universities, research centers, and NGOs—to establish priority areas for conservation in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest. For the Atlantic Forest and southern grasslands, the project involved more than 200 scientists, who mapped 182 priority areas for biodiversity conservation and outlined essential measures required for the protec-tion of its unique biota (Conservaprotec-tion Internaprotec-tional do Brasil et al. 2000). The results of this project consolidated
a strategy for conservation action at the landscape level that fosters the creation of biodiversity corridors (Sander-son et al. 2003) in three regions: fragments in northeast-ern Brazil (the Pnortheast-ernambuco Corridor) and southnortheast-ern Bahia and Esp´ırito Santo (the Central Corridor), and corridors uniting the montane forests of Rio de Janeiro and S˜ao Paulo (the Serra do Mar Corridor) (Conservation Interna-tional do Brasil et al. 2000; Fonseca et al. 2004).
The Atlantic Forest is also benefiting through a specific subprogram of the Pilot Program to Conserve the Brazilian Rain Forest (PP-G7), an international initiative approved and supported by the Group of Seven (G7) countries in 1991 (MMA 2004). Although the poor cousin to the Ama-zonian components, it has resulted in various bilaterally financed conservation projects (so-called demonstrative projects) in a number of states in the south and southeast. An action plan for the conservation of the Atlantic Forest was first drawn up by the SOS Atlantic Forest (Funda¸c˜ao SOS Mata Atlˆantica), S˜ao Paulo, in 1991 (Cˆamara 1991), but a subsequent plan was produced specifically for the PP-G7 in 1998 and approved by the Brazilian govern-ment and PP-G7 participants, including the World Bank, in 1999. The result was a decision, in 2000, to step up investment in this subprogram, initially with the creation of an advisory nucleus for environmental planning in the Atlantic Forest (N´ucleo Assessor de Planejamento da Mata Atlˆantica [NAPMA]) within the MMA’s Secretariat for Bio-diversity and Forests. A frenetic agenda of meetings, semi-nars, and workshops resulted in NAPMA producing a pro-posal for the PP-G7 Atlantic Forest subprogram. In this proposal, the principal stated objectives are (1) conserve biodiversity in the Atlantic Forest, (2) promote the sus-tainable and fair use of its natural resources, and (3) pro-mote measures for its restoration (MMA 2004).
Two major, regional, conservation planning initiatives are continuing in the Atlantic Forest. One is the imple-mentation of the Central Biodiversity Corridor in Esp´ırito Santo and southern Bahia, which is sponsored by the World Bank through the PP-G7 Atlantic Forest subpro-gram in collaboration with Ministry of the Environment, state environmental agencies, and NGOs (Fonseca et al. 2004). This corridor embraces 8500 km2 of one of the
world’s most species-rich regions (Thomas et al. 1998; Fonseca et al. 2004). The second is the implementation of the Atlantic Forest Biosphere Reserve, created in stages from 1993 to 2001, which extends through 14 Brazilian states and covers 29473484 ha. The essential strategies and objectives are the same—to develop conservation policies and create and manage protected areas on a land-scape scale (Corrˆea 1995).
At the site level, we highlight the Brazilian World Natu-ral Heritage Sites Program, a 10-year initiative supported by the U.N. Education Scientific and Cultural Organization and a pool of Brazilian institutions. Three of the seven sites in Brazil are in the Atlantic Forest: the Igua¸cu National Park (1986; 185,262 ha); Atlantic Coast Southeast Reserves,
which includes 29 protected areas (1999; 1,691,750 ha); and the Discovery Coast Atlantic Forest Reserves, which includes eight protected areas (1999; 111,930 ha). This program seeks to develop mechanisms to support key protected areas and to promote training, awareness, and capacity building for the local communities. The second large initiative is promoted by the German Kreditanstalt f¨ur Wiederaufbau Bank in close partnership with some state agencies of southeastern and southern Brazil. This initiative has involved a major investment in the imple-mentation of a number of protected areas in the states of Paran´a and S˜ao Paulo. Currently, the states of Minas Gerais, Santa Catarina, and Rio Grande do Sul are also benefiting. Initiatives focused on the protection of threatened and flagship species have a long history in the Atlantic Forest. At present, among the most visible and successful are the conservation programs for the four lion tamarins (Leonto-pithecus) and the muriqui monkeys (Brachyteles) (Strier 1999; Kleiman & Rylands 2002). Since the early 1980s, they have matured from focusing on saving an endan-gered species to focusing on broad multidisciplinary con-servation programs. These programs have yielded impor-tant insights and innovations for designing community-level conservation strategies, including technical capac-ity building (e.g., Valladares-Padua et al. 2002; Proc´opio de Oliveira & Rambaldi 2003).
The CEPF was launched in 2002 to safeguard threat-ened biodiversity hotspots in developing countries. It is supporting projects in the Atlantic Forest that approach the spatial relationships of land use and public and pri-vate protected areas, and the dynamics of forest fragments (CEPF 2001). Within three broad programs (species pro-tection, support for private reserves, and institutional strengthening), support has been specifically provided for (1) innovative economic incentives for conservation; (2) expansion of the protected area system within the bio-diversity corridors mentioned previously; (3) implemen-tation of biodiversity corridor conservation strategies; (4) studies to fill gaps in biodiversity knowledge; and (5) pub-lic awareness of biodiversity issues. Particular emphasis is placed on ensuring that the initiatives supported com-plement existing strategies and frameworks established by local, regional, and national governments.
The Way Forward
Although the number and scale of conservation initiatives have grown considerably during the last few decades, they are still insufficient to guarantee the conservation of the Atlantic Forest’s biodiversity. Effective law enforce-ment is needed as a basic foundation of any conservation strategy. Particularly important is the implementation of the Forest Code, requiring protection and/or the restora-tion of “legal forest reserves” and “areas of permanent
protection” on all proprieties. This would significantly increase the amount of forest habitat under protection and ensure that rural properties comply with social and environmental goals set forward in the Brazilian Federal Constitution (Alger & Lima 2003). To avoid further defor-estation and massive species loss in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest, the challenge is to integrate the diverse regula-tions and public policies, new opportunities and incen-tive mechanisms for forest protection and restoration, and various independent projects and programs carried out by governments and NGOs into a single and comprehen-sive strategy for establishing networks of sustainable land-scapes throughout the region (Galindo-Leal 2003; Ram-baldi & Oliveira 2003). Such networks, which have been called biodiversity corridors, represent the basic founda-tion of any effective strategy of biodiversity conservafounda-tion in highly fragmented biomes (Sanderson et al. 2003).
An integrated strategy to implement networks of sus-tainable landscapes along the Brazilian Atlantic Forest should follow five general guidelines. First, conservation actions must be planned based on natural boundaries (conservation priority areas or biodiversity corridors), rather than political boundaries (municipalities or states). Second, full collaboration between government agencies and other partners is vital for the design and implementa-tion of sustainable landscapes. Third, large conservaimplementa-tion corridors should be anchored on a greatly expanded sys-tem of protected areas. Fourth, the restoration of gallery forests is fundamental to establishing connectivity among forest patches and as a means to guarantee that critical water resources are maintained in the region. Finally, the implementation of networks of sustainable landscapes should be monitored using the best-available biological, social, and economic performance indicators to ensure that resources are used effectively.
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