The Long Term Development of Basketball Athletes-An approach based on the conceptions of expert coaches international models of basketball development

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(1)The Long Term Development of Basketball Athletes:. An approach based on the conceptions of expert coaches on international models of basketball development.. Dissertação apresentada com vista à obtenção do 2º Ciclo (grau de Mestre). em. Treino. de. Alto. Rendimento Desportivo ao abrigo do Decreto-Lei nº74/2006, de 24 de Março. Supervisor: Professor Doctor Fernando José Silva Tavares Co-supervisor: Master Américo José Ferreira de Oliveira Santos. Anthony M. Lamontagne Porto 2013.

(2) Lamontagne, Anthony M. (2013). The Long Term Development of Basketball Athletes: An approach based on the conceptions of expert coaches on international models of basketball development. Masters dissertation thesis on Sports Science submitted to the Sports Faculty – University of Porto.

(3) Acknowledgement. Research is good and one of the good things about research is that it can be a very humbling experience to put it mildly! I tearfully thank God for that and everything else. Come on how else could I have completed this? I thank my parents they forever demonstrated what it takes to make anything happen; they have been near perfect! To give you an idea of just how near they are, if given the opportunity again, without a doubt, I would choose them to parent me. My only prayer is that I would be better to you, mom, dad, much better! Talking about family, there is Liz and that was not her first intervention in my adult education, thanks sis! Now the other family members in alphabetical order: Val, Sandra, Sabrina, Rui, Patricia, Nione, Nansen, Merle, M àrio, Luis, Lisa, João, Erik, Dona, Daynia, Charms and Anna. Wow, I believe in large families. And if life is truly less about what I know but who I know or better, who knows me, I am truly blessed! I sincerely thank you and cherish your love and friendship. When you ask a high profile professional to meet freely with a stranger on a computer who is miles away and to have that meeting recorded you would probably agree that it takes a special individual to say yes. With every interview, I was as a triumphant child. Yes! This would not have been possible without you; everything you! So join me as I lift up my glass to these professionals. You who gave of your time and participated in spite of being busy with the X and O of your life, I and others will be indebted to you forever. Thank you; you are ‘real ballers’!. iv.

(4) Lastly, I would like to acknowledge the invaluable support and wisdom of my supervisors Professor Doctor Fernando José Silva Tavares and Professor Américo José Ferreira de Oliveira Santos. Muito obrigado!. v.

(5) Resumo. O. presente. estudo. procurou. analisar,. à. luz. dos. modelos. de. desenvolvimento a longo prazo do atleta e do Modelo de desenvolvimento de participação desportiva, o desenvolvimento de atletas de basquetebol em países do top 20 do ranking da FIBA. Recorrendo a entrevistas semi-estruturadas, procedemos. à recolha de. dados de 16 treinadores expert da modalidade de diferentes países, Austr àlia, Brasil, Canad à, Alemanha, Espanha e Estados Unidos da América. Os principais resultados apontam para uma idade inicial de introdução dos participantes vari àvel entre os 5 e os 12 anos de idade, facto consistente com as duas fases iniciais dos modelos referenciados. Foram identificadas diversas formas e instituições de introdução dos atletas na modalidade. Os dados suportam a colocação do enfâse no desenvolvimento e na aprendizagem, associado a uma introdução gradual e apropriada da competição como é referenciado nos modelos. Após a fase de introdução, os dados revelaram uma intricada rede de atividades, instituições, competições e programas em diferentes níveis, que são consistentes com as etapas propostas pelos modelos. É realçada, a existência de múltiplos percursos para avançar para níveis de performance mais avançados ou optar por uma participação meramente recreativa. Um ponto comum aos elementos da amostra é a sugestão da necessidade da criação de múltiplas oportunidades para a identificação, participação e desenvolvimento dos atletas.. vi.

(6) Consistente com os modelos, a pré adolescência foi identificada como um período favor àvel para o desenvolvimento de habilidades coordenativas, sendo os períodos da adolescência e pós adolescência considerados oportunos para o desenvolvimento das capacidades físicas. Os dados referem inclusive a necessidade de um desenvolvimento contínuo dos aspectos coordenativos e condicionais durante todos os anos de pr àtica da modalidade. Os fatores que que contribuem significativamente para a progressão dos jogadores são, em ordem de importância, as capacidades físicas, os fatores psicológicos, fatores biológicos e fatores sociais. Isto sugere uma visão mais alargada da identificação do talento. Os dados revelaram diversas pr àticas de liderança administrativa e organizacional destinadas a influenciar positivamente o desenvolvimento dos participantes. Por exemplo, a obrigatoriedade de certificação através de formação especializada com vista ao desenvolvimento técnico e profissional dos treinadores.. PALAVRAS-CHAVE: BASQUETEBOL, MODELOS DE DESENVOLVIMENTO, IDENTIFICAÇÃO DO TALENTO, ESPECIALIZAÇÃO DESPORTIVA, TREINO. vii.

(7) Abstract. This study aimed to examine the development of basketball participants in countries that are ranked within the top 20 in basketball and to ascertain how closely these practices resemble the Long-Term Athlete Development and Developmental Model of Sport Participation. Through the use of semi structured interviews, data was collected from 16 technical experts from Australia, Brazil, Canada, Germany, Spain and United States of America. The data revealed an age range of 5 to 12 years for the introduction of participants to basketball which is consistent with the two beginning phases of the Models. Various settings characterised during introduction was found to exist. The data support the emphasis on development and learning coupled with the gradual introduction of appropriate competition as is outlined in the models. Following introduction, the data revealed an intricate network of activities, institutions, competitions and programmes at multiple levels that is consistent with the stages advanced by the models. It is clear from the data that multiple avenues exist for advancing to higher performance levels or merely participating recreationally. The varied interventions suggest the creation of multiple opportunities for participation, development and identification. Consistent with the models, preadolescent was identified as a favourable period for the development of coordinative abilities and adolescence and postadolescent periods as opportune for the development of fitness components. Further, the data support the continuous attention to coordination and fitness development throughout the basketball years.. viii.

(8) The factors that significantly contribute to the movement of players in order of significance were physical skills, psychological factors, biological factors and social factors. This suggests a broad view to talent identification.. The data. revealed a number of administrative and organisational leadership practices aimed at influencing the outcome of participant development positively. For example the data support the certification, rectification and specialisation exercises aimed at the professional and technical development of coaches.. KEYWORDS:. BASKETBALL,. DEVELOPMENT. MODELS,. TALENT. IDENTIFICATION, SPORT SPECIALIZATION, SPORT PATHWAYS, TRAINING. ix.

(9) Table of Contents. Acknowledgement ..............................................................................................................................iv Resumo................................................................................................................................................vi Abstract ............................................................................................................................................. viii List of Tables ...................................................................................................................................... xiii Acronyms........................................................................................................................................... xvi. CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... 1 1.1. Background to Study ........................................................................................................... 1. 1.2. Problem Statement ............................................................................................................. 5. 1.3. Research Objectives ............................................................................................................ 6. 1.4. Significance of the Study ..................................................................................................... 7. 1.5. Structure of Thesis .............................................................................................................. 9. CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF LITERATURE .......................................................................................... 11 2.1. Introduction....................................................................................................................... 11. 2.2. Conceptualising Models .................................................................................................... 11. 2.3. Structure - Phases of Development .................................................................................. 14. 2.4. Transition – Talent Evaluation........................................................................................... 20. 2.5. Dynamism – Routes to Participation and Excellence ........................................................ 24. 2.6. Content - Volume, Training and Competition ................................................................... 27. 2.7. Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 31. CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY .................................................................................. 35 3.1. Introduction....................................................................................................................... 35. 3.2. Research Design ................................................................................................................ 35. 3.3. Data Collection .................................................................................................................. 37. 3.4. Data Analysis ..................................................................................................................... 42. 3.5. Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 43 x.

(10) CHAPTER FOUR: DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS .................................................................... 44 4.1. Introduction....................................................................................................................... 44. 4.2. The Introductory Phase ..................................................................................................... 44. 4.2.1. Age ............................................................................................................................. 45. 4.2.2. Avenues ..................................................................................................................... 46. 4.2.3. Objectives .................................................................................................................. 47. 4.2.4. Competitive Contests ................................................................................................ 50. 4.2.5. Multi-Sport Involvement & Specialisation ................................................................ 52. 4.3. Post Introductory Pathways & Routes .............................................................................. 55. 4.4. Training Specifics ............................................................................................................... 62. 4.4.1. Coordinative Abilities ................................................................................................ 62. 4.4.2. Aerobic and Strength Components ........................................................................... 63. 4.4.3. Individualisation ........................................................................................................ 65. 4.4.4. Competition and Winning Importance...................................................................... 67. 4.5. Transition and Progression Factors ................................................................................... 69. 4.5.1. Movement from Phase to Phase ............................................................................... 69. 4.5.2. Perception of Talent .................................................................................................. 71. 4.6. Leadership and Direction .................................................................................................. 74. 4.6.1. Coaching .................................................................................................................... 74. 4.6.2. Personnel Attached to Teams ................................................................................... 76. 4.6.3. Synergy among Related Institutions ......................................................................... 77. 4.6.4. Pairing Player Development to International Performance ...................................... 79. 4.7. Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 82. xi.

(11) CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION & CONCLUSION .................................................................................... 83 5.1. Introduction....................................................................................................................... 83. 5.2. Discussion .......................................................................................................................... 83. 5.3. Recommendations .......................................................................................................... 100. 5.4. Suggestions for Further Research ................................................................................... 104. 5.5. Limitations ....................................................................................................................... 105. 5.6. Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 106. BIBLIOGRAPHY................................................................................................................................. 109. xii.

(12) List of Tables. Chapter Two. Table 1:. LTAD stages (Early & Late Specialisation) & DMSP stages. Table 2:. LTAD stages adapted. Table 3:. DMSP stages adapted. Table 4:. Difference between Deliberate Play & Deliberate Practice. Table 5:. The Developmental Model of Sport Participation. Chapter Three. Table 6:. Background information of the Participants. Table 7:. List of Interview Items. Chapter Four. Table 8:. Age at which Participants are introduced to Basketball. Table 9:. Avenues for the Introduction to Basketball. xiii.

(13) Table 10:. Objectives associated with the Introduction to Basketball. Table 11:. Comments, Adjustments and Accommodations regarding Competition during Introduction to Basketball. Table 12:. Views about Multi-sport Participation & Statistics regarding age of Specialisation. Table 13a:. Post-introductory Pathways, Routes, Institutions and Programmes (Australia). Table 13b:. Post-introductory Pathways, Routes, Institutions and Programmes (Brazil). Table 13c:. Post-introductory Pathways, Routes, Institutions and Programmes (Canada). Table 13d:. Post-introductory Pathways, Routes, Institutions and Programmes (Germany). Table 13e:. Post-introductory Pathways, Routes, Institutions and Programmes (Spain). Table 13f:. Post-introductory Pathways, Routes, Institutions and Programmes (USA). Table 14:. Focus on Coordinative Abilities. Table 15:. Fitness Components - Aerobic and Strength Emphasis. xiv.

(14) Table 16:. Efforts at Individualisation. Table 17:. Emergence in Importance of Competition and Winning. Table 18:. Factors that Influence the Movement of Players from one Phase to Another. Table 19:. Talented Player - Personal Description. Table 20:. Coaching Development and Certification Levels. Table 21:. Professionals and Officials attached to Teams (apart from the Head Coach). Table 22:. Federation’s Intra-relationship. Table 23:. Connectedness - Participant Development and Country’s Performance. xv.

(15) Acronyms. DMPS. -. Developmental Model of Sport Participation. FIBA. -. International Basketball Federation. LTAD. -. Long Term Athlete Development. NBA. -. National Basketball Association. PHV. -. Peak Height Velocity. US. -. United States. xvi.

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(17) CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION. 1.1. Background to Study. With its origin from North America, today, basketball is recognised as a favourite sport, internationally. Basketball was invented by Dr. James Naismith in 1891. Later, college basketball in the US was established and the first game occurred on February 9, 1895. Since then, the sport has spread in popularity all over the world. On 18th June 1932, representatives from eight countries gathered for the formation of the International Basketball Federation (FIBA). Eighty years later, FIBA membership count stands at 213 federations. To date, sixteen men and women's World Championships have been held and basketball has been played at 17 Olympics. The 2012 finals of the National Basketball Association (NBA), recorded soaring figures as reported by the Sun Sentinel, “More fans than ever have tuned into the Finals around the world, watching the games live in 215 nations and territories in 47 languages on television, computers, mobile phones and tablets. A record 278 million are following on social media, many of them on the NBA's 11 international Facebook pages.” The NBA is the fifth Most Profitable Sports League in the world (Ask Men) and for 2012 Forbes (Forbes) lists two basketball athletes in the top ten and seven in the top fifty, as highest paid athletes in the world. Indeed, basketball is one of the most popular sports worldwide and one of the most widely viewed. However the development of basketball is not spearheaded equally in the world. Of the 213 member federations, FIBA ranking lists 118 countries and ends with the following note: ‘The countries that are not listed have 0 points and are therefore all positioned, with the same rank, after the last country listed.’. 1.

(18) The rankings of FIBA generally reveal a discrepancy between developed and developing countries. Developed countries appear to be ranked comparatively higher than developing countries. With the growth of professionalization and changes in the market economy in the sports sector, there has been a potential challenge that the skills of the administration, the management and the primary professions oriented towards efficient delivery are not adequately appreciated (Jovanović, 2011). Surely the development of any aspect of sport including athletes is a function of management. According to the Oxford Dictionaries Online, management is ‘the process of dealing with or controlling things or people.’ Managing the development of top-level athletes is a complex and dynamic process that demands the application of dynamic systems theory (Trninić, Trninić, & Papić, 2009). The contribution of Bloom and Van Reenen (2010) to the topic, ‘Why Do Management Practices Differ across Firms and Countries?’ affirmed that ‘the patterns within our large samples of management data across firms and countries have led us to believe that one important explanation for the large differences in productivity between firms and countries—differences that cannot be readily explained by other factors—is variations in management practices.’ On the other hand, developing countries find it more challenging to produce high quality players and performances. It is clear that many governments in developing countries are eager to promote physical education and sport for the masses, but the problems faced by such countries are immense and in some cases overwhelming (Chappell, 2001). The lack of programmes, development structures and pathways in developing countries yield very little production. This lower level of investment debilitates the potential for the development of basketball talent. Rankings of junior and senior performances in many sports seem to indicate that high success rates with junior athletes do not necessarily correspond to high success rates when these same athletes become seniors. Commonalities of. 2.

(19) research on ‘Talent Identification and Development’ suggests five broad constructs; sport specialization and selection, practice, athlete development, junior and adult success, and the role of stakeholders in the sport system (Pankhurst & Collins, 2013). Pankhurst and Collins (2013) go on to add that an analysis of these constructs provides a clear picture of the degree of consistency that exists between ‘Talent Identification and Development’ research and practice, and offers both a potential explanation and a consequent action for athlete success or failure. Therefore, it would be useful to investigate the commonalities between the models that are used to develop basketball athletes in countries that are ranked high by FIBA and the theories/models of Participant Development. Together the practises of these highly ranked countries and the theories of Participant Development may provide a profile that can be better substantiated. In order to develop players successfully, there must be a proven ‘model of development’ which allows for some basic characteristics. The characteristics of such an environment would include mass introduction, progressive development and suitable scientific programmes. It is imperative that these programmes cater to the varied needs of the participants and high performance objectives and is manned by a highly qualified team. Durand-Bush and Salmela (2002), perceived several factors to be important in the development and maintenance of expert athletic performance; contextual factors (parents, coaches, teammates, friends, support staff and school/education), personal characteristics, (self-confidence, motivation, creativity, and perseverance), training, (technical, tactical, physical and mental components), and competitions, (planning, evaluations and focus). Countries that are not ranked by FIBA tend to have a myriad of technical issues and shortcomings. Their limited number of youth athletes is subjected to training and competitions that do not enhance their development. Preparation is geared toward winning in the short-term rather than long-term development. The bulk of the coaching at the developmental level is executed by inexperienced volunteers instead of qualified coaches. Trninić, Papić, and Trninić (2009),. 3.

(20) concluded that expert coaches have many tasks within their role in professional sports that are made obvious in connecting expert knowledge and experience and cognitions in contemporary sports science with the purpose of bettering athlete's performance and competition efficacy. Without such a connection, the fundamental movement skills and sport skills are not properly developed. To these issues, Capranica and Millard-Stafford (2011), offer the following: sport scientists must apply innovative and multidisciplinary approaches to interface the unique demands of youth competition and training with the physiological and psychological capacity of child athletes. It stands to follow that in the absence of a suitable strategic intervention, most participants will be underdeveloped.. 4.

(21) 1.2. Problem Statement. The introduction to sport and the appropriateness of sporting programmes for beginners through to elitism continue to receive considerable attention in academic literature (Adegbesan, Mokgwathi, Omolawon, Ammah & Oladipo, 2010; Ford et al., 2011; Gonçalves, Rama, & Figueiredo, 2012; Pankhurst & Collins, 2013; Vierimaa, Erickson, Côté, & Gilbert, 2012). The understanding that elite performances. and. elite. athletes. are. the. result. of. carefully. sculptured. developmental programmes has never been clearer. An increasing number of countries along with their basketball federations and in some cases governments now adopt and make strides towards developing models that improve their competitiveness. The ability to maintain high levels of performances depends on the existence of a luring, accommodating, developmental environment, together with supportive systems. Genetic predisposition to growth can be fully expressed only under favourable environmental conditions (Georgopoulos et al., 2010). So the athlete's development is a multi-dimensional and plastic process that is under the influence of the genetic potential, the sports preparation process and the competition system, as well as the social and sports environment (Trninić et al., 2009). It is my observation that a fundamental hindrance to the development of basketball players and performances is the unavailability of a model (scientifically based), for developing players. Therefore if there is no systematic development of athletes, no approach to identifying talent and no clear developmental pathway, the athlete’s genetic potential and optimal performances will be severely hindered.. 5.

(22) 1.3. Research Objectives. This paper focuses on answering the following questions: How are basketball-players developed in countries that are ranked within the top 20 in basketball? How do the development of participants in the countries that are ranked highly, compare to the Long-Term Athlete Development Model and Developmental Model of Sport Participation?. 6.

(23) 1.4. Significance of the Study. From involvement to elitism, participation and performance in basketball is a product of push (self-interest) and pull (participant centred) factors. Whereas giftedness, elitism and training have received much attention, success at all participation levels necessitates continuous attention to quality long-term development particularly at the junior levels. Today the trend suggests that children are increasingly involved in activities that are less related to physical activity despite the connection between physical inactivity and the myriad of ailments that plague society. There is correlation between basketball, the opportunities for gaining a scholarship to further education and pursuing a lucrative career. Three key development sectors come into focus; sport, health and education. Policy makers and other relevant officials associated with these sectors will be able to suggest and make changes that are applicable. Health may focus specifically on issues that are related to appropriateness and aspects that encourage lifelong mass participation in basketball. The results may lead to innovative solutions that encourage children to be involved with basketball regardless of their performance level. Education may find growth and developmental issues particularly useful especially when combined with Physical Education. Questions such as, ‘who has the formal authority to teach and coach school participants?’ are yet to be answered. ‘Is there justification to revisit the curriculum as well as policy decisions regarding preparation, training, dosage, coaching and competition?’ is another unanswered question. Therefore, if the goal is to provide stimulating educational experiences to better equip participants and athletes with skills acquired from multiple domains then it will be possible to inch closer to the answers. In the process it will be possible to become more exact, regarding the type of professional development sessions (training, workshops, seminars) that may be necessary for providers of Physical Education, basketball. 7.

(24) and sport in general. The results may reveal leadership, administrative and management practices that can be productively incorporated. Therefore, “leaders particularly basketball technocrats may become better furnished to lead and drive the umbrella of issues that impact participation, development and performance in a more positive manner.” There is a growing association between sport and tourism. Many developing countries depend on tourism and therefore an enhanced basketball product (development and performances), can leverage Sport Tourism.. Teams from. developed countries particularly within the education system or at the junior club level often explore opportunities for travel, to visit and to compete. Leaders may move beyond a mere appreciation and purposefully push towards nurturing a basketball product that has the potential to attract visiting teams and their entourage as well as regional and international contests. The participants and athletes that are expected to benefit most will hopefully be provided with quality multidimensional instruction that will ensure continuous participation, growth, development and a competitive edge. Indeed, training is necessary to reach elite status, however the understanding of officials, regarding the importance of the wholesome development of the individual may broaden their approach to the participants and preparation. Officials involved with highperformance basketball athletes may be more inclined to foster a more balanced perspective that acknowledges and promotes ways of prevailing beyond basketball. At some point athletes will retire from elite sport and need to continue contributing to the development of their country in multiple ways.. 8.

(25) 1.5. Structure of Thesis. Chapter one, ‘The Introduction’, develops the rationale for the study. It outlines the background of the problem as well as the contributing issues. The general need for the study and the specific problem that will be addressed is defined. The theories and concepts, which are useful in conceptualizing the research, are discussed as well as the variables that relate to the problem. The problem statement highlights the gap in the knowledge which is the reason for the study and leads to the establishment of the research questions. The significance of the study follows and is related to improving the human condition. Chapter two, ‘Review of Literature’, provides an understanding of the motivation for and importance of this thesis by examining the literature that is related to this research. This historical overview will define the key concepts that are dealt with in this thesis. A connection will be made between previous work and this study in order to narrow the gap between theory and practice. This will establish the study as one link in a chain of ‘developing knowledge’ and as a result identify further opportunities for research. Chapter three, ‘Research Methodology’, describes the details that are pertinent to this investigation. It explains all the processes that led to the data acquisition with specific reference to the participants, instrumentation, data collection, and data treatment procedures. In Chapter four, ‘Data Presentation and Analysis’, I present the breakdown and interpretation of the data gathered out of the instruments used in the study. It is presented according to the specific problem sited in chapter one. The major areas of participant development are discussed through the use of tabular and. 9.

(26) textual presentations. Finally, the relationship between models of participant development and selected countries is revealed. Chapter five, ‘Discussion and Conclusion’, provides an analysis of the data presented through a summary of major findings. Valuable connections will be made between existing research and the results of my analysis that leads to specific conclusions. The important trends and differences will be highlighted which leads to an outline for direction and future research.. 10.

(27) CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF LITERATURE. 2.1. Introduction. The purpose of this chapter is to review the literature that is relevant to this study. It establishes a theoretical framework and in particular, it draws from models that support the topic. First under subheading, 2.2 Conceptualising Models, the Long-Term Athlete Development (LTAD) and Developmental Model of Sport Participation (DMSP) will be introduced. What follows is a critical review of the main issues headed accordingly: 2.3 Structure - Phases of Development, 2.4 Transition – Talent Evaluation, 2.5 Dynamism – Routes to Participation and Excellence, 2.6. Content - Volume, Training and Competition and finally, 2.7. Conclusion.. 2.2. Conceptualising Models. Many countries use models to describe interventions in sport including participant development. The oxford online dictionary defines model as ‘a thing used as an example to follow or imitate.’. Participant development is particularly useful in any sport development program because it maps a course of activities and systems through which sporting personalities are nurtured. Models are a common feature of research and are actionable in formulating policies. Though models may not capture everything pertaining to a subject, they provide an understanding of the subject and is usually characterised by sequences and relationships.. 11.

(28) The features of a model that are considered to be the most crucial are usually highlighted. This makes it possible to undergo exercises associated with critical thought, investigation and evaluation. In that regard a model must be refutable and its usefulness judged by accuracy, convenience, and uniformity.. In research, the following Models of Participant Development have received considerable attention and will be used throughout this study. They are Istvan Balyi’s Long-Term Athlete Development (LTAD) (Ford et al., 2011; Greyson, Kelly, Peyrebrune, & Furniss, 2010; Lang & Light, 2010) and Jean Côté’s Developmental Model of Sport Participation (DMSP) (Ford, Ward, Hodges, & Williams, 2009; Ford & Williams, 2008; Rynne & McLean, 2011). Balyi’s LTAD is a training, competition, and recovery program based on developmental age — the maturation level of an individual — rather than chronological age; it is athlete centred and coach driven (Balyi & Hamilton, 2010). It was developed from Balyi’s empirical observations of elite athletes. This model is physiologically orientated and consists of a number of stages through which young people pass. The stages are termed accordingly: Fundamentals, Learning to Train, Training to Train, Training to Compete, Training to Win and Retaining. Early specialization sports require a four-phase model, while late specialization sports such as basketball; require a six-stage model:. Table 1: LTAD stages (Early & Late Specialisation) & DMSP stages LTAD DMSP. Early Specialization Model Late Specialization Model 1. Training to Train. 1. FUNdamental. 2. Training to Compete. 2. Learning to Train. 3. Training to Win. 3. Training to Train. 4. Retirement / Retainment. 4. Training to Compete 5. Training to Win 6. Retirement / Retainment. 12. 1.. Sampling. 2.. Specialising. 3.. Investment.

(29) Côté’s DMSP end is to demonstrate different pathways of sport involvement that can potentially lead to lifelong participation (Côté, 1999; Stambulova, Alfermann, Statler, & Coté, 2009). DMSP was advanced following interviews with elite Canadian and Australian athletes. The model describes three phases of development; Sampling phase (6–12 years), Specialising phase (13–15 years) and Investment phase (16+ years).. 13.

(30) 2.3. Structure - Phases of Development. The LTAD advances the development of the athlete through six distinctive phases.. Table 2: LTAD stages adapted (Balyi & Hamilton, 2010) PHASE FUNdamentals. YEARS. MAIN FOCUS. DETAILS. 5–9. Overall development of the athlete’s physical capacities and fundamental movement skills.  Multi sports  Use FUN games  Appropriate and correct techniques are taught using agility, balance, coordination and speed (the ABCs of athletics)  Introduction to the simple rules and ethics of sports Training with exercises that using own body weight.. 8 – 12. Learn all fundamental sports skills.  Further develop fundamental movement skills, strength and endurance  Learn general sports skills  Continue to develop speed and knowledge  Competition is structured with a ratio of 70:30 training/practice to competition. 11–16. Overall development of athlete’s physical capacities - focus on aerobic conditioning and fundamental movement skills.  Further develop speed and sport-specific skills, the aerobic base and knowledge  Learn correct weightlifting techniques  60% training to 40% competition ratio (including competition and competitionspecific training). 15–18. Optimise fitness preparation, sportspecific skills and performance.  Fifty per cent of available time is devoted to the development of technical and tactical skills, fitness improvements, competition and competition-specific training  Learn to perform these sport-specific skills under a variety of competitive conditions during training  Emphasis is placed on optimum preparation by modelling training and competition  Fitness and recovery, psychological preparation and technical development are now individually tailored. 17+. Maximise fitness preparation, sport-specific skills and performance.  Train to peak at major competitions  Training is characterised by high intensity and relatively high volume  Training to competition ratio is 25:75 competition includes competition-specific training activities.. . Learning to train. . Training to train. . Training to compete. . Training to win. . Retirement and retainment. Retain athletes for other functions within the sport such as coaching, officiating or administration. 14.

(31) Though DMSP advances three stages the construct of the first two phases of LTAD seem similar to the first stage of DMSP.. Table 3: DMSP stages adapted (J. Côté, Lidor, & Hackfort, 2009) PHASE. YEARS. FOCUS. SAMPLING. 6 – 12.  Sample a range of sports  Develop a foundation of fundamental movement skills  Experience sport as a source of fun and excitement.. SPECIALISING. 13 – 15.  Participants begin to focus on a smaller number of sports  Fun and enjoyment are still vital  Sport-specific skills become important. . . INVESTMENT. Research. 16 and older.  Participants commit to achieving a high level of performance in one specific sport  Strategic, competitive and skill development become most important.. requires that. we. consider that. variations do occur in. morphological, functional and psychological differences in growth patterns (Suslov, 2011). The LTAD and to a lesser extent the DMSP both accede to stages in development. In regard to motor function, Viru et al. (1999) suggest that the first critical period is in infancy or early childhood. The second critical period appears at the age of 7 to 9 years and the third during puberty. According to Oxford Online Dictionary, a critical period is ‘a period during someone’s development in which a particular skill or characteristic is believed to be most readily acquired.’. Bertenthal (1996) has proposed that perception and motor action are interrelated. rather. than. autonomous. processes.. Decisions. pertaining. to. participation in physical activity have to obey the developmental changes that typically occur from birth onwards and variations in development that may occur. Researchers and educators have long emphasized the interrelatedness of the developmental domains. The current research supports an even greater appreciation of the profound role of interrelatedness and interdependence of factors, domains, and processes in development (Diamond, 2007). Diamond (2007) explains that the developmental domains are linked not only with one. 15.

(32) another, but also with factors such as culture, social relationships, experience, physical health, mental health, and brain functioning. Hamill et al. (1979), assists with the understanding that each child is unique with an individual pattern and timing of growth. Since these variations exist among children of the same chronological age, a child’s age must be recognized as an incomplete indicator of developmental maturity. The apparent deviations will be more marked if the individuals are early or later maturers (Hamill et al., 1979).. The most evident change that can be observed during growth and maturation is the increase in human stature. During the stages of transition, from infancy to adulthood there is a progressive increase in standing body height. But, it is apparent there are certain periods in which there are accelerated periods of growth as well (Naughton, Farpour-Lambert, Carlson, Bradney, & Van Praagh, 2000). Based upon this, there are obvious effects upon athletic performance, with changes in skeletal total body and limb length that can change energy expenditure during movement (Schepens, Bastien, Heglund, & Willems, 2004), as well as force and power output generation (Viru et al., 1999).. Although research has shown that chronological age is not a good indicator, coaches tend to use it to design training programmes. LTAD responds with a practical solution – Peak Height Velocity (PHV). The onset of PHV is used as a reference point for the design of optimal individual programs with relation to “critical” periods of trainability during the maturation process. The onset of PHV is a reference point that provides valuable information for training the athletes’ energy systems and Central Nervous System (CNS) regardless of chronological age. Therefore, PHV can enhance programmes by identifying optimal window of accelerated adaptation to stamina (endurance), strength, speed, skill and suppleness training. Nevertheless, this staged developmental pathway will mean the restriction of an individual’s maximal athletic trainability and performance during growth until sexual maturation has been achieved, because the muscle function. 16.

(33) and force production potential will be constrained by incomplete development (Naughton et al., 2000).. Periodization concerns variation of training and the degree of training variation required appears to be specific to the training experience of the individual (Gamble, 2006). The key to managing a proper periodization cycle, then, is to choose wisely at the beginning of the training program, based on an accurate and relevant fitness assessment and needs analysis, in order to maximize the adaptation (Brown & Greenwood, 2005). This appears to be a key factor in the LTAD model. According to Plisk (2005), periodization strategies are generally intended to accomplish three goals: exploit complementary training effects at optimal times, manage fatigue, thereby preventing stagnation or overtraining and optimize training time and effort. The mutuality of volume and intensity will ultimately affect the outcome of any training regiment (Brown & Greenwood, 2005). After completing a needs analysis, the relative emphasis placed on different means and methods should be influenced by the athlete’s developmental status, especially with regard to critical/sensitive periods (Plisk, 2005). Specificity exists on several fronts including biomechanical, coordinative and energetic, all of which are useful criteria for selecting and prioritizing training tasks (Plisk, 2005).. Generally, it appears that preadolescence is an optimal window for enhancing competence in coordinative abilities (George, 2010; Moisescu, 2010). These are still trainable to an extent during and after adolescence, although training should shift toward a greater emphasis on strength/power improvement as well as sport specific skills (Plisk, 2005).While it is plausible there may be critical periods when developmental response is related to a greater controlled training stimulus. There are challenges. Suslov (2011) identifies the complexity in quantifying physical activity and training in young participants, as well as controlling this during an investigation; hence, literature lacks agreement as to the influence of the optimal training loads during critical periods to maximise final athletic capacity.. 17.

(34) Moreover, Suslov (2011), suggests coaches should be aware of the importance of training to advance all fitness components throughout childhood and adolescence during non-critical periods as well, principally because of individualised development. rates. of. anatomical,. neurological,. muscular. and. metabolic. parameters.. Ericsson, Krampe, and Tesch-Roemer (1993), have advanced the concept of early specialisation as a means to achieve a higher performance capacity through deliberate practice for an extended period.. Table 4: Difference between Deliberate Play & Deliberate Practice DELIBERATE PLAY. DELIBERATE PRACTICE. Done for its own sake. Done to achieve a future goal. Enjoyable. Not the most enjoyable. Pretend quality. Carried out seriously. Interest on the behaviour. Interest in outcome of the behaviour. Flexibility. Explicit rules. Adult involvement not required Adult involvement often required Occurs in various settings. Occurs in specialised facilities. However, other research has also indicated that those who specialized in a single sport as youth were less likely to actively participate in sport as a young adult. Russell and Limle (2013), support arguments of that nature and concluded that youth sport specialization may have detrimental implications for long-term sport involvement since early sport diversification is linked to a longer sport career and has positive implications for long term involvement.. The extreme of these two arguments are both limited and may require a combination of sampling and specialisation, to guarantee life-long participation and optimal performance. From this perspective, Baker, Cobley, and Fraser-Thomas (2009), believes that the determination of optimal timing and scaling of specialized 18.

(35) training, alongside purposeful diversified training, must be considered relative to peak age and performance demands of the sport in question. However, it appears that early diversification is most beneficial when children begin their involvement in organized sports and are learning new skills and once these general adaptations have been made, training adaptations become much more specific in nature and more difficult to attain thereby shifting the need for training to become more specific and deliberate (Baker et al., 2009). On this note a case has to be made for the long-term periodised concepts of the LTAD and the Sampling phase of the DMSP. This is achieved by incorporating generalised physical activities and varieties of sport involvement during maturational progression and that gradually tapers into more advanced specialisation towards adolescence.. 19.

(36) 2.4. Transition – Talent Evaluation. Research offers a precautionary note pertaining to chronological age as a measure for developing athletes (Musch & Grondin, 2001). It should be noted that both aerobic and strength trainability is dependent on maturation levels, thus early, average or late maturing players need different timing of the training emphasis.. Abbott and Collins (2004), make a case for combining the two processes talent identification and talent development. Whereas it is necessary to identify talent before it can be developed, Abbott and Collins (2004), advocate the need to initially place less emphasis on the identification process and greater emphasis on providing opportunities to develop factors that predicate development. Crucially, a clear distinction has to be made between the progress and behaviour (e.g. commitment) and standards of performance (e.g. as a particular speed). And therefore a distinction has to be made between determinants of performance and determinants of potential. Therefore the traditional approach of identifying the ‘talented’ based on a solitary observation of performance must be eradicated.. Abbott, Button, Pepping, and Collins (2005), recognizes that multiple interactive and compensatory processes take place within and between innate capabilities, environmental conditions and psycho-behaviours. This requires considerable emphasis to be placed on psycho-behaviours within talent identification and development processes and less emphasis (at least initially) on physique and performance. Mental skills, such as imagery or goal setting, as well as the attitudes, emotions and desires young athletes need to successfully realise their potential. Without these important skills and the ability to negotiate developmental challenges, an individual may not maintain the motivation to achieve excellence at any level of participation, regardless of his or her ‘talent’.. 20.

(37) Bailey, Tan, and Morley (2004), offered guidance following their investigation of the perceptions of teachers, students and policymakers, and the strategies they used to identify and develop talent and argued that the common reduction of talent identification procedures to levels of current performance is flawed. In examining the supporting literature on Talent Development Environments, Martindale, Collins, and Daubney (2005), found evidence of (but not limited to), the following: long term systematic planning, coherent philosophies, education of persons and institutions of significance, establishment of support networks, emphasise on appropriate development, flexible systems for performance and physical development and teaching, support for participants in areas of transitions, personal relevance, understanding, motivation and personal commitment. This renders null and void, the view that current performance is synonymous with ability. Ability is multidimensional and is therefore dependent on a number of influences.. As an alternative to the uni-disciplinary models of participant development, Collins et al. (2012) suggest the adoption and application of a bio-psychosocial approach. In the present context, a bio-psychosocial perspective undermines simple. equations. of. participant. development. with. biological. maturation,. psychological development or social factors alone (Collins et al., 2012) and put forward a dynamic interaction between biological, psychological and social factors, all of which play a significant role in human functioning (Engel, 1992). Trninić, Jelaska, and Papić (2009), explains that, “Modern kinesiology is theoretically directed to inter-relation and interaction of inner, outer and general social factors that determine efficacy in a sport. This is because the processes of interaction are dynamic and chaotic in a sports surrounding.” Therefore any attempt that fails to recognise the multifaceted nature of development appears to be deficient.. 21.

(38) Models ought to be cautious that current performance in a domain represents a player’s ability, when there are numerous reasons to doubt this. For example, physical assessments as a base of talent identification not only ignore team interaction, decision making at speed with opposition, and other tactical awareness factors, but also assume that physical traits, such as speed and strength, transfer easily to game-based scenarios (Burgess & Naughton, 2010). The inclusion of early maturing participants and the exclusion of late developers appears to be a divisive practice that reduces the talent pool for future elite teams. Numerous studies have shown that players born early within a selection year have a considerable advantage over those born later, an example of which is the effect of relative age on performance (Musch & Grondin, 2001). This seems, in part, because of the relative physical size and strength and further matured coordination of players who can be up to one year older than their peers (Helsen, Hodges, Van Winckel, & Starkes, 2000).. Participants whom are deemed to be better developed at a particular point (compliments of the advancement in months) are likely to be promoted to the next level and benefit from the associated environment. This form of advancement in which fewer and fewer participants progress upwards is typical of a pyramid structure. The potency of the pyramid vision is shorthanded by the following: the majority of young people identified as talented do not go on to elite, or even subelite, careers (Abbott, Collins, Martindale, and Sowerby, 2002); and furthermore, each participant’s pattern of development is distinct (Ollis, Macpherson, & Collins, 2006). Many elite performers were not among those who were initially identified as being gifted.. There is growing awareness among developmental scientists that the better a participant can take control of and evaluate its own learning and behaviour, (selfregulate), the better it can master more complex skills and concepts. The literature clearly suggests psychological factors characterise the means by which an. 22.

(39) individual interacts with the environment. Therefore, the extent to which they make the most of the opportunities they are afforded, appears to be a justified argument for a continual emphasis on these key developmental attributes early within development (Abbott & Collins, 2004). Self-regulation can be used to describe learning that is guided by metacognition (thinking about one's thinking), strategic action (planning, monitoring, and evaluating oneself against a standard), and motivation to learn (Zimmerman, 1990). In part, these characteristics may help to explain why self-regulated learners usually exhibit a high sense of self-efficacy (Zimmerman & Kitsantas, 1997). However within the developmental models there is no direct evidence that self-regulated learners are nurtured, although according to Valle et al. (2008), self-regulated learners are successful because they control their learning environment by directing and regulating their own actions toward their learning goals.. Unfortunately, the majority of development models available in sport and physical activity (including LTAD & DMSP) have focused primarily on the activities individuals should be engaged in at particular points during development. These models are underpinned by stage approaches to development that ignore the nonlinear stages and transitions often encountered along the development pathway (Erpič, Wylleman, & Zupančič, 2004; Schlossberg, 1981). Research has shown this ability to successfully transfer between stages of development is facilitated and characterised by the individual developing and appropriately deploying a range of psycho-behavioural skills. Accordingly, used in tandem with other crucial support mechanisms, such as group influences and self-efficacy (Martindale, Collins, & Abraham, 2007), these skills can form part of an optimised ‘development environment’, which will offer the best start to the pathway, irrespective of its eventual goal.. 23.

(40) 2.5. Dynamism – Routes to Participation and Excellence. Within the first two paths of the DMSP, children aged 6 to 12 engage in sampling which consists of participation in a wide variety of sports that involve high levels of deliberate play and low levels of deliberate practice. Children who wish to engage in sport for recreational purposes will continue from the sampling years into the recreational years (ages 13 +). However, youth interested in elite development will continue into the specializing years (ages 13-15) and then into the investment years (ages 16+). The DMSP also proposes that after the sampling years, children can adjust their involvement to play sports recreationally or they may drop out of sports. The third and final path of the DMSP consists of specialization in one sport from approximately age 6, and involves high amounts of deliberate practice and low amounts of deliberate play.. Table 5: The Developmental Model of Sport Participation st. nd. Years. 1 Option. 6 7 8 9 10 11 12. HIGH DELIBERATE PLAY. HIGH DELIBERATE PLAY. Low Deliberate Practice. Low Deliberate Practice. MULTI-SPORT Participation. MULTI-SPORT Participation. RECREATIONAL YEARS. SPECIALIZING YEARS. S A M P L I N G. 13 14 15. 2 Option S P O R TS. DELIBERATE PLAY & PRACTICE is balanced. HIGH DELIBERATE PLAY. Reduce Participation to Fewer Sports. 24. rd. 3 Option EARLY SPECIALIZATION AND INVESTMENT HIGH DELIBERATE PRACTICE Low Deliberate Play.

(41) 16. INVESTMENT YEARS Low Deliberate Practice. 17. Focus on One Sport. High DELIBERATE PRACTICE Low Deliberate Play Focus on One Sport. 1. Outcome: Recreational Participation. 2. Outcome: Elite Performance. 3. Outcome: Elite Performance. Participant development in sport and physical activity is dynamic. In identifying the quantity and type of sporting activities undertaken by expert team sport athletes in the earlier stages of the long-term athlete development in Portugal, Leite, Baker, and Sampaio (2009), found that the pathways to sport expertise are variable and there were both differences within and between sports. This non-linearity, coupled with the importance of ‘key events and transitions’ in the developmental pathway (Ollis et al., 2006), makes it essential for support systems to offer flexibility, individual optimisation and ‘return routes’ as features of any formal ‘pathway to excellence’. Unfortunately, many of the participant development models (such as Balyi’s LTAD, 2000 and Cote’s DMSP, 1999) currently employed in sport fail to recognise this complexity and take a simplistic and uni-directional view of participation. Typically, participant development models in sport describe either ‘high performance’ or ‘recreational’ pathways, with little regard for ‘return routes.’ As their circumstances change, individuals may choose to move between high performance sport, participation sport and recreational sport.. The pyramid structure which features a broad base of foundation skills participation tapers at the summit with increasingly higher levels of performance, engaged by fewer and fewer people. Kirk and Gorely (2000), state the “pyramid model of sport development is now well-entrenched and is known to many people as the sport development continuum. The ‘pyramid’ concept supports the view that by encouraging a broad base of participation participants will develop their sporting abilities at a lower stage before committing to higher stage. MacPhail, Lyons, Quinn, Hughes, and Keane (2010), believe that the pyramid design functions at the expense of those who reach the top of one level but are unable to progress to the. 25.

(42) next. A. Abbott and Collins (2004), advocate continual monitoring and development of all components that may influence the fulfilment of an individual’s talent, as opposed to the traditional approach of identifying the ‘talented’ based on ‘one-off’ performance. observations.. Although. pyramid models presume. successful. progression from one level to the next, MacPhail et al. (2010), identified two pathways succession through the levels; foundation-participation-performance-elite or exit from the system.. 26.

(43) 2.6. Content - Volume, Training and Competition. Physical activity and training differ. Training refers to systematic, specialized practice. Training programs are specific and vary in intensity and duration. In the early stages, Balyi and Hamilton (2000), prescribe a more generalised approach, with an emphasis on fundamental movement skills. Balyi and Hamilton (2000), note that energy systems are always trainable however during “critical” periods accelerated adaptation will take place if the proper volume, intensity and frequency of exercise are implemented.. LTAD objects to emphasising winning and competition in the early phases. It is viewed as a definite obstacle to enduring and progressive development of players. In its’ first stage, LTAD emphasis is on the overall development of the player’s physical capacities, jumping and throwing techniques mainly through the use of the child’s body weight. This is in tandem with Suslov (2011), that speed strength capacities show first signs of development at the age of 7 to 8 years.. Stage two (LTAD) consists of the development of fundamental movement skills, general sports skills, flexibility, speed, strength and endurance through the means used previously, plus hopping-bounding, games and relays. Competition should be well structured with a 70:30 training/practice to competition-ratio. The American Academy of Paediatrics supports the practise that young people who want to improve sports performance will generally benefit more from practicing and. 27.

(44) perfecting skills of the sport than from resistance training, ("Strength Training by Children and Adolescents," 2008).. The main objective of stage three is the overall development of the aerobic base, strength and sport-specific skills. Aerobic training should be prioritized after the onset of PHV. Again this is in sync with Suslov (2011), that the most intensive improvements in the aerobic capacity take place at the time of sexual maturation. Competitive situations are emphasised in the form of competitive games and drills. A 60% training to 40% competition/competition-specific training is recommended and single, double or triple periodization is optimal. Gamble (2006), adds that although basic periodization schemes are sufficient for younger players, who do not require or benefit from the same multi-layered variation employed with senior athletes, the best approach would appear to be to strategically combine periodization methods.. Special emphasis is placed on optimum preparation in stage four with double and multiple periodizations. The training to competition ratio is 50:50. 50% of available time is devoted to the development of technical and tactical skills and fitness improvements. Most authorities appear to agree that the most favourable age in the development of coordinative capacities is between 12 to 18 years (Gamble, 2006). Suslov (2011), noted that far more substantial improvements in anaerobic endurance capacities are observed at the time when biological maturity is reached in the 16 to 20 years age range and the most significant improvements in strength endurance are between 16 to 18 years for girls and 18 to 20 years for boys.. 28.

(45) Finally in the fifth stage of the LTAD, athletes are trained to peak for major competitions. Training is characterized by high intensity and relatively high volume. Training to competition ratio is 25:75.. DMSP first phase is characterized by fun, excitement and delight. While early specialization does have some distinct advantages (Ericsson et al., 1993), Côté (1999), defines ‘sampling’ as having the more positive impact on player development. Stambulova et al. (2009) also defined it as engaging in a variety of sports throughout childhood. Early specialisation refers to year-round participation in a single sport, at the exclusion of other sports and activities and is characterised by an early start age of participation, early involvement in competition, intensive involvement from an early age, and an early focus on performance improvement and achieving success (Ericsson et al., 1993).. Ericsson et al. (1993), found that expert violinists began training around five years of age and that non-experts started training later in life. It was proposed that non-experts could not catch up to expert violinists since experts had accumulated more hours of deliberate practice throughout development. Deliberate practice can be defined as practice activities that have the primary goal of improving performance (Ericsson et al., 1993). Those who advocate early specialization believe that investment in deliberate practice as well as the timing at which it begins is indispensable in developing elitism.. It is apparent that commitment to large quantities of deliberate practice in one sport from a young age is one approach to developing elite athletes. For example, Helsen et al. (2000) and Helsen, Starkes, and Hodges (1998), found support for the relationship between the amount of sport-specific practice and the attainment of expertise across a variety of team sports. Nonetheless research has. 29.

(46) highlighted the risks associated with early specialization (Capranica & MillardStafford, 2011) ; Malina, 2010).. DMSP found support demonstrating that elite athletes participated in various sports throughout their childhood (Côté, 1999). These athletes described participating in activities during childhood that were characterized by deliberate play rather than deliberate practice (Soberlak & Cote, 2003). Stambulova et al. (2009), define deliberate play as activities in which children participate because they are inherently enjoyable but could nonetheless contribute to the development of expertise. These games use adapted rules and therefore highly structured practice may not be necessary for early skill acquisition during childhood, however deliberate practice will be needed to complement an athlete's skill development during adolescence and adulthood.. In DMSP second phase fun and enjoyment continues to be a key component alongside the development of sport-specific techniques and skills. During the recreational years, sport programs still have low levels of deliberate practice but now include age-appropriate competition. In contrast, the specializing and investment years are characterized by participation in fewer sports and less time in deliberate play and more time in deliberate practice (Stambulova et al., 2009).. In the final phase there is a commitment to improving and winning at every contest. Along with Ericsson et al. (1993), Baker, Horton, Robertson-Wilson, and Wall (2003), emphasized the role of practice in high-level performance. Practice is necessary in the realisation of talent; not merely quantity but rather quality of practice is important.. In announcing the importance of deliberative practice,. Ericsson et al. (1993), specified that structured goal-orientated activities that require effort and are not always inherently enjoyable, with an average of 10 years elapsing between first and best work is obligatory.. 30.

(47) 2.7. Conclusion. On the surface, ‘Participant Development,’ appears to be a simple enough process. However a careful examination of the underlying principles and issues can render otherwise, particularly in reference to developing children. Dose– response studies are particularly useful for determining the minimal and optimal amount of physical activity required for good health, and for developing physical activity guidelines. However, literature reviews and evidence-based guidelines of physical activity and health in children and youth have consistently acknowledged the lack of studies examining the dose–response relationship between physical activity and health in this age group (Tolfrey, Campbell, & Batterham, 1998; Twisk, 2001).. A substantial amount of information referring to the sensitive periods for the development of movement capacities is available in the literature however there appears to be considerable differences in the available data. One reason for the differences comes from investigations of sensitive periods of youngsters who were not involved in sporting activities, while other information was based on young athletes who trained regularly in school sports.. The reliability of the physical. capacity tests used in the investigative studies warrants consideration (Suslov, 2011). Naughton et al. (2000), also acknowledges that the vast array of resistance training programmes used in the research available to date has led to substantial inconsistencies between studies.. 31.

(48) Research clearly suggests that the development of physical performance capacities during the sensitive age periods is dependent on a number of factors. However, specific information is still lacking prompting Naughton et al. (2000) to observe that it is apparent from the limited data available that the understanding of anaerobic trainability during adolescence requires further research and it appears from the literature that the health related responses that accompany aerobic training in adolescence are limited, equivocal and clearly require further research. The task of preparing each athlete within a team sport adds to the challenge of developing participants in basketball. The degree of training variation required appears to be specific to the training experience of the individual (Gamble, 2006). In addition the sensitive developmental periods in physical performance capacities and morphological indicators in children and juveniles involved in sporting activities have considerable individual fluctuations, depending on biological age, the sporting event, dynamics of specific training and competition loads and environmental influences (Suslov, 2011).. With any training program, individualization, proper progression, specificity, and variation are basic concepts that should be observed (Kraemer, Fry, Frykman, Conroy, & Hoffman, 1989). While a number of researchers rightfully stress the physical developmental processes occurring during childhood and adolescence (Baquet, Van Praagh, & Berthoin, 2003; Boisseau & Delamarche, 2000; Naughton et al., 2000; Viru et al., 1999), Kraemer et al. (1989) go further and highlight that the individual's ability to tolerate and recover from the exercise session is also important.. By natural extension, there are training prescriptions (Thumm, 1987), which factor in these developmental processes aiming to achieve the highest possible performance yet Balsevich (2007), believes that the principle of individualization impels the coach to change the trend, content, volume, and intensity of training loads in proper time. Balsevich (2007), expounds that this notion is based on. 32.

(49) complete correspondence of the content, trends, intensity and volume of training loads with individual morpho-functional, motor, and psychological characteristics of an athlete, as well as with heterochronous character, multilevel rhythm, vector phase synchronism, and high degree of individualization of motor, physical, morpho-functional, and psychological profile of a child, a teenager, or an adult. Only such improvements aimed at individualization of the training process will allow for a true improvement of the athlete's individual preparation and will be conducive to the elevation of the athlete's sports level (Przybylski, 2006). Thus, individualization of exercise programs may be even more vital to the exercise prescription process in children, due to differences in physiological and psychological maturation (Kraemer et al., 1989), though individualisation is notably absent from the generalised models.. Undoubtedly, physical capacities have to be developed. Speed is a function of force, and athletes who generate more power can move faster. This is why strength and power development are staples of most training programs (Plisk, 2005). Suslov (2011), believes that although most physical performance capacities improve rapidly during the “growth spurt” in the 12 to 16 years age range, coaches should not overlook the need to develop these capacities during the non-sensitive age periods. The key to this (managing a proper periodization cycle), is to choose wisely at the beginning of the training program, based on an accurate and relevant fitness assessment and needs analysis, in order to maximize the adaptation (Brown & Greenwood, 2005). In this regard, one practical solution is to use the onset of Peak Height Velocity (PHV) as a reference point for the design of optimal individual programs with relation to “critical” or “sensitive” periods of trainability during the maturation process (Balyi & Hamilton, 2000). Debarring the data concerns, Suslov (2011), is hopeful that a generalization and further analysis of the available sources of information makes it possible to adjust the data to provide reasonably reliable trends in the developmental rates of youngsters.. 33.

(50) Throughout this review, there have been instances in which a shortage of empirical evidence has highlighted the need for further investigation. There needs to be evidence connecting performance and trainability to ontogenic development (Viru et al., 1999). Athletic performances seem to change throughout physical growth and maturation and that needs to be properly accounted for. This has prompted the need to examine the relationship between timing of biological maturity and physical activity (Sherar, Cumming, Eisenmann, Baxter-Jones, & Malina, 2010). A connection of that nature would enhance an appreciation for the usefulness of any model to develop participants and performances.. Despite those inconclusive areas that have been highlighted above, the recent literature regarding the sensitive development stages for an emphasized development of certain physical performance capacities in young athletes correspond closely with only a few slight variations. They can therefore provide a relatively reliable guide with due consideration to the variations that occur in morphological, functional and psychological differences in growth patterns. There is a general understanding that adolescents are likely to specialise in sports during that period. However, adolescent athletes participating in high volumes of training at the same time that marked changes in physical growth are occurring may be at greater risk of microtraumatic injury than athletes at any other stage of development and therefore, there may be a need to carefully monitor the volume of training at the time of rapid growth and development (Naughton et al., 2000).. 34.