A Territorial Contradiction

(1)

|NSTTTUTO DE C|ÊNCTAS SOCTA|S

15ÞGAü,qx

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BIBTIOTECA

Editorial

Committee Paola Pittalugø Silvia Serreli

Roberto

Gambino

.

Attilia

Editors

Project Assistants Monica Johansson Laura Lutzoni

Aims and Scope

urban _{and Landscape perspectives}

is a series which _{aims at}_nurturing_theoretic_refl ection on the

cirv

_{and rhe reruirory und}

_ro.king

_our

and

_{*;üi;;,n"rhods}

_and techniques _{for improving}_{our physical}

and social landscapes. The main issue in _{the series is developed around the}

projectual dimension, with the objective of _{visualising both}_the

_cityìnd

_trre

tenitory from a _{particular viewpoint,} which _{singles out the}_territorial

¿imension a, the city,s space of communication _and negotiation.

The

series

_will

face emerging _{problems that}_characterise

the dynamics

of

city development,

_like

_the_new,

_fresl

relations between urban societies and physical space' the right to rhe ciry, urban equiry, _{rhe projecr}_for_rhe

orrrrlî"iär,

as a means to reveal civitas, signs ofnew _{sociai cohesiveness, the}_sense

ofcontemporary _public space and the sustainability _of_{urban development.}

concerned

_with

_{advancing theories}

on

the

city,

the _{series resolves}

_to

_welcome articles that feature a plurarism

_{of disciplinari}

_{contributions studying}

formal and

informal _{practices on}_{theproject tor}

ttre city

uía

,""ting

_{conceptuar and operative}

categories capabre

_of

understanding _and_facing_the

_proll"-,

iirrr*""i

in

the pro_ found transformations _{of .ontempoiary}

u.Uun ìunor"up"r.

More information about this series at http:fwww.springer.com/s _eries/7

906

Nature

Policies

and

Landscape

Policies

Towards

an

Alliance

-à

(2)

Editors

Robefto Gambino Attilia Peanot

Interuniversity Department of Regional and Urban Studies and

Planning (DIST)

Politecnico and Università di Torino Turin

Italy

ISBN978-3-319-05409-4

_{rSBN978-3_319_05410_0(eBook)}

DOr I 0. 1 007/97 8_3 _3 19 -05 4 t0 _0

Springer Cham Heidelberg New york _{Dordrecht London}

Library of Congress Control Number: 2014955441

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With great

affiction

we remember

Attilia

Peano

_-

_former

Full

Professor

in

Town and

Regíonal

Planning

at

the

Politecnico di

Torino

(DISI)

and

CEN

PPN

Director

_-

and

the

precious contributions

she has given

during

the course

of her

liþ

in

the

_{field of}

urban

planning,

landscape

planning,

and

nature

and

cultural

heritage

conservation,

being a

protagonist

in

the debate

on

these

topics

at national

and

international

level.

Her

death (18th

August

2013)

interrupted

her

participútion in

several research

activities

which

are

still on7oin7,

and, in

particular,

in

the

international

research,

that

has been

cqrried

on by the

CED

PPN since 2010,

concerning

the

relationship

between

Landscape

policies

and

Nature

Conservation

policies.

This book

is

the outcome

of this

CED

PPN

research, and we

would

like to

dedicate

it

to

our

_friend

and colleague

Attilía,

hoping in

this

way to

remember her

passion

and her

valuable guide

in

_facing

the subject here

presented.

(3)

xvl Abbreviations

Special Conservation Zones

Strategic Environmental Assessment Sustainable Energy Action Plan National Strategy for Biodiversity

Special Protection Areas

Sustainable Urban Metabolism for Europe project The Economics of Ecosvstems and Biodiversity

Travel Cost Method United Nations

United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (2008)

United Nations Environment Programme

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization European Network of Universities for the Implementation

of

European Landscape Convention

United Nations World Tourism Organization U.S. National Park Service

Venture Capital

\ù/orld _Business_Council_forSustainable Development IUCN World Commission on Protected Areas Vy'orld Database Protected Areas

V/orld Heritage Sites

World Network of Biosphere Reserves

World V/ide Fund for Nature

Zone naturelle d'intérêt écologique, faunistique et floristique/ Inventory of natural zones of ecological, faun and floristic interest Zone de Protection du Patrimoine Architectural, Urbain et PaysagerlZone of Protection for Architectural, Urban and Landscape Patrimony

Introduction:

Reasoning on Parks and Landscapes Roberto Gambino

Part

I

New Paradigms

2 Nature

Conservation and Landscapes: An

Introduction

to the Issues

Adrian PhilliPs

3 Bringing

Together

Nature

and

Culture: Integrating

a Landscape a,pproaõn

inProtected

Areas Policy and Practice

Jessica Brown

4

The Place of Protected Areas

in

the European Landscape:

A

EUROPARC Federation Perspective

'

' '

'

Carol Ritchie

5 From Park-Centric

Conservation to Whole-Landscape Conservation

in

the USA

_'

'

Paul

M.

BraY

6

Ecological Functions,

Biodiversity

and Landscape

Conservation...

'

Gioia Gibelli and Riccardo Santolini

7 ^Territorial

Contradiction

_{" "}

Riccardo Guarino, P attizia Menegoni, Sandro Pignatti'

and Sirnone Tulumello

8

Legal Frameworks

for Nature

Conservation and Landscape Protection Carlo Desideri SCZs SEA SEAP SNB SPAs SUME TEEB TCM UN UNDRIP UNEP UNESCO UNISCAPE UNWTO USNPS VC WBCSD WCPA WDPA WHS WNBR WV/F ZNIEFF ZPPAUP

I

t

25 JJ 43 51 59 69 1'7 xvll

(4)

xix 191 201 207 2t'7 223 233 243 251 261 269 27"1 283 85 93 18

t9

20 XVIII

9

Beyond Gardens and Nature Reserves: Contemporaneous Landscapes

Jennifer Buyck and Teodoro C. Vales

10 From

the

Territory

to the Landscape: The Image as a Tool

for

Discovery

Claude Raffestin

Part

II

From

Nature to Landscape and Back

11,

Biosphere Reserves and Protected Areas:

A

Liaison Dangereuse

or

a

Mutually

Beneficial

Relationship?.

. . . .

Giorgio Andrian and Massimo Tufano

12

Connecting the

Alpine

Protected Areas

in

a Wide Ecological

Infrastructure: Opportunities from

a Legal Point of View

. . . .

.

Paolo Angelini

13

Protected Areas,

Natura

2000 Sites and Landscape: Divergent Policies on Converging Values

Bernardino Romano and Francesco

Zullo

14

Regional Planning

for Linking

Parks and Landscape: Innovative Issues .

Angioletta Voghera

15

Landscape and Protected

Natural

Areas: Laws and Policies

in Italy

Renzo Moschini

16 Evolution

of Concepts and Tools

for

Landscape Protection and

Nature Conservation.

. . .

Mariolina Besio

t7

Nature Conservation

in

the

Urban

Landscape

Planning.

. . . .

Luigi

La Riccia

Protection of

Peri-urban Agricultural

Landscapes: Vegas and Deltas

in

Andalucía

Rocío Pérez-Campaña and Luis Miguel Valenzuela-Montes

Linking

Nature

Conservation: Switzerland's Experience

with

Protected

Mire

Landscapes

.

Thomas Hammer and Marion Leng

Putting

the Park-Landscape Alliance to the Test: Protected Landscapes as a

Proving Ground

Emma Salizzoni Contents 105 119 127 131

t45

149 157 165 173 181 Contents

2l

Participatory

Planning Tools

for

Ecotourism

in

Protected Areas of Morocco and

Tunisia: A First

Experience

Carla Danelutti, Ángeles De Andrés Caramés, Concha Olmeda, and Almudena De Velasco Menéndez

22 Tourism

and ConserYation

in

Protected Areas:

An

Economic Perspective

Massimiliano Coda Zabetta

23 Participation

and Regional Governance.

A Crucial

Research Perspective on Protected Areas Policies

in Austria

and Switzerland

Norbert Vy'eixlbaumer, Dominik Siegrist, Ingo Mose, and Thomas Hammer

24 Old

and New Conservation Strategies:

From

Parks to

Land

Stewardship

Federica Barbera, Marzio Marzorati, and Antonio Nicoletti

25

Between Nature and Landscape: The Role of

Community

Towards an Active Conservation

in

Protected Areas Rita Salvatore

26

The

Contractual Communities' Contribution to Cultural

and

Natural

Resource

Management.

. . . .

Grazia Brunetta

27

The Concept of

Limits in

Landscape Planning and Design

.

_'

.

Francesca Mazzino

28

Landscape and Ecosystem Approach to Biodiversity

Conservation....

Franco

Feroni,

Monica Foglia, and Giulio

Cioffi

29 Biodiversity

and Landscape Policies: Towards an

Integration?

A

European Overview

Bianca Maria Seardo

30 From P-Arks

to P-Hubs

Paolo Pigliacelli and Corrado

Teofili

31

The experience

ofthe

European Landscape Observatory

of

Arco Latino

Domenico Nicoletti

32

Crosscutting Issues

in Treating

the Fragmentation

of

Ecosystems and Landscapes. . .

(5)

XX

33 Multi-scalar

and

Inter-sectorial

Strategies

for Environment

and Landscape

Paolo Castelnovi

34

Urban Landscapes _{and Nature}

in

Planning and Spatial Strategies

Massimo Sargolini

35

Integrated Planning

for

Biodiversity

Conservation....

Alessandro Tosini

36 An

Assessment of the Role of Protected Landscapes

in

Conserving

Biodiversity in

Europe

Nigel Dudley and Sue Stolton

37

Lessons Learned

from

U.S. Experience

with

Regional Landscape Governance:

Implications for

Conservation and Protected Areas .

Daniel Laven, Nora J. Mitchell, Jennifer Jewiss, and Brenda Barrett

38 Park,

Perception and the Web

Caterina Franchini and Elena Greco

39

Landscape Scenic Values: Protection and Management

from

a Spatial-Planning Perspective .

Claudia Cassatella

40

European

Cultural

Routes: A Tool

for

Landscape Enhancement Silvia Beltramo

4l

Economic

Valuation

of Landscape at Risk:

A

Critical

Review Marina Bravi and Emanuela Gasca

42

Towards an

Integrated

Economic Assessment of Landscape

i'r

_{Marta Bottero, Valentina Ferretti,}_and_{Giulio Mondini}

43

Protected Areas:

Opportunities for

Decentralized Financial

Mechanisms?....

Luca Cetara

Part

III

Experiences and Practices

44

The Langhe Landscape Changes

Danilo Godone, Matteo Garbarino, Emanuele Sibona, Gabriele Garnero, and Franco Godone

45 Cultural

Landscape and Royal

Historical

System

in

Piedmont Region

I|¡4aÅaGrazia Vinardi

Contents

46

Regional Management Tools at Local Level: The Po and

Orba

Regional

River Park

Franca Deambrogio and Dario Zocco

47

The Landscapes

ofthe

Portofino Nature Regional

Park

_'

. .

.

Franca Balletti and Silvia SoPPa

48

The

Alpi

Liguri

Nature Regional

Park.

.

Adriana Ghersi

49

Towards the

Park

of Florence

Hills

. .

Gabriele Corsani and Emanuela

Morelli

50

Protected Area Planning,

Institution

and Management

in Apulia

Region

Nicola

Martinelli

and Marianna Simone

51

The

Environmental

Issue

in Sicity.

Ignazia Pinzello

52

Revitalising the

Historical

Landscapez Tlr,e Grønge

in

Southern Europe

Claudia Matoda

53

Nature, Landscape and Energy: The Energy

Masterplan of

Emilia-Romagna Po Delta Regional

Park

Anna Natali and Francesco Silvestri

54

How to Manage Conflicts Between Resources'

Exploitation

and

Identity

Values

Mariavaleria

Mininni

55

Planning and Management

in

the Otranto-Leuca

Nature Park.

Annalisa Calcagno Maniglio and Marianna Simone

56 A

Regional Planning

for

Protected Areas of Sustainable Development

in

the

Mercantour

and

Maritime

Alps Marco Valle and Maria Giovanna Dongiovanni

Erratum to

Chapter 23:

Participation

and Regional Governance.

A Crucial

Research Perspective on Protected Areas Policies

in Austria

and

Switzerland.

. .

Index.

Contents xxi 409 415 423 43r 439 441 455 461 469 419 487 E1 493 291 299 301 315 323 331

34t

353 361 311 381 393 401

(6)

Contributors

L{

Giorgio

Andrian

Formerly LINESCO office, Padua,Italy

Paolo

Angelini

Italian Ministry for the Environment, Land and Sea, Rome, Italy

Franca

Balletti

Department

of

Sciences

for

Architecture, Polytechnic School,

University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy

Federica

Barbera

Protected Areas Department, Legambiente Onlus, Rome, Italy Brenda

Barrett

Living

Landscape Observer, Harrisburg, PA' USA

Silvia Beltramo

Interuniversity Department

of

Regional and Urban Studies and Planning (DIST), Politecnico and Università di Torino, Turin, Italy

Mariolina Besio

Deparlment

of

Sciences

for

University of Genoa, Genoa, ItalY

Sergio

Bongiovanni

GIS Consultant, Turin, Italy

Marta

Bottero

of

Regional and Urban Studies and Planning (DIST), Politecnico and Università di Torino, Turin,

Italy

Marina

Bravi

Interuniversity Depaftment

of

Paul

M. Bray

Albany University (Retired), Albany,

NY'

USA

Jessica

Brown

New England Biolabs Foundation, Ipswich,

MA'

USA IUCN-WCPA Specialist Group on Protected Landscapes, Ipswich,

MA'

USA

Grazia

Brunetta

Interuniversity Department of Regional and Urban Studies and Planning (DIST), Politecnico and Università di Torino, Turin,

Italy

Jennifer Buyck

Institute d'Urbanisme de Grenoble, Grenoble, France

Claudia

Cassatella Interuniversity Department

of

(7)

xxlv Contributors

Paolo

Castelnovi

ex-Politecnico di Torino, Turin, Italy

Luca Cetara

European Academy of Bolzano, Representing Office, Rome, Italy

Giulio

Cioffi

CREDIA WWF, Fiuminata,

MC,Italy

Gabriele

Corsani

Department of Architecture, University of Florence, Florence,

Italy

Carla Danelutti IUCN

Center for Mediterranean Cooperafion, Málaga, Spain

Ángeles

De

Andrés

Caramés ECOTONO, Equipo Consultor Turismo

y Desanollo, S.L., Madrid, Spain

Almudena

De

Velasco

Menéndez

ECOTONO,

Equipo

Consultor Turismo y Desanollo, S.L., Madrid, Spain

Franca

Deambrogio

Sportello INFOFIUME, Parco Fluviale del Po e dell'Orba, Casale Monferrato,

Italy

Carlo Desideri

Institute

for

the Study of Regionalism Federalism and Self-Gov-ernment, ISSiRFA-CNR, Rome, Italy

Maria

Giovanna

Dongiovanni

SiTI Istituto Superiore sui Sistemi Territoriali per I'Innovazione, Turin, Italy

Nigel Dudley

School

of

Geography, Planning and Environmental Management,

University of _Queensland,Brisbane, _QLD,Australia

IUCN

World Commission on Protected Areas and Equilibrium Research, Bristol,

UK

Valeria

Ferretti

of

Regional and Urban Studies and Planning (DIST), Politecnico and Università di Torino,

Turin,Italy

Franco

Ferroni

Biodiversity, Protected Areas and Agricultural Policies, WWF Italy, Rome,Italy

VTonica

Foglia INEA

Research Grant at

Agricultural

Society

La

Quercia della Memoria, CREDIA

}V\

/F, _SanGinesio,

MC,Italy

Caterina Franchini

of

Roberto

Gambino

Interuniversity Department of Regional and Urban Studies and Planning (DIST), Politecnico and Università di Torino, Turin, Italy

Matteo Garbarino

Department

of

D3A,

Università Politecnica

delle

Marche, Ancona, Italy

Gabriele

Garnero

Contributors

Emanuela Gasca Interuniversity Department of Regional and Urban Studies and

ftunning

(DIST), Politecnico and Università di Torino and SiTI Istituto Superiore sui Sistemi Territoriali per l'Innovazione, Turin, Italy '

Adriana Ghersi

Department

of

Sciences

for

University of Genoa, Genoa, ItalY

Gioia

Gibelli

SIEP-IALE Italian society of Landscape Ecology,

Milan,

Italy Franco

Godone

CNR

_-

IRPI, Torino, TO, Italy

Danilo Godone

Department

DISAFA

and NatRisk, Università

degli Studi

di Torino, Grugliasco, TO, ItalY

Elena Greco

of

Regional and

urban

Studies and Planning (DIST), Politecnico and Università di Torino, Turin, Italy

Riccardo Guarino

Diparlimento STEBICEF, Università

di

Palermo, Palermo, Italy

Thomas

Hammer

centre for Development and Environment

cDE,

university

of

Bern/Switzerland, Bern, Switzerland

Jennifer

Jewiss

Department of Leadership and Developmental sciences, univer-sity of Vermont, Burlington,

VT'

USA

Luigi La Riccia

of

Daniel

Laven

Department of Tourism Studi.es and GeographyÆuropean Tourism Research Institute,

Mid

Sweden University, Ostersund, Sweden

Marion

Leng

Centre

for

Development and Environment

cDE,

University of

Bern/Switzerland, Bern, Switzerland

Annalisa Calcagno

Maniglio

Department of Sciences for Architecture, Polytech-nic School, University of Genoa, Genoa,

Italy

Nicola

Martinelti

A6 Lama San Giorgio Protected Area Plan, Bari, Italy

Marzio

Marzorati

Project

Land

stewardship, Legambiente Lombardy,

Milan'

Italy

Claudia

Matoda

lnteruniversity Department of Regional and Urban Studies and Planning (DIST), Politecnico and Università di Torino, Turin, Italy

Francesca Mazzino

Department

of

Sciences

for

Architecture,

Polytechnic School, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy

Patrizia Menegoni

ENEA, Unità Tecnica AGRI-ECO, Rome,Italy

Maria Valeria

Mininni

DiCEM

UNIBAS, Potenza,Italy

(8)

xxvl Contributors

Nora

Mitchell

Rubenstein School

of

Environment and Natural Resources, Uni-versity of Vermont, Burlington,

VT,

USA

Giulio

Mondini

of

Emanuela

Morelli

llaly

Renzo

Moschini

Gruppo San Rossore, San Rossore Park, Pisa, Italy

Ingo Mose ZENARiO

_-

Center

for

Sustainable Spatial Development, Applied Geography and Environmental Planning Research Group,

Carl von

Ossietzky

University Oldenburg, Oldenburg, Germany

Anna

Natali

eco&eco, Economia ed Ecologia, Ltd, Bologna, Italy

Gabriella

Negrini

Domenico

Nicoletti

European Landscape Observatory

of

Arco Latino,

Padula,

Italy

Antonio Nicoletti

Protected Areas Deparlment, Legambiente, Rome, Italy Concha

Olmeda ATECMA,

Villalba, Spain

Gabriele

Paolinelli

Italy

Rocío

Perez-Campaña

Environmental Planning Laboratory (LABPLAM),

Department

of

Urbanism and Spatial Planning, University

of

Granada, Granada, Spain

Adrian

Phillips

UK Countryside Commission, IUCN's World Commission, Chel-tenham,

UK

þolo

Pigliacelli

Federparchi-Europarc

Italia (Italian

Federation

of

Parks and

Natural Reserves), Rome,

Italy

Sandro

Pignatti

Forum Plinianum, International Association for Biodiversity and System Ecology, Rome,

Italy

Ignazia

Pinzello

University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy Claude

Raffestin

Université de Genève, Genève, Switzerland

Carol Ritchie

EUROPARC Federation, Regensburg, Germany Rosanna

Rizzi

DiCEM

UNIBAS, Potenza,Italy

Bernardino Romano

University of

L'Aquila, L'Aquila,

Italy

Contributors

xxvii

Emma

salizzoni

Interuniversity Department of Regional and urban Studies and Flunning (DIST), Politecnico and Università di Torino, Turin' Italy

Rita Salvatore

University of Teramo, Teramo, Italy

Riccardo

santolini

Department

of

Earth,

Life

and

Environmental Sciences

lpiSf"Ve),

Carlo

Bo Uìiversity of Urbino,

scientific'campus

"Enrico

Mattei",

Urbino, ItalY

Massimo

sargotini

School of Architecture and Design,

university

of camerino, Camerino, Italy

Bianca

M. Seardo

Interuniversity Deparfment of Regional and urban Studies and Planning (DIST), Politecnico and Università di Torino,

Turin'

Italy

Emanuele

Sibona

Department of DISAFA and NatRisk, Università degli Studi di Torino, Grugliasco, TO, ItalY

Dominik Siegrist

Institute

for

Landscape and

open

space, HSR University

of

Applied Sciences, Rapperswil, Switzerland

Francesco

Silvestri

eco&eco, Economia ed Ecologia, Ltd.,

Bologna,Italy

Marianna Simone

Master

IUAV,

Venice, Italy

silvia Soppa

Department

of

sciences

for

Architecture, Polytechnic school,

uni-versity of Genoa, Genoa, ItalY

sue

stolton

IUCN V/orld commission

on

Protected Areas

and

Equilibrium Research, Bristol.

UK

corrado Teofili

Federparchi-Europarc

Italia (Italian

Federation

of

Parks and Natural Reserves), Rome, ItalY

Alessandro

Tosini

Politecnico di Torino, Spinetta Marengo'

AL'

Italy

Massimo

Tufano

The Regional Agency for Protected Areas in Lazio, Rome, Italy

simone

Tulumello

Instituto de ciências Sociais, universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal

LuisMiguelValenzuela-MontesEnvironmentalPlanningLaboratory

(LABPLAM),

Deparrment

of

urbanism and Spatial Planning,

university of

Gra-nada, GraGra-nada, SPain

Teodoro

c. vales

Institute d'urbanisme de Grenoble, Grenoble, France

Marco

Valle

SiTI Istituto

Superiore

sui

Sistemi

Territoriali

per I'Innovazione, Turin, Italy

Maria

Grazia

vinardi

Interuniversity Department of Regional and urban studies and Planning (DIST), Politecnico and università di Torino, Turin, , Italy

(9)

xxvlll Contributors

Angioletta Voghera

of

Norbert

Weixlbaumer

Department

of

Geography and Regional Research, Uni-versity of Vienna, Vienna, Austria

Massimiliano

Coda

Zabetta SiTI

Istituto Superiore sui Sistemi

Territoriali

per I'Innovazione, Turin, Italy

Dario Zocco

Parco Fluviale del Po e dell'Orba, Casale Monferrato, Italy Francesco

Zullo

University of

L'Aquila, L'Aquila,

Italy

(10)

Chapter

7 A

Territorial

Contradiction

Riccardo

Guarino, Patrizia

Menegoni, Sandro

Pignatti'

and Simone

Tulumello

Abstract

Spatial planning and environmental restoration are essential corollaries to the management of protected natural areas; however, without a sound awareness

of

the

evolutionary consistency

of

biocoenoses,

the

harmonious integration between human activities and ecosystem preservation remains

an

unattainable utopia. The theorisation of a balanced welfare, inspired by the universal tendency

of ecosystems to reach a steady state, has to go along with the defection from any economic greed.

Keywords

Parks

.

Protected areas

.

Sustainability

.

Spatial planning

.

Human behaviour

The ever-increasing importance given to nature conservation

in

Europe

in

recent decades has brought to the setting up of a system of protected natural areas extended

to 18 Vo of the EU territory, mostly thanks to the transposition and implementation of Directives 7 g I 409 IEF;C and 92143 EEC.I

Frequently, European protected areas have

limited

extension and are close to densely populated areas characterised

by

pervasive urbanisation and infrastruc-tures. What is under protection in Europe is not a primordial nature, of which very

I

http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/index-en'htm, http://natura2000.eea.europa.eu/ R. Cuarino

(X)

Diparlimento STEBICEF, Università di Palermo, Via Archirafi 38I,90123 Palermo, Italy

e-mail: guarinotro@hotmail.com

P. Menegoni

ENEA, Unità Tecnica AGRI-ECO, Via Anguillarese 301, 00123 Rome, Italy e-mail: patrizia.menegoni@casaccia.enea.it

S. Pignatti

Forum Plinianum, International Association for Biodiversity and System Ecology,

Via Lavinio 22,Rome 00183, Italy

e-mail: sandro.pignatti@ gmail.com

S. Tulumello

Instituto de Ciências Sociais, Universidade de Lisboa, Avenida Professor Aníbal Bettencourt 9, Lisboa 1600-189, Portugal

e-mail: simone.tulumello@ics.ul.pt

O Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015

R. Gambino, A. Peano (eds.), Nature Policies and Landscape Policies, Urban and Landscape Perspectives I 8, DOI l0.lÛ07 l9'7 8-3-3 19-054 10-0-7

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7

A Territorial Contradiction 7l

mainly accommodate the requests of those who look at nature protection primarily in an economic-productive way, demanding guarantees, beneflts and services.

7.1 Protected

Areas

or

Theme Parks?

As we have seen, the protection

of

nature

in

Europe

is

inextricably linked to the preservation of surviving fragments of our collective past, an ancestry from which we freed thanks to the recent technological and socio-economic development.

Like

the historical city centres, which are protected and restored to last over time, even the protected areas are often subject to maintenance and conservative restoration. Significant differences exist between pre- and post-industrial cities, based on the juxtaposition city/nature and on the concept

ofthe

urbanised area itself. In the past, cities were a closed entity opposed to the res nullius of the outer

tenitory

(Salzano 1998). When cities were surrounded by walls, the unknown, the unknowable and the unpredictable were kept outside.

In

more recent times, urban expansion and population growth have gradually bluned the

city

boundaries,

until, in

the post-industrial urban sprawl, the res nullius has çome to penetrate the

city

itself, along with a functional complexity that has made us accustomed to use, but not to know, and much less to control, many items and spaces of our daily lives.

While in the past we were frightened by what was outside the city, currently, it is the specialisation

_-

and functional segregation

_-

of

the modern urban space that intimidate us

(Ellin

1996): a progressive occupation

of

physical space, unable to build the

city.

Among the areas that

_-

at least

in

appearance

_-

are

still

relatively immune to such contamination, there are the natural spaces, which can be seen as a

belated acceptance

of

the devastation wrought by the territorial

city:

the

wildlife

reserves of modern Europe, however great, can be well intetpreted as recreational appendages of urban spaces. They are used by most of the people to relax, to do a

little

exercise, to

visit

unusual places, to buy local products and to imagine how

it

v/as in the past.

Oddly, the establishment ofprotected natural areas, which occufred over the past

two

decades at an unprecedented rate,

is

contemporary

to

the need

of

creating 'newly ufban' spaces. Think of the malls, entities that assert themselves as public venues similar to cities but without their flaws: safe, reassuring and

with

an easily recognisable spatial and functional organisation. Consider the reaction

ofthe

urban centres to the processes of gentrification that replicate the characteristics of a mall through a 'renewal' based on urban marketing and surveillance systems.

Sometimes, these spaces are

built from

scratch:

City

Walk is a pedestrian and commercial area

built in

the 1990s

in

Los Angeles,

'an

urban area painstakingly reproduced (even

to

the extreme

of

wedging candy wrappers

into

the pavement [. . .]) and idealized because

it

wants to be the best essence of the

city,

completely free from the violence

ofLos

Angeles' (Codeluppi 2000, our translation)'.

In

other cases, are the historical centres

to

be modified according

to

profit-oriented models. Thus, many

Italian

towns have seen Çleared

their

social fabric,

R. Guarino et al.

10

few

traces remain, but the still-surviving elements

of

a traditional cultural land-scape, rich

in

natural features of which tbe establishment of protected areas

try

to salvage the most significant relicts'

Thle new EU policies consider natural afeas as a resource to be managed through measures and initiatives aiming not only to preserve biodiversity but also to meet

the

demands

of

local

people,

in

order

to

ensure the best compromise between ecosystem

integrity

unà

,å"io-""onomic

development (Petermann and Ssymank

2007).Thenewmanagerialparadigmisthereforebasedonacollaborative

appráach, agreed

and

Jhared

by

local

communities

along

with

all

the

other stakeholders.

unfortunately, it is very difficult to find an optimal balance in the expectations

of

those who propór", who use and who manage protected areas' The risk is to invest fesources in protecting and perpetuating what we like most, making a sort of 'large-scale gardenìng,

_

gardening

ìt

the scale

of

landscapes

-

often at odds

with

all naturaî

p.o""ri=",

und

oynuÃi"s,

such as the shrub encroachment

in

abandoned .angeland.,afrequentlyobservednaturalprocessthroughoutEurope'thatiscaus-ing the rarefaction of orchids very dear to man'

"As

often happens,

it

is

necesiary

to

establish priorities and

to

make choices. Nonetheless, about biodiversity, real and perceived, as

well

as about advisability

;;

;ff;"tiìÉness of

actions taken to protect

it,

there is a great variety of opinions

thatmakesdifficulttheimplementationofprogramsandtheevaluationofresults,

also due

to

some confusiãn

of

roles between ecologists and planners (Guarino et al. 201

l).

Knowledge about vegetation, ecoregions and ecosystem relationships

is

an essential element

in

plarining and land management (Pignatti 1994, 1995: Blasi and paolella 1995;

Biondi

iOOl).

lt

is

necessary

to

understand where and, more imporlantly, how much it costs (in terms of 'environmental sustainability') to invest

"nårgy and resources

to counter the natural dynamics'

It-is

not

always given due imporlance

to this

knowledge base, and

it

often

happens that,

in

choosing the management strategies, the impact on employment

of

the ,interventionist' Jpproacn

is

prefened without considering that nature,

in

order to remain ,uctr, stroui¿ not be excessively subject to the deterministic control by man.

However,outsideprotectedareas,weedingofroadsidesandcultivationsis

practiced without hesiiation; the continuity between trophic ecosystems and agro-syrtems is compromised in order to promote all that is functional to the production system

in

the global

market.

Not

even

the

management and conservation

of

protected areas escape

the

market

rules

and

require' thus' the availability of

resources to invest. This brings us

to

the obvious contradiction that

to

safeguard very limited porlions of the planet, the remaining areas are exploited with

increas-ing intensity (Guarino and Pignatti 2010)'

-As

previously mentioned, European protected areas have

a

strongly 'urban' character; this stimulates a constant search for innovative solutions in the

manage-mentofsuchcomplexareas.Thewilltoproteçtnotmediatedbyathoroughand

dispassionate understanding of ecosystems can easily run into errors or end up to

(12)

7

A Territorial Contradiction 73

reserve

to

the frame

a

rather superficial aesthetic/contemplative evaluation and

assess their experience mainly on the quality

of

services offered by the

administra-tors. This new realm is a city of simulations; television city and the city as a theme park (Sorkin 1992).

The 'sanctuary'

(in

Russian: zapovednik) is an exception to this general trend and, as a natural environment protected erga omnes, should be considered a positive example, although elitist and expensive, because it requires a difficult management (control of herbivores, biodiversity monitoring, etc.), which often clashes with the reluctance ofadministrators and public opinion to accept the non-usability ofareas that, to remain such, require maintenance patrolling and monitoring costs (Sessions 1995; Boreiko et al. 2013).

7.2 Pandemic

Park

Foundations

So many parks have been recently founded

all

over the world! Some example are (Google search:

'park'

2013): national, regional, pelagic,

river,

mountain, valley,

wildlife, urban, public, cultural, school, college, music, literaty, research,

technologi-cal, archaeological, Jurassic, safari, amusement, recreational, commercial, private, pocket, wind, solar, caf and even sushi park! Despite their diverse nature, all these areas share

an implicit 'need'

for

protection, fence, boundary

and

sectoriality. According

to Diez

(1353), the

term 'park'

derives

from

the

Latin

word patcere (i.e. to impede): the place where

wild

animals of every kind are locked up, in order to take delight in hunting at any time. According to others, the tetm derives from the ancient Germaîwordberk(tn (modem: bergen): to cover, to save and to defend. In fact, the word perku akeady existed in Akkadian, with the meaning of defence, frontier and barrage.

In

connection

with

these concepts

is

the

root 'pork' (in

Latin: porcus),

originally indicating the enclosure, the coulyard where the domestic pig (in Latin: .røJ) was kept and later designating the beast itself. The porcus stands clearly out from aper (i.e. the wild boar), which is the same beast but lives in open spaces, in freedom.

Our history

of

supporters or detractors

of

parks

is

largely based on the meta-phorical contrast between a pig

living

in a closed, fenced and protected place and a

wild boar routing in the forest without supervision. The pig, symbol of the rational

use of animal breeding, has originated from the clever domestication of a wild boar.

Similarly, the park, a protected place, is the outcome of a metaphorical

domestica-tion

of

Dante's forest 'savage, rough, and stern/which

in

the very thought renews the fear'.2 The pristine nature, reduced to a paltry fragments, does not more .induce awe but inspires a pfotective instinct.

In

the modern city, men undergo an inexo-rable fascination towards nature, and the greater the fascination, the stronger the process

of

alienation against

it.

The Italian writer Calvino (1963) has masterfully represented such fascination in the short stories of Marcovaldo:

2

http ://www.worldofdante.org R. Guarino et al.

72

.¿

Fig.

7.1

Palazzo del Gran Cancelliere, Palermo

replaced by a space tailored to tourism requirements. connected to these processes

is the falsification

of

historical spaces, pushed towards aesthetic stereotypes con-sistent with their commercial role.

It

is an example

_-

perhaps unintended

-

the PPE (detailed executive plan) for the historic centre of Palermo released

in

1989, which, in reaction to some types of urban speculation, requires the accurate reconstruction

of entire blocks and is populating tlie city of architectures that are historically fake like the Palace of the crand chancellor in the homonymous square (Fig' 7'1), which seems a restoration but

it

is an almost entirely new building'

Even more complex

is

the

situation

of

Venice: the

city

was

not

developed

'against'

the

surrounding environment,

which

for

a

millennium has

been maintained as

a

necessary enclosure

for the city,

and provided

food

resources

(fisheries)andsafetyfromexternalattacks.Betweenthecityandthelagoonhas

iemained an interactive relationship

(ust

think of the importance of tides) that man has changed over the centuries wiitr ttre diverting of rivers flowing into the lagoon and the consolidation of the lidos. This has allowed the development of Venice as a

political

and commercial centre, the development

of

the

first

industrial complex

ithe

Arsenal) and a thriving culture. Over the past two centuries, the

city

has lost

thesefeaturesandin,"""-nty"u,,muchofthepopulationhasmigratedtothe

mainland, while the lagoon has been progressively depleted by erosion and pollu-tion. In this way, the oid balance between the town and the lagoon is lost: both are now (for various reasons) protected areas, but the cultural and commercial meaning

of the first and the natural one of the second are being upset'

The metaphor we have

built

seems to reveal a sad fate: protected areas, whether

theyarenaturalparks,historicalcentresorquaintvillages,arepushed_unknow.

ingiy?

_-

towards

a 'productive'

function; the object

to

be protected becomes a valuable frame within which to develop employment and investment, tourism and territorial marketing. In this context,

viiitors

become users/consumers: they usually

(13)

I

7

A Teritorial Contradiction 75

To overcome this contradiction,

it

is necessary to design new logistic networks, integrated on a local scale. 'We urgently need a planning that links the man to his

territory and not the restorer to his object. These aims are achievable only

if

we are able to put every single man in a new position of awai'eness and responsibility.

The spaces to be (re)planned

will

no longer be, as they were

in

pre-industrial dmes, the result

of

unconscious, choral, attempts to best use land, resources and local materials. They

will

be, instead, the result of a planning well integrated to the social context and to the strategic sharing of ideals and models altemative to those

of

consumerism

and

of

the global

market.

So, not the retum

to

an

edenic,

pre-industrial

world, but

the evolution

from a world

centralised

by the

global economy towards a world where global technologies and knowledge

will

be used to boost local economies, to emphasise the local diversities and to encourage the decongestion of the trade routes that underpin the current human habits, linked to products and services standardised

on a

national and, increasingly, continental scale. To do this, the planner cannot ignore the political value

of

acting on behalf

of

an ethical necessity, imposed

by

the not sustainable environmental and social costs of current consumption pattems.

Under this perspective, even the 'sanctuary' takes on a new meaning: it does not only matter for the rarity or the particular aspect of species and vegetation layers but also

for its

value as an ethical model,

a

physical space where an efficient and optimal balance is established between the external factors (climate and soil) and the local communities (bacteria, plants, animals), a living example of self-organised order, able to maintain and preserve

in

a steady state

all

the ecosystem functions which are needed also by the human species. The tools to convey this message are the virtual channels

of

the web and the mass media that the new planners should leam to use

with skill

at least equal to that

of

those who use them as catalysts

of

global consumption patterns. The physical elements of the new landscapes

will

be

much stronger the greater the number

of

people who believes

in

and supports a

re-localisation of consumption habits and particularly of those related to the human

nutrition. The new landscapes

will

be more durable the greater the number

of

people

who

will

use their free

time to

set up the network

of

collaboration and proactive interaction that

is

functional

to

the development and maintenance

of

a

participated, unmediated and

alive cultural

landscape (Guarino and Menegoni 2010).

If

most

of

us

will

keep

on

spending

our free time

in

malls,

spas and television, land protection in an integrated and systemic view risks being perceived as

yet

another action

to

share passively,

to be

supported

by providing a

small contribution money, without changing our habits too.

In

this way, we

will

not go very far.

The new way of planning should be social and tenitorial at the same time:

if

the aim is to promote, not just

for

aesthetic reasons, more sustainable landscapes, we should be able to recognise

in

the parsimony of our ancestors the precursor of the

moral and personal commitment

of

modern innovators.

A

parsimony

no

longer imposed, as in the past, by poverty and limited resources, but by the awareness

of

how gross

_-

and inefficient from environmental and thermodynamic standpoint

_-

is

74 R. Guarino et al.

The Marcovaldo's love for nature can only be felt by a city man (.. .) Dad {he children

said- are the cows like trams? Do they make stops? where is the terminus of the cows? (Calvino 1963, our translation).

7.3 Towards

a

Participated

Landscape

Beauty and harmony

of

nature, together with its effrciency, have inspired most

of

speculative thinking and art forms that have marked the human history. Human nature and

its

technical and

cultural

expressions

mirror the

complexity

of

the phenomenon

of

life.

Through

the

centuries,

rural

communities have managed

iheir

environment and farmed the land

in

their own natural way, creating a rich diversity

of

landscapes, choral representation of historical identity

of

the territory

and cultural human heritage (Fig. 1 .2). We now tend to recognise

in

that model

of

development the precursor

of

'sustainability'.

In the past, even the human welfare was associated with a balanced and durable state of satisfaction, inspired to the ecological concept of climax'

'lhe inapa(ía of

the Greeks and the otium of the Latins are expressions of a pleasure to be enjoyed

noting wisely

the

satisfaction

not

of

one's

own

desires,

but

of

his own

needs.

Modern man has redefined the perception

of

welfare and simplified

its

semantic breadth:

all

parameters are set on the purchasing power

of

goods, products and services that in many cases are necessary just because they are depicted as such by the new global socio-economic order. Paradigm for this change is the gradual shift from the theorisation

of

a balanced welfare, inspired by the universal tendency

of

ecosystems to reach a steady state, towards an incremental and bulimic welfare, no longer inspired by nature, but fuelled by its devastation. In doing so, the speculative power of analytical thinking has been equally simplified and increasingly bound to the binary logic of cost/benefit analyses (Menegoni et al. 2011). Cheap and perva-sive information services broadcast this new concept of welfare, emphasising in the popular imagination the gap between the 'polluted' places of our everyday

life

and the

'intact'

places of protected areas.

(14)

R. Guarino et al

to consume products whose packaging and transpotl costs outweigh the production costs (Patel 2009).

The challenge goes

far

beyond the

ability to

redesign the

teritory:

it

lies

in

making desirable a sober lifesiyte, aware of the environmental consequences of all oul.

uJionr;

it

lies

in

making

"hoi""t

oriented to the re-territorialisation,

i'e'

the downsizing and the localisatiãn of production districts, in close proximity to trading posts

and;isposal

places; and

iilies

in

favouring the most direct relationship

between production and consumption'

'16

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parnikoza I, nurko"vskiy A (2013) Absolute "zapovednost"'- a concept of wildlife

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(2010)

il

valore delle cose

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le illusioni del capitalismo (trans. Oliveri A). Feltrinelli, Milan

petermann _J,Ssymank

A

(2OOil Natura 2000 and its implications for th9 ¡rglection of plant

syntaxa in Germany, vøith u case-study on grasslands' Ann Bot (Rome) 7:5-18 Pignãtti S (1994) Ecologia del paesaggio' UTET' T1r1n

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Sizano g if SSSi Fondamenti di urbanistica' Latetza, Rome-Bari

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SorkinM(ed)(1992)variationsonaThemePark:theNewAmericanCityandtheendofthe public space. Hill and Wang, New York

A Territorial Contradiction

15ÞGAü,qx

\rcoo

Editorial

Roberto

Gambino

.

Attilia

Editors

cirv

ro.king

*;üi;;,n"rhods

cityìnd

The

will

of

like

fresl

orrrrlî"iär,

with

on

city,

to

of disciplinari

uía

,""ting

of

proll"-,

iirrr*""i

in

Nature

Policies

and

Landscape

Policies

Towards

an

Alliance

-à

ISBN978-3-319-05409-4

ilv,

f-.

*ã*.

;ï;;

"-"'

With great

affiction

we remember

Attilia

Peano

-

former

Full

Professor

in

Town and

Regíonal

Planning

at

the

Politecnico di

Torino

(DISI)

and

CEN

PPN

Director

-

and

precious contributions

she has given

during

the course

of her

liþ

in

field of

urban

planning,

landscape

_ro.king

_{*;üi;;,n"rhods}

_cityìnd

_will

_like

_fresl

_with

_to

_{of disciplinari}

_of

_proll"-,

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ã.

_-

_former

_-

_{field of}

_friend