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(1)Encontro Revista de Psicologia. DYSLEXIA ASSESSMENT IN PORTUGAL: PROPOSAL OF A NEW INSTRUMENT1. Vol. XI, Nº. 16, Ano 2007. RESUMO ABSTRACT. Lénia Carvalhais University of Aveiro leniacarvalhais@dce.ua.pt. Carlos Silva University of Aveiro. Developmental dyslexia is a learning disability that contributes to academic failure in Portugal. This fact entails the need for health and education professionals to conduct reading and writing assessment. However, in Portugal, there are currently no standardized tests to assess dyslexic children. The main objective of this article is to present a theoretical approach about the concept of dyslexia, of reading models, of phonological awareness and Portuguese orthography, for a subsequent reflection about the construction and validation of a battery of tests in Portugal that will permit the evaluation of developmental dyslexia in children between the ages of eight and twelve years old. Keywords: Dyslexia; Portuguese orthography; reading models; dyslexia assessment.. Anhanguera Educacional S.A. Correspondência/Contato Alameda Maria Tereza, 2000 Valinhos, São Paulo CEP. 13.278-181 rc.ipade@unianhanguera.edu.br Coordenação Instituto de Pesquisas Aplicadas e Desenvolvimento Educacional - IPADE Artigo Original Recebido em: 17/02/2007 Avaliado em: 25/02/2007. 1. With financement from FCT (Foundation for Sciences and Techonology).. Publicação: 27 de outubro de 2008 37.

(2) 38. Dyslexia assessment in Portugal: Proposal of a new instrument. 1.. DYSLEXIA DEFINITION Dyslexia is a learning disability, connected with reading and spelling, which affects literacy acquisition in a significant number of pupils. Knowing this problem and how to assess it will be important to make school really inclusive. For over a century, neurologists contact with patients, who have ability to talk but don’t understand the written material. To this pathology was applied the term “word-blindness”. Later a German nerology specialist use the term “wortblindheit”. Then in 1896, Pringle Morgan referred Percy, one intelligent boy with an isolated learning defect related to the disability to learn the reading and he used the expression “congenital word-blindness”. In 1937, Orton, one of the precursors of dyslexia investigation, presented the term “developmental alexia”. Although one of the aspects that is consensual in our days is the distinction between developmental dyslexia and alexia. Shaywitz distinguishes alexia and dyslexia, saying that, in acquired alexia, a structural lesion resulting from an insult (e.g., stroke or tumour) disrupts a component of an already functioning neural system, and the lesion may extend to involve other brain regions and systems. In developmental dyslexia, as a result of a constitutionally based functional disruption, the system never develops normally so that the symptoms reflect the emanative effects of early disruption to the phonological system (Shaywitz, 1998, p.2640).. Alexia is the loss of the ability to understand written language, previously acquired, in consequence of a cerebral wound. These wounds are, frequently, focal and are located in the left hemisphere. Dyslexia is characterized by reading, spelling and also phonological awareness difficulties, with constitutional origin. In 1994, the International Dyslexia Association defines developmental dyslexia as a specific language-based disorder of constitutional origin characterized by difficulties in single word decoding, usually reflecting insufficient phonological processing abilities. These difficulties are often unexpected in relation to age and other cognitive and academic abilities. Dyslexia is manifest by variable difficulty with different forms of language, often including, in addition to problems reading, a conspicuous problem with acquiring proficiency in writing and spelling (Orton Dyslexia Society Research Committee, 1994, p.4).. Considering phonological awareness and phonological decoding, Vellutino and Fletcher defined developmental dyslexia as «developmental disorder characterized by significant difficulties in learning to decode print.» (Snowling, 2005, p.364).. Encontro: Revista de Psicologia • Vol. XI, Nº. 16, Ano 2007 • p. 37-47.

(3) Lénia Carvalhais, Carlos Silva. 2.. ORTHOGRAPHY CONSISTENCY AND READING MODELS Dyslexia is an interesting case of the interaction between the environment, namely language and a cultural invention - literacy. Reading and writing arise as activities that involve the passage of the spoken language to the written language, as a result of learning and of the environment. Another interesting point is the fact that literacy also implies the knowledge of the orthographic system, one of the great human inventions. Since its origins, humanity has had the need to register events. The written hieroglyphic, created by the Egyptians, is composed by ideograms that represent concrete concepts, actions or objects. In the logographic system, as is the case of Chinese, each grapheme corresponds to a morpheme and not to phonological units, like it happens with the alphabetic system. Even in the alphabetic system we find a huge range of languages and orthographic systems. Due to this fact, if in some the link between grapheme and phoneme is exact and syllable structure is open (consonant-vowel or CV), which is the case of Spanish, in others systems the correspondence between grapheme and phoneme is irregular, as is the case of English. Morais (1997) classified the Portuguese has a deep orthographic system comparing to transparent system like Spanish, but not so deep as English. Analysing the intra-syllabic structure of Portuguese, we see that exits a significant number of close syllables (Capovilla, 2005) and it is possible to identify a group of graphemes that correspond to different phonemes, as for example, the grapheme /e/ corresponds to [e], [ε], [ə] or [i], (International Phonetic Alphabet, 1999) adapted to Portuguese. Seymour et al. (2003) compared the correspondence between grapheme-phoneme, familiar words and pseudowords reading in 14 countries, with 13 different languages. The languages were classified according to syllabic complexity, related to the predominance of open syllables and grapheme-phoneme transparency. The study shows that the grapheme-phoneme transparency has a more relevant dimension that syllabic structure. Related to the effect of orthographic transparency, Capovilla et al. (2003a, 2003b) compare the reading strategies in Portuguese and German children in the first grade. The results show that the Portuguese is more complex in grapheme-phoneme correspondence and less regular than German. This inconsistency in the orthographic system and the complexity of syllabic structures leads to difficulties in reading and spelling accurately (Goswami, 2002). Consequently, even in consistency orthography, the dyslexic reveals great difficulties in phonological processing, that is, in the relation established between grapheme and phoneme, including. Encontro: Revista de Psicologia • Vol. XI, Nº. 16, Ano 2007 • p. 37-47. 39.

(4) 40. Dyslexia assessment in Portugal: Proposal of a new instrument. reading. So «(…)the recognition that the letters which we write represent the sounds which we hear does not come easily.» (Miles, 1993, p.143). The understanding of dyslexia has implications on reading processing and, consequently, in the knowledge of reading models. One of the models that tries to explain how a person reads and that distinguishes the skilful reader from the one that reveals difficulties is the model of the dual- route, presented by Coltheart, Patterson and Marshall, in 1980. According to this model, the reader appeals to two routes, neuroanatomically different: a phonological route and a lexical route. The phonological route permits a reading that is based in a grapheme-phoneme conversion. Through this, it is possible for us to read nonwords that are not comprised in our lexical system, as well as regular words. To read irregular words, we appeal to another route - the lexical route - which rests on the fact that the word belongs to a visual form that is familiar to us. The lexical route resembles a dictionary that stores the most frequent words. This dictionary determines if a stimulus that has been seen before is correctly written or not. Through this, we are able to verify the existence of several problems. From the orthographic pathway, the information passes by a semantic level and arrives to its meaning. The semantic representation activates the phonological system. Another reading model is the triangle model, developed by Plaut et al., (1996), Seidenberg & McCelland (1989). In this connectionist model, reading aloud depends on the mechanisms that translate orthography into phonology and semantic pathway. This model emphasizes the importance of phonological information to word recognition. The phonological knowledge is important to the processing of non familiar words, to the decoding of grapheme-phoneme and to recognize the irregular components of words.. 3.. PHONOLOGICAL AWARENESS To understand developmental dyslexia, we have to consider that there is a causal connection between phonological awareness and reading and spelling development (Liberman, Shankweiler, Fischer & Carter, 1974; Goswami, 1990). According to Adams (1990), the most important scientific fact produced by cognitive sciences of reading is the prediction of phonological awareness in the alphabetic knowledge. The term "phonological awareness" arose in the 70s and 80s (Bradley & Bryant, 1983; Tunmer & Fletcher, 1981) as a substitution of the term "linguistic awareness". If we analyse the etymological origin of the term “phonological”, we realize that it is of Latin origin, and. Encontro: Revista de Psicologia • Vol. XI, Nº. 16, Ano 2007 • p. 37-47.

(5) Lénia Carvalhais, Carlos Silva. it is composed by the segment "fono” that can be translated by sound and by "logia", which means study or science. In this sense, phonological awareness can be defined as the individual’s awareness of the sound structure of a spoken word (Guillon, 2004). The study of word structures can be done at the onset-rime level, at the syllabic level and at the phonemic level. Numerous studies show that development of phonological awareness has a universal sequence (Cisero & Royer, 1955; Goswami & East, 2000). Each of these levels is developed by the child in phases, namely from the bigger units to the smaller units. Children first develop an awareness of syllables, followed by the intra-syllabic units of onset and rime and following the phonemes awareness. The acquisition of phonological awareness at phonemic level depends on the learning strategies used. This capacity is most related to the acquisition of alphabetic knowledge. When children begin learning the alphabetic system, they encounter an assembly of graphemes associated to phonemes. Furthermore, when a speaker produces a word at an oral level, he/she does not produce phonemes separately. Due to this reasons, learning phonemes, as constituent elements of syllables and words, occurs later. The syllabic level is one of phonological awareness levels. In this level, the child understands that word is composed by syllables. In the majority of cases, the speaker does not have difficulties in syllabic segmentation. The fact that syllabic segmentation can occur at an oral level, when we want, for example, to accentuate a message or an accent, facilitates the development of phonological awareness at this level. To assess children’ syllabic awareness, can be used tasks as syllable segmentation, for example, ask how many syllables in the word “important”, or tasks as syllable identity, for example, ask which parts sound the same or syllable deletion. Another level is the one of the onset-rime, an intrasyllabic level, which consists in the awareness of the beginning and final structures of a word (Bryant, 2002). For example, in the word /cat/, we can identify the beginning /c/ and the rime /at/. This identification is going to permit speakers to afterwards find other words either with the same initial structure (onset) or with the same rime. To measure the onsetrime awareness, rhyme recognition, spoonerisms and rhyme creation can be done. The last level is the phonemic level that consists in the ability to manipulate phonemes, which imply the analysis of the smaller units of sounds in words (Fawcett & Nicolson, 1995). So that Goswami consider that «Awareness of phonemes, the abstract units in the speech stream represented by letters, seems to develop as a consequence of learning to read and write (or as a consequence of direct phonemic training).» (2002, p.1). Phoneme. Encontro: Revista de Psicologia • Vol. XI, Nº. 16, Ano 2007 • p. 37-47. 41.

(6) 42. Dyslexia assessment in Portugal: Proposal of a new instrument. awareness can be measured with tasks as the phoneme detection, for example, say the word that have a different first sound, or phoneme blending, phoneme segmentation or manipulation.. 4.. CONSTRUCTION OF DEVELOPMENTAL DYSLEXIA ASSESSMENT TESTS IN PORTUGAL The Months Forward consists in the naming of the twelve months of the year. This task has as its purpose to evaluate the capacity to sequence an assembly of names that are organized in a determined order and, simultaneously, to evaluate the long term memory of the child. When conducting this test, we verify that dyslexic subjects present great difficulties in naming and in sequencing the information, as refer Critchley & Critchley (1978). If the subject does not answer correctly to the naming of the months of the year, it is highly unlikely that he/she will be able to adequately enunciate the months of the year in reverse. Therefore, the learning of the months of the year can be compared to the learning of the alphabet and to the learning of the days of the week. The Months Reversed Test consists of naming of the months of the year, but in reverse, and it is more complex than the previous test. The objectives and the evaluation of the test are identical to the Months Forward Test. The Digit Span Test is divided in two series and each series is composed of seven sequences of numbers, which comprise between 3 and 9 digits. This task requires active processing and storage of information that is to be recuperated in a short span of time. Numbers are presented in a certain order and the subject as to repeat them. The sequential enunciation of digits is strongly related with the abilities required in reading. In what concerns the group of Literacy Tests, it was not possible to translate and adapt to Portuguese the Polysyllabic Test from the Bangor Dyslexia Test. Due to this and taking into account the lack of standardized reading and writing tests for the Portuguese population, the Phonological Awareness Test, the Pseudowords Reading Test, the Words Recognition Test, the Reading Speed Test and the Spelling Test were created. The Phonological Awareness Test is divided in four sub-tests, namely the Segmentation Test, the Identification Test, the Deletion Test and the Manipulation Test. These tasks permit us to assess a group of constructs related to phonological awareness, namely the awareness of the onset and rime of the words, the awareness of the. Encontro: Revista de Psicologia • Vol. XI, Nº. 16, Ano 2007 • p. 37-47.

(7) Lénia Carvalhais, Carlos Silva. syllabic structure and the phonemic awareness. All of the sub-tests are composed by initial instructions and training exercises. Each test is composed by 6 questions, two related to phonemic awareness, two related to the awareness of the onset and rime and two related to syllabic awareness. The Segmentation Test is intended to evaluate the capacity to identify each phoneme, syllable and onset and rimes of the word presented. In the Identification Test, the children have to identify the correct word, between three, that it have a component referred by evaluator. In the Deletion Test, the children have to delete a part of a word and then create a new word or nonword. Finally, the Manipulation Test, the most complex exercise that implies the identification of the segment and awareness of his position in the word, as the capacity to manipulate in order to create new words. The Phonological Awareness Test was created to evaluate the capacity of phonological processing of the dyslexic. In a narrative review, Rack, Snowling and Olson (1992) concluded that exists an evidence for phonological deficit that explaining severe word reading and spelling problems. According to others investigators, namely Ijzendoorn & Bus «Dyslexics are supposed to differ from normal readers in those qualitative aspects of reading that emphasize phonological processes. » (IJzendoorn & Bus, 1994, p.267). The Pseudowords Reading Test is composed by twenty pseudowords. Ten words present grapheme position changes, but are still very similar to some Portuguese words and the other ten words bear no proximity with words of the Portuguese language. The choice of these ten last words is connected with the need to evaluate the reading made by a pure phonological route. These words maintain, however, the syllabic and alphabetic structure of Portuguese. The use of pseudowords reading test is recurrent in dyslexia assess because exists significant differences this process between dyslexics and normal readers, and this is a strong evidence of phonological deficit hypothesis (Snowling, 1980, 1981; Vellutino & Scanlon, 1987; Stanovich, 2000) The Reading Speed Test is composed of thirty words, of high-frequency and that can go up to four letters, as for example, "Dar" (to give). The slow reading of dyslexic children, especially after the third year of school, is a symptom indicated by professionals and parents/caregivers. The term reading speed is related to the time that its takes to read aloud words presented in the form of list. Carver (1993) considered reading speed to be an important constituent of efficient reading. The Words Recognition Test is composed by twenty irregular and regular words of the Portuguese language, of high frequency and with a length of up to four syllables. In what concerns the regular words, these were chosen by the complexity. Encontro: Revista de Psicologia • Vol. XI, Nº. 16, Ano 2007 • p. 37-47. 43.

(8) 44. Dyslexia assessment in Portugal: Proposal of a new instrument. that they present, namely by the consonant groups that constitute them, as for example, the group /gl/ in the word "Globo" (globe). In the group of irregular words, words to which there is a grammatical explanation were selected, as is the case of words with the /s/ in an intervocalic position, for example, "Mesa" (table) and irregular words, for which no grammatical explanation exists, as is the case of words that possess different phonemes of the grapheme /x/, as in the word "Exame" (exam). This test intends to evaluate the reading capacity of irregular words, appealing to lexical and grammatical knowledge already acquired. The Spelling Test is constituted by isolated items, namely twenty words of the Portuguese language. Of the twenty words, ten regular words were selected, for example, "Pássaro" (bird) and ten irregular, as "Desenho" (drawing). Regarding the variable length, ten words are dissyllabic and ten polysyllabic. The items are coded as correct or incorrect. According to Shaywitz & Shaywitz (2003), poor spelling is also a characteristic of dyslexia «Spelling is intimately related to reading not only because sounds are being linked to letters but because words are being encoded-literally put into a code instead of merely being deciphered or decoded» (Shaywitz, 2003, p.191). The Subtraction Test was adapted to Portuguese from the Bangor Dyslexia Test. The children have six tasks of subtraction and the items are coded as correct or incorrect. Another test is the Multiplication Tables. As indicated by Miles, Wheeler and Haslum (1998), the children of seven/eight years of age enunciate the multiplication table of 4 and the remaining children enunciate the multiplication table of 7/8. The choice of these tasks is connected with the fact that dyslexic children present difficulties in calculation in general and also with the sequencing of numbers in series. According to Critchley «Many dyslexics, whether or not they happen also to show difficulties with numeracy, are late in memorising their “tables”, because this represents an inherent problem in retaining and retrieving a complex load of information.» (Critchley & Critchley, 1978, p.77). In this way, dyslexics do not have difficulties in memorizing the numbers in themselves, but to remember their order in sequences. To compensate for these difficulties, the subjects are to use different strategies, which include counting with their fingers. To assess the use of these strategies, we make a clinical analysis of results, seeing if children hesitate or if they echo the answer.. Encontro: Revista de Psicologia • Vol. XI, Nº. 16, Ano 2007 • p. 37-47.

(9) Lénia Carvalhais, Carlos Silva. Following the structure of Bangor Dyslexia Test, we adapt the second subgroup of tests, the Supplementary Tests, namely the Left-Right Test, the Months Forward Test, the Months Reversed Test and the Digit Span Test. The instrument will be applied in two moments. In a first moment, the quality of the instructions and of the training exercises will be verified. After this first moment, we will proceed to an evaluation of the instrument with a sample of dyslexic children. The “Bateria de Avaliação da Dislexia de Desenvolvimento” will be applied individually to two groups: to a group of children with a diagnosis of dyslexia and to a group of normal readers. The evaluation will be done without the evaluator knowing to which group the children belong. The performance of the two groups will be compared in all the different tasks to verify in which tasks differences can be noted. In conclusion, the application of this battery has as its main objective to validate a group of tests to distinguish normal readers from dyslexic children.. REFERENCES Adams, M. (1990). Beginning to read: thinking and learning about print. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Bradley, L., & Bryant, P. (1978). Difficulties in auditory organisation as a possible cause of reading backwardness. Nature, 271, 746-747. Bradley, L., & Bryant, P. (1983). Categorizing sounds and learning to read: A causal connection. Nature, 301, 419-421. Bryant, P. (2002). It doesn't matter whether onset and rime predicts reading better than phoneme awareness does or vice versa. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 82, 41-46. Capovilla, A., Machalous, N. & Capovilla, F. (2003a). Estratégias de leitura fonológica e lexical em crianças bilingues em Português e Alemão. In A. Capovilla (Org.). Avaliação e intervenção em habilidades metafonológicas e de leitura e escrita (pp.33-51). São Paulo: Memnon. Capovilla, A., Machalous, N. & Capovilla, F. (2003b). Leitura em crianças bilingues: Uso das rotas fonológica e lexical em Português e Alemão. In M. Maluf (Org.). Metalinguagem e aquisição da escrita: Pesquisa e prática da alfabetização (pp.185-216). São Paulo: Casa do Psicólogo. Capovilla, F., Cardoso-Martins, C., Gombert, J., Oliveira, J., Morais, J., Adams, J. & Beard, R. (2005). Os novos caminhos da alfabetização infantil. São Paulo: Memnon. Carver, R. (1993). Merging the simple view of reading with rauding theory. Journal of Reading Behaviour, 25, 439-455. Cisero, C. & Royer, J. (1955). The development and cross-language transfer of phonological awareness. Contemporany Educational Psychology, 20, 275-303. Critchley, M. & Critchley, E. (1978). Dyslexia defined. London: William Heineman Medical Books LTD. Edinburgh Reading Test. (1982). London: Hodder & Stoughton. Fawcett, A. & Nicolson, R. (1995). Persistence of phonological awareness deficit in older children with dyslexia. Reading & Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 7, 361-376.. Encontro: Revista de Psicologia • Vol. XI, Nº. 16, Ano 2007 • p. 37-47. 45.

(10) 46. Dyslexia assessment in Portugal: Proposal of a new instrument. Gillon, G. (2004). Phonological awareness: From research to practice. New York: The Guilford Press. Goswami, U. (2002). Phonology, reading development and dyslexia: A cross-linguistic perspective. Annals of Dyslexia. , 52, p. 4. Goswami, U. & Bryant, P. (1990). Phonological skills and learning to read. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Goswami, U. & East, M. (2000). Rhyme and analogy in beginning reading: Conceptual and methodological issues. Applied Psycholinguistics, 21, 63-93. IJzendoorn, M. & Bus, A. (1994). Meta-analytic confirmation of the nonword reading deficit in developmental dyslexia. Reading Research Quarterly, 29 (3), p. 267-275. International Phonetic Association. (1999). Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Liberman, I., Shankweiler, D. & Carter, B. (1974). Explicit syllable and phoneme segmentation in the young child. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 18, 201-212. Miles, T. (1982). Bangor Dyslexia Test. London: LDA. Miles, T. (1993). Dyslexia: The pattern of difficulties, Second Edition. London: Whurr Publishers. Miles, T., Wheeler, T., Haslum, M. (1998). Gender ratio in dyslexia. Annals of Dyslexia, 48, pp. 27-55. Morais, J. (1997). Arte de ler: Psicologia cognitiva da leitura. Lisboa: Edição Cosmos. Morgan, W. (1896). A case of congenital word-blindness. Brain Medicine Journal, 2: 1378. Orton, S. (1937). Reading, writing and speech problems in children. London: Chapman and Hall. Orton Dyslexia Society Research Committee (1994). Operational definition of dyslexia. Perspectives, 20: 4. Plaut, D.C., McCelland, J.L., Seidenberg, M.S. & Patterson, K. (1996). Understanding normal and impaired word reading: Computational principles in quasi-regular domains. Psychological Review, 103, pp. 56-115. Porpodas, C. D. (1999). Patterns of phonological and memory processing in beginning readers and spellers of Greek. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 32, 406-416. Rack, J., Snowling, M. & Olson, R. (1992). The nonword reading deficit in developmental dyslexia: A review. Reading Research Quarterly, 27, 29-53. Seidenberg, M.S. & McCelland, J.L. (1989). A distributed, development model of word recognition. Psychological Review, 96, pp.523 –568. Schonell, F. & Schonell, F. (1952). Diagnostic and Attainment Testing, Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd. Seymour, P., Aro, M. & Erskine, J. (2003).Foundation literacy acquisition in European orthographies. British Journal of Psychology, 94(2), 143-174. Shaywitz, S., Shaywitz, B., Pugh, K., Fulbright, R., Constable, R., Mencl, W. et al. (1998). Functional disruption in the organization of the brain for reading in dyslexia. Proocedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 95, pp. 2636-2641. Shaywitz, S. (2003). Overcoming dyslexia. New York: Vintage Books. Snowling, M. (1980). The development of grapheme-phoneme correspondence in normal and dyslexic readers. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 29, 294-305. Snowling, M. (1981). Phonemic deficit in developmental dyslexia. Psychological Research, 43, 219-234.. Encontro: Revista de Psicologia • Vol. XI, Nº. 16, Ano 2007 • p. 37-47.

(11) Lénia Carvalhais, Carlos Silva. Snowling, M. & Hulmes, C. (2005). The science of reading: A handbook, United Kingdom: Blackwell Publishing. Stanovich, K. (2000). Progress in understanding reading. New York, NY: Guilford. Torgesen, J., Wagner, R. & Rashotte, C. (1994). Longitudinal studies of phonological processing and reading. Journal of Learning Disabilities, vol. 27, n.5, pp. 276-86. Turner, W. & Fletcher, C. (1981). The relationship between conceptual tempo, phonological awareness and word recognition in beginning readers. Journal of Reading Behaviour, 13 (2), 173-185. Vellutino, F. & Scanlon, D. (1987). Phonological coding, phonological awareness and reading ability: Evidence from a longitudinal and experimental study. Merrill Palmer Quarterly,33, 321364. Lénia Carvalhais PhD student in Educational Sciences, University of Aveiro, with financement from FCT (Foundation for Sciences and Techonology). Carlos Silva PhD, Neuropsychologist and Full Professor at the University of Aveiro, Portugal.. Encontro: Revista de Psicologia • Vol. XI, Nº. 16, Ano 2007 • p. 37-47. 47.

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