Palavras-chave: crenças; processo de ensino e aprendizagem de línguas; pesquisa; Lingüística Aplicada.

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DISTINCTIVE FEATURES OF LANGUAGE LEARNING AND TEACHING BELIEFS PROJECTED IN BRAZILIAN APPLIED RESEARCH AND THE CONSTRUCTION OF DATA ELICITING

INSTRUMENTS

José Carlos Paes de ALMEIDA FLHO (UNICAMP) Kleber Aparecido da SILVA (UNICAMP)

Resumo

Neste artigo apresentaremos os resultados de uma meta-pesquisa sobre crenças no ensino e na aprendizagem de línguas publicadas na última década e sintetizaremos os fatores que caracterizam as crenças dos sujeitos. O contraste será buscado com as crenças tornadas evidentes no âmbito internacional, tais como aquelas evidenciadas por instrumentos como o de Horwitz (1985). A segunda parte deste artigo consistirá da apresentação de um instrumento de coleta de dados a partir dos estudos concluídos até agora e que leve em conta o perfil das crenças brasileiras além de discutir o grau de ajuste desse instrumento às condições de ensino e aprendizagem de línguas.

Palavras-chave: crenças; processo de ensino e aprendizagem de línguas; pesquisa;

Lingüística Aplicada.

1. Introduction

The interest in students and teachers’ beliefs about the Second-Foreign Language Acquisition Process in Brazilian Applied Linguistics began in the early 1990s, which is fairly recent with compared to other equivalent research lines such as contrastive analysis, interlanguage studies and error correction, all active since the sixties. The interest in students and teachers’ beliefs has maintained its tendency to expand and verticalize. Over the last decade, a number of dissertations and articles have appeared in different Brazilian scientific-academic journals1 and postgraduate programmes in Applied Linguistics. Also, several theses (Gimenez, 1994; Telles, 1996; Barcelos, 2000; Silva, S., 2001; Conceição,

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For example, the Revista Brasileira de Lingüística Aplicada (published by the Brazilian Applied Linguistics Association and the Federal University of Minas Gerais), Trabalhos de Lingüística Aplicada (published by

VII CONGRESSO BRASILEIRO DE LINGÜÍSTICA APLICADA - 2004

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2004) and master’s dissertations (Damião, 1994; Barcelos, 1995; Freitas, 1996; André, 1998; Félix, 1998; Maláter, 1998; Reynaldi, 1998; Rolim, 1998; Carvalho, 2000; Silva, I., 2000; Silva, 2001; Marques, 2002; Mastrella, 2002; Nonemacher, 2002; Bandeira, 2003; Dias, 2003; Leite, 2003; Perina, 2003; Silva, 2003; Belam, 2004) have been written on beliefs about Second-Foreign Language Acquisition.

Furthermore, it’s also frequent to see many workshops, symposia and roundtables on the formants of informal theories on second language acquisition (SLA) printed in the folders of such events. This is the case of the “Congress of the Applied Linguistics Association of Brazil”2, “Interchange of Research in Applied Linguistics”3), ELARCO (Center-West Applied Linguistics Meeting)4, among others.

These variables, in our point of view, have contributed to the consolidation of this important line of research within the Brazilian Applied Linguistics context and they have awaken the interest of different scholars around the country (Almeida Filho, 1999; Leffa, 2001; Gimenez, 2002; Barcelos, 2004; Vieira-Abrahão, mimeo; and so on).

In this paper we will present the result of a wide search for assertions about language learning and teaching beliefs in Brazilian published research over the past 10 years or so and make an effort to synthesize those features that characterize the subjects’ beliefs. A contrast will be sought with those beliefs made evident in the international scene such as the ones produced by widely used instruments like Horwitz’ (1985). The second part of the paper will, then, tackle the challenge of outlining a data-eliciting instrument that would take into account features of the Brazilian learner as regarding there beliefs and the fit of an instrument to our teaching and learning contexts.

2. Beliefs in learning/teaching language

According to Pajares (1992:307), beliefs have been called a “messy construct”. According to him, this difficulty may be partly due to the paradoxical nature of beliefs and the different agendas involved scholars. In this section, we briefly purpose discuss a

UNICAMP), D.E.L.T.A and The ESPECIALIST (published by the Catholic University of São Paulo), the Linguagem & Ensino (published by the Catholic University of Pelotas, State of Rio Grande do Sul).

2

CBLA (“Congresso Brasileiro de Lingüística Aplicada”)

3

INPA (“Intercâmbio de Pesquisas em Lingüística Aplicada”).

4

Event held at the University of Brasilia in November, 2003.

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definition of beliefs about SLA that can be of relevance to our ongoing projects in Applied Linguistics research centers.

Beliefs about SLA have been a topic of research for over ten years in Brazil now. According to Barcelos (2003:8) it is particularly difficult to define beliefs about SLA because there is plethora of terms that have been used in the available literature to refer to beliefs. Of course, these terms seem to reflect different researcher’s agenda. First, we present the terms have been used to refer the students’ beliefs. After that, we will discuss the other terms that have been used to refer the teachers’ beliefs.

Some of these apparent synonyms are “folk linguistics theories of learning” (Miller & Ginsberg, 1995), “learner representation” (Holec, 1987), “representations” (Riley, 1994), learners’ philosophy of language learning (Abraham & Vann, 1987), “learning culture” (Riley, 1997), “culture of learning” (Almeida Filho, 1993) and “culture of learning languages” (Barcelos, 1995). We shall see all of this terms in perspective, with they are corresponding definition in the table below5.

Table 1: Different terms and definition for beliefs about SLA

Terms Definitions “Folklinguistics theories of learning”

(Miller & Ginsberg, 1995)

“Ideas that students have about language and language learning” (Miller & Ginsberg, 1995:294).

“Learner representation” (Holec, 1987) “Learners’ entering assumptions about their roles and functions of teachers and teaching materials” (Holec, 1987:152).

“Representations” (Riley, 1994). “Popular ideas about the nature of language and languages, languages structure and language use, the relationship between thought and language, identity and language, language and intelligence, language and learning, and so on” (Riley, 1994:8)

“Learners’ philosophy of language learning” (Abraham & Vann, 1987).

“Beliefs about how language operates, and consequently, how it is learned” (Abraham & Vann, 1987:95).

“Learning culture” (Riley, 1997) “A set of representations, beliefs and values related to learning that directly influence [students] learning behavior” (Riley, 1997:122). “Culture of learning” (Almeida Filho,

1993)

“Ways of studying and of getting ready for the use of the target language considered to be

VII CONGRESSO BRASILEIRO DE LINGÜÍSTICA APLICADA - 2004 5

This table is a reduced and adapted version of one by Barcelos (2000:42). ALAB - Associação de Lingüística Aplicada do Brasil

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“normal” by the student and typical of his/her region, ethnicity, social class and family group, restricted in some cases, and transmitted as tradition, through time, in a naturalized, subconscious and implicit way” (Almeida Filho, 1993: 13).

Culture of learning languages (Barcelos, 1995)

“Learners’ intuitive implicit (or explicit) knowledge made of beliefs, myths, cultural assumptions and ideals about how to learn languages. This knowledge, according to learners’ age and social economic level, is based upon their previous educational experience, previous (and present?) reading about language learning and contact with other people like family, friends, relatives, teachers and so forth” (Barcelos, 1995:40).

According to Barcelos (2003:8), by looking at these different terms and definitions, it’s possible to make two general observations. Firstly, “all the definitions stress that beliefs about SLA refer to the nature of language and language learning”. Secondly, “some definitions emphasize the social and cultural nature of beliefs” such as first pointed out in the book by Almeida Filho (1993). Beliefs do not have only a (meta)cognitive dimension, but also a social dimension, because teachers and students are born out of our interactions with others and with their environment.

On the other hand, there are other terms to refer to teacher’s beliefs. To illustrate this variety, Table 2 shows a list of some of them that have been used to refer teachers’ beliefs.

Table 2: Some of the terms used in the literature to refer to teachers’ beliefs6

Terms Definition “Practical knowledge” (Elbaz, 1981) “A complex, practically-oriented set of

understandings which teachers actively use to shape and direct the work of teaching”. “Perspective” (Janesick, 1982) “A reflective, socially-derived interpretation

of experience that serves as a basis for subsequent action”.

“Beliefs and principles” (Munby , 1983) “Coherent structures that underlie a teacher’s practice”.

This table is a reduced and adapted version of one by Gimenez (1994:68-70). ALAB - Associação de Lingüística Aplicada do Brasil

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“Personal practical knowledge” (Connelly & Clandinin, 1984)

“Knowledge that is experiential, embodied, and reconstructed out of narratives of a teacher’s life”.

“Practical theories of Teaching” (Sanders & McCutcheon, 1986)

“Conceptual structures and visions that provide teachers with reasons for acting as they do. Often consciously held”.

“Implicit theories” (Clark, 1988)

“Implicit theories” (Breen, 1990)

“Eclectic aggregations of cause effect propositions. Not clearly articulated by their owners but inferred and reconstructed by researchers”.

“Personal conceptualization of the teaching-learning process. Entails a set of justifications for action in the classroom; the theory overlays what may be observable in that classroom with a particular interpretation”.

Images (Calderhead & Robson, 1991)

“Represent knowledge about teaching but might also act as models for action. In addition they frequently contain an affective component”.

“BAK” (Woods, 1996) “Spectrum ranging from conventionally accepted facts(knowledge) to a proposition for which there is accepted disagreement (beliefs)”.

In this article, beliefs are defined as “a set of ideas to which students, teachers and third party7 persons show adherence (in overtones) in relation to the processes of learning and teaching languages and which are constructed8 in them through their own life experience and that are maintained through time” (Silva, dissertation in progress:78)”.

3. Brazilian studies about teaching/learning language

In the previous section, we discussed the concept of “beliefs” about learning/teaching languages in Applied Linguistics. In this section, we will show some variables that have contributed to the consolidation of this concept in Applied Linguistics, especially in the Brazilian context. First, we will present the focus of the dissertations and

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By third party we mean other agents involved in the processes of learning and teaching languages such as school principal, area coordinator, student’s parents, textbook authors, people in charge of writing important national or provincial educational documents; and so on.

Beliefs can be constructed through interactive experince within robust contexts of communication. ALAB - Associação de Lingüística Aplicada do Brasil

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theses. After that, we will show tendencies revealed in public discussions held in recent academic events.

3.1 Dissertations and theses

From our vantage point, many variables have been contributed to the consolidation of this concept in Brazilian Applied Linguistics, especially the numbers of dissertations and theses that have been written by many scholars affiliated to post-graduated programmes in Applied Linguistics. To illustrate this, Table 3 shows the focus of investigation in Brazilian theses and dissertations.

Table 3: Theses and Dissertations Author/Scholar Year Research Focus

Damião 1994 Teachers of English

Gimenez 1994 Teachers and student-teachers of English Barcelos 1995 Student-teachers of English

Freitas 1996 Teachers of English

André 1998 Student-teachers of English Félix 1998 Teachers of English

Maláter 1998 Teachers of English

Reis 1998 Beginning teacher-educator Reynaldi 1998 Teachers of English and Portuguese Rolim 1998 Teachers of English

Garcia 1999 Brazilian learners of English Barcelos 2000 Teachers of English

Carvalho 2000 Student-teachers of English Mattos 2000 Teachers of English

Silva 2000 Student-teachers of English Silva, L. 2001 Student-teachers of English Marques 2001 Student-teachers of Spanish Silva, S. 2001 Teachers of English

Mastrella 2002 Brazilian learners of English Nonemacher 2002 Teachers of English

Bandeira 2003 Teachers of English Chimim 2003 Teachers of English

Dias 2003 Brazilian learners of English Leite 2003 Teachers of English

Perina 2003 Teachers of English

Silva 2003 Brazilian learners of English

Belam 2004 Teachers and student-teachers of English Conceição 2004 Brazilian learners of English

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By analysing the contents of Table 3, it’s possible to make some general statements: a) The focus of the many dissertation/theses is the teacher of English. Therefore, it’s necessary to develop more research on other foreign languages, for example, Spanish, French, Chinese, and so on. In Brazilian Applied Linguistics, there are few works (Marques, 2001) in this perspective

b) Many dissertations/theses elicit the beliefs of teachers and students. But, in our view, it’s necessary to investigate the beliefs of the others educational agents, for example, textbook authors, school coordinators, directors, students’ parents, and son on.

c) The majority of the studies surveyed seek to elicit teachers and students’ beliefs. Although this is certainly crucial, it’s necessary to expand the agenda. For example, to investigate the relationship between beliefs and actions; to ascertain the degree to which (certain) beliefs influence our teaching practices; and establish the amount of coherence between what is said and what is done by teachers.

3.2 Contemporary research efforts in the Brazilian scenes

So far, the beliefs of students and learners (of English particularly) have been the target of most the research efforts surveyed. The main focus has been the attempt to draw a profile of beliefs related to particular learners, students’ teachers or acting teachers in schools. Isolated efforts have been spotted in studies of particularly important single beliefs such as “the school can not teach successfully a foreign language”.

4. The construction of a data-gathering instrument

In this section, we show our proposal of a data-gathering instrument that would take into account the profile of Brazilian beliefs and the fit of an instrument to our teaching and learning contexts.

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Brazilian Beliefs on Language Learning and Teaching (BraBELT) What do you believe about language learning and teaching?

Below are some beliefs that people maintain about language learning and teaching. Read each belief and circle the number that best expresses your view

1=strongly agree 2=agree 3=neither agree or disagree

4=disagree 5=strongly disagree

Learning English depends strongly on the teacher 1 2 3 4 5 Grammar is required in order to learn English 1 2 3 4 5 It is best to learn English in an English-speaking country 1 2 3 4 5 The most important part of learning a foreign language is vocabulary

(words)

1 2 3 4 5

Some people have a special ability for learning foreign languages 1 2 3 4 5 It’s impossible to learn/teach English in (public) schools. 1 2 3 4 5 It is easier for children (than for adults) to learn a foreign language. 1 2 3 4 5 It is important to speak English with a native accent. 1 2 3 4 5 People in my country feel that it is important to learn languages/English 1 2 3 4 5 If I learn English well, I will have better job opportunities 1 2 3 4 5 Music is make it easier to learn languages/English 1 2 3 4 5 It’s important to repeat and practice a lot. 1 2 3 4 5 The most important part of learning English is translating from my

language.

1 2 3 4 5

It is important to speak English with a good pronunciation. 1 2 3 4 5 English is easier than Portuguese 1 2 3 4 5 The teacher of English needs to have a good relationship with his/her

students

1 2 3 4 5

In order to learn English one needs to think in English 1 2 3 4 5 It’s important to understand every word you hear or read. 1 2 3 4 5 The making of errors or mistakes is problematic for the learning process. 1 2 3 4 5 Games and playing are essential to learn English 1 2 3 4 5 English is not an important subject in the school curriculum 1 2 3 4 5 Circle the number showing your opinion. 1 2 3 4 5 English is a 1=very difficult, 2=difficult, 3=medium difficult, 4=easy,

5=very easy) language to learn.

1 2 3 4 5

Studying one hour per day, how long does it take to learn a language? 1=less than a year, 2=1-2 years, 3=3-5 years, 4=5-10 years, 5=you can’t learn a language in 1 hour a day.

1 2 3 4 5

How long does it take for university students to learn to become teachers of English? 1=less than a year, 2=1-2 years, 3=3-5 years, 4=5-10 years, 5=you never can’t teach a language.

1 2 3 4 5

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The above beliefs have been selected to appear in our instrument because they have been objective specific studies in literature surveyed. They are:

- “Learning English depends strongly on the teacher” (Carmagnani, 1993; André, 1998; Félix, 1998; Rolim, 1998; Teixeira da Silva, 2000; Silva, L. 2001; Batista, 2003).

- “Grammar is required in order to learn English” (Barcelos, 1995; Mastrella, 2002; Chimim, 2003; Leite, 2003; Silva, K. 2003; Batista, 2003).

- “It is best to learn English in an English-speaking country” (Viana, 1993; Barcelos, 1995; Carvalho, 2000; Batista, 2003).

- “The most important part of learning a foreign language is vocabulary (words)” (Leffa, 1991; Teixeira da Silva, 2000; Mastrella, 2002; Bandeira, 2003).

- “Some people have a special ability for learning foreign languages” (Félix, 1998; Lanzoni, 1998; Silva, K. 2003).

- “It’s impossible to learn/teach English in (public) schools” (Félix, 1998; Rolim, 1998; Silva, N. 2003).

- “It is easier for children (than for adults) to learn a foreign language” (Lanzoni, 1998; Carvalho, 2000).

- “It is important to speak English with a native accent” (Teixeira da Silva, 2000; Mastrella, 2002).

- “People in my country feel that it is important to learn languages/English” (Mastrella, 2002; Bandeira, 2003).

- “If I learn English well, I will have better job opportunities” (Mastrella, 2002; Bandeira, 2003).

- “Music is make it easier to learn languages/English” (Teixeira da Silva, 2000; Bandeira, 2003)

- “It’s important to repeat and practice a lot” (Lanzoni, 1998).

- “The most important part of learning English is translating from my language” (Bandeira, 2003).

- “It is important to speak English with a good pronunciation” (Mastrella, 2002). - “English is easier than Portuguese” (Viana, 1993)

- “The teacher of English needs to have a good relationship with his/her students” (Damião, 1994).

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- “In order to learn English one needs to think in English” (Mastrella, 2002). - “It’s important to understand every word you hear or read” (Mastrella, 2002). - “The making of errors or mistakes is problematic for the learning process” (Mastrella, 2002).

- “Games and playing are essential to learn English” (Bandeira, 2003).

- “English is not an important subject in the school curriculum” (Leffa, 1991).

5. Final Comments

The agenda that we have made explicit from the many research efforts survey in the Brazilian literature on the topic shows that are our knowledge is steadily growing on the topic of language learning and teaching beliefs. Some gaps are to be noticed: 1) although the study by Bandeira (2003) has given it a start, its still insufficient the effort to draw a relationship between beliefs and other components of informal theory of language learning; 2) the theoretical knowledge already available must now be made into a coherent whole accessible to the common teacher of English in our schools; 3) we still can not explain with and how beliefs evolve overtime and under certain conditions

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