Turkey and Nuclear Fuel Cycle for Peace
Turkey’s Pursuit for Peaceful Nuclear Energy
- Energy Stability as Primary Driver for Nuclear Energy Strategy
- Non-Material Aspect of the Issue
Despite the fact that Turkey's nuclear energy policy is not new, a strategy for the development of nuclear energy in the country was created only during the last 15 years. It is worth mentioning that Turkey's bilateral relations with some states are precisely shaped in the nuclear energy cooperation frameworks.
The Historical Development of Turkey’s Nuclear Energy Policy
- Initial Interests and First Plans
- New Series of Negotiations and the Rise of Proliferation Concerns
- The Last Developments and the Current Situation
First, Akkuyu was located in a zone of seismic stability․ The nearest settlement to the site was about 43 km away, the population density was low enough. 41 Akcay B., The Case of Nuclear Energy in Turkey: From Chernobyl to Akkuyu Nuclear Power Plants,.
Legal Framework
- Nuclear Energy Regulations in Turkey
- The Turkish Nuclear Energy Administration
The second section refers to the activities of the main administrative bodies involved in the nuclear energy sector, namely the Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources, the Turkish Atomic Energy Authority, the Nuclear Regulatory Authority and the Energy Market Regulatory Authority. The regulatory framework for nuclear energy use and nuclear safety in Turkey consists of regulatory documents at five levels (Figure 2). The adoption of the Atomic Energy Law was an important step towards the legislative consolidation of Turkish energy policy and constitutes the legal basis for Turkey's nuclear energy policy.
5710 became the first law in Turkey related to the nuclear energy sector, which was adopted in 2007. 32 The law stipulated that permits for carrying out certain types of activities related to the construction and operation of nuclear power plants are issued to the companies that perform work and provide services within the use of atomic energy. 5710 regarding the construction and operation of nuclear power plants and the sale of energy generated from these plants, plays an important role in Turkey's nuclear energy regulatory system.
Promotion of nuclear energy policies is one of the main priorities of ENRM, which, according to the Ministry, is not Turkey's choice, but the only way out of the energy crisis. Turkey became interested in the possible use of nuclear energy in the early stages of the development of the world's nuclear energy sector.
Turkey’s Nuclear Non-Proliferation Policy
Turkey on the Crossroads of the Global Nuclear Proliferation Concerns
The seriousness of the issue became especially clear after the end of the Cold War. Thus, according to one of the scientific researches on the issue, in the regions concerned, Turkey shows the greatest rates of illegal trade in nuclear and radioactive materials for the period from 1991 to 2005 (Diagram 3). In general, Russia and some of the former Soviet republics, along with Pakistan, are considered the main sources of nuclear smuggling, as they possess large quantities of nuclear research reactors fueled by highly enriched uranium (HEU).
Therefore, Russia and some former Soviet republics, such as Georgia, Armenia, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, were the main routes for smugglers to obtain and transport sensitive materials that were sold on the black markets of the Black Sea. region, mostly in Turkey. Nevertheless, this research confirms that Turkey was not the end user of these materials, as there is no historical evidence that Turkey had a secret nuclear weapons program, raising the possibility of Turkey's use of smuggled materials. The most possible destinations for materials and technologies seized on Turkish territory are Iran, Libya, North Korea and Pakistan79.
In 2004, the political scandal created by the disclosure of the nuclear trade network of the Pakistani scientist Abdul Qadeer Khan did not bypass Turkey either. One of the latest seizures of nuclear material in Turkey occurred in 2005 when 173 g of Russian enriched uranium was confiscated in Istanbul.
Turkey’s Nuclear Non-Proliferation Posture
The NSG's non-proliferation principle covers the cases where the state's compliance with the NPT regime is not a guarantee for the state's further compliance with the Treaty obligations86. On the contrary, the export of nuclear technologies is of particular concern in Turkey's non-proliferation policy. To understand the essence of the problem, we must make some references to the alleged Iranian nuclear program and the resonance it provoked in the regime.
The aim of the first subchapter was to uncover the factors that have influenced or continue to influence Turkey's nuclear non-proliferation record, and which are often forgotten in the academic literature. The prominence of Khan's network led to an overall decline in nuclear trafficking cases in Turkey. The second subchapter discussed the main international instruments responsible for nuclear non-proliferation and Turkey's involvement in these structures.
Turkey's position in the context of non-proliferation of enrichment and reprocessing technologies appeared to differ from that of most supplier countries, which can be explained in light of Turkey's overall nuclear energy pursuit. A major determinant of Turkey's pursuit of full access to nuclear technologies has been conditioned by its nuclear energy program.
Turkey’s Shared Responsibilities for Nuclear Disarmament
Under the NATO’s Nuclear Umbrella
- Nuclear Sharing or Proliferation
- Turkey and the Nuclear Sharing
- The Current Situation: The Possible Fate of the TNW on the Turkish Soil
This issue was in fact one of the most controversial during the Treaty negotiations and has not yet received a clear answer. 51 For decades, NATO has been trying to convince that the nuclear subprogram does not violate the above-mentioned articles of the NPT, because the Treaty does not apply during the 'general war'. Whether it is a violation of the NPT or not, sharing nuclear weapons is a reality and Turkey shares the opportunities and responsibilities it presents.
Turkey was the wall that blocked the Soviets' access to the Suez Canal, the Mediterranean and the oil fields of the Middle East. The first Jupiter was deployed in Turkey in 1959 and quickly became one of the main subjects of the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962, again proving the vital importance of the Turkish Straits to the Soviet Union. After the end of the Cold War, Turkey reassessed its perceptions of security threats. However, some security issues remained unresolved for Turkey, and the Turkish government still counted on the deterrent power of nuclear weapons․ The targets of its security policy became the immediate internal enemies, that is, the rebellious Kurdish minority, and 'potential threats' in the Middle East.
The last decade of the 20th century became the beginning of dynamic geostrategic changes in the whole world, including Turkey. 120 According to some sources, the Kurdistan Workers' Party is said to be one of the terrorist organizations interested in acquiring weapons for the CBRN. It is a known fact that tactical nuclear weapons are more vulnerable to nuclear theft due to their size and weight.
The Regional Dimensions of Turkey’s Nuclear Disarmament Policy
- The Perspective of WMDFZ in the Middle East and Turkey
- The Obstacles to the Establishment of WMDFZ/ME: What is the Share for Turkey?
- The Turkish Posture on Iran’s Nuclear Program
- Turkey’s Path from Observer to Mediator for Iran’s Nuclear Issue
Therefore, it is quite clear that the security situation in the Middle East is a priority concern of Turkey. Despite the fact that establishing a WMD-free zone in the region would partially address Turkey's national security concerns, the Turkish government has not joined the zone lobby. In the case of the Middle East, threats to Turkey are conventional and unconventional in nature.
Turkey's attitude towards the Iranian nuclear program is one of the well-discussed topics in studies of Turkey's nuclear non-proliferation and disarmament policies. Thus, the diplomatic efforts of Turkey and Brazil promoted a breakthrough in resolving the Iranian nuclear issue. After the Tehran Declaration, Turkey's attitudes towards the Iranian nuclear program began to transform in the context of the Middle East crisis.
The research supports, given Turkey's currently weakened relations with the majority of Middle Eastern states, the U.S. The thesis attempts to treat Turkey's policy in the regime through a common standpoint of national security. Instead, the thesis maintains that the country's geographic location is key in assessing Turkey's proliferation tendency.
As a result, Turkey's involvement in WMDFZ/ME and Iran's nuclear program discourses has significantly decreased.
Diagrams
The diagram shows the scarcity of national energy resources in Turkey and the massive share of imported oil and gas. Natural gas import ratio is almost 99% for Turkey, which is one of the highest rates in the world. The cases of illegal trade in nuclear and radioactive materials in the Caucasus, Central Asia and Turkey.
The 1990s were marked by the dramatic increase in the illicit trade in nuclear materials and related technologies in the Black Sea region, including Turkey. The regional arms race was not only reflected in the pursuit of acquiring weapons of mass destruction. Nuclear power has also been seen as a vanguard of energy stability, which reduces the security sensitivity of states in general.
Therefore, it was crucial for states in a volatile region such as the Middle East to ensure their energy independence by integrating the nuclear energy sector into their overall energy resources.
Tables
Joint working paper submitted by the members of the Non-Proliferation and Disarmament Initiative [Electronic source]// 2015 Review Conference of the Parties to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons. 89 of the Agreement between the Republic of Turkey and the United States on the Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy and the Memorandum of Understanding) [Electronic source]. Turkey-Iran economic and commercial relations [Electronic source] // Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Turkey.
Policy of zero problems with our neighbors [Electronic source] // Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Turkey. Press release regarding the decision to postpone the international conference on the establishment of a Middle East zone free of nuclear weapons and all other weapons of mass destruction [Electronic source] // Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Turkey. Akcay B., The case of nuclear energy in Turkey: From Chernobyl to Akkuyu nuclear power plants / B.
Turkiye'nin Nukleer Enerji Stratejisi: Buyuk Guc Olma İdeali (Turkey's Nuclear Energy Strategy: The Ideal of Becoming a Great Power) / M. Temocin P. Framing Opposition to Nuclear Power: The Case of Akkuyu in South-Est Turkey / P. Temocin // Asian Journal of Peacebuilding.
