Chronic job burnout and daily functioning: a theoretical analysis

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Burnout

Research

j ou rn a l h o m e pa g e :w w w . e l s e v i e r . c o m / l o c a t e / b u r n

Research

Article

Chronic

job

burnout

and

daily

functioning:

A

theoretical

analysis

Arnold

B.

Bakker

,

Patrícia

L.

Costa

a_{ErasmusUniversityRotterdam,DepartmentofWork&OrganizationalPsychology,Woudestein,RoomT13-47,P.O.Box1738,3000DRRotterdam,}

TheNetherlands

b_{LingnanUniversity,DepartmentofAppliedPsychology,HongKong,China}

c_{ISCTE–UniversityInstituteofLisbon,Office2W8(BuildingI),Av.}a_{dasForc¸asArmadas,1649-026Lisboa,Portugal}

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r

t

i

c

l

e

i

n

f

o

Articlehistory:

Received31January2014

Receivedinrevisedform10April2014 Accepted19April2014 Keywords: Burnout Diaryresearch Employeeengagement Interventions Jobcrafting Self-undermining

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b

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Inthisarticle,wediscusstheindividualemployee’sroleinthedevelopmentofhis/herjobburnout.We reviewtheantecedentsandconsequencesofburnout,andproposeamodelwithchronicburnoutasa moderatorofdailyfunctioningintheworkplace.Specifically,wearguethatchronicburnoutstrengthens thelosscycleofdailyjobdemands,dailyexhaustion,anddailyself-undermining.Additionally,weargue thatchronicburnoutweakensthegaincycleofdailyjobresources,dailyworkengagement,anddaily jobcrafting.Weconcludethatemployeeswithhighlevelsofburnoutneedhelpinstructurallychanging theirworkingconditionsandhealthstatus.

©2014TheAuthors.PublishedbyElsevierGmbH.ThisisanopenaccessarticleundertheCC BY-NC-NDlicense(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/).

1. Introduction

Burnoutis arguablyoneofthemostpopularresearchtopics inoccupationalhealthpsychology,andthereisagoodreasonfor this.Research hasconvincinglyshown thatemployeeswho are atriskofburnout(i.e.,whoarechronicallyexhaustedandholda negative,cynicalattitudetowardwork)showimpairedjob per-formanceandmayfaceserioushealthproblemsoverthecourse oftime (Bakker, Demerouti, &Sanz-Vergel,2014).Oneobvious problemisthatonceemployeesexperiencehighlevelsofburnout, theyoftencontinuetobeintrouble.Indeed,longitudinalresearch suggeststhat burnoutcanberatherstable,overperiodsoffive, ten,orevenfifteenyears(Bakker,Schaufeli,Sixma,Bosveld,&Van Dierendonck,2000;Hakanen,Bakker,&Jokisaari,2011;Schaufeli, Maassen,Bakker,&Sixma,2011).Howcanweexplainthatburnout persistsforsolong?Wethinkthatburnouthasnotbeenadequately explainedbecausemoststudiesdonotregardburnoutasan ongo-ingprocessthatunfoldsovertime(seealso,TenBrummelhuis,Ter Hoeven,Bakker,&Peper,2011).

Previousburnout research hassuggestedthat thesyndrome hasstructuralcausesintheworkenvironment,particularlyhigh

∗ Correspondingauthorat:ErasmusUniversityRotterdam,DepartmentofWork &OrganizationalPsychology,Woudestein,RoomT13-47,P.O.Box1738,3000DR Rotterdam,TheNetherlands.Tel.:+31104088853.

E-mailaddresses:[email protected](A.B.Bakker),[email protected] (P.L.Costa).

jobdemands andlow job resources(Alarcon,2011; Demerouti, Bakker,Nachreiner,&Schaufeli,2001;Lee&Ashforth,1996).This researchalsoindicatesthatindividualfactorssuchasneuroticism andperfectionism play asignificantrole inthedevelopmentof burnout, becausethesecharacteristicspredispose employeesto copein thewrong waywiththeirhighjob demands (see also, Swider&Zimmerman,2010).Despiteallthisknowledge,westill knowlittleabouttherole theindividualemployeeplaysinthe dailyprocessthatmayleadtoburnout.Doemployeesonlyreact passivelytotheworkenvironmentordotheyactivelyinfluence it?

Thecentralaimofthisarticleistoanalyzetheburnout phe-nomenonfromtheperspectiveoftheburned-outworker.Wewant tocapturetheprocessleadingtoburnout,andexplainwhyburnout persistsforsuchalong time.Howdo thosewithhighlevelsof burnoutfunctionintheworkplaceonaday-to-daybasis?Doesthe problemprogressfrombadtoworse?Thispaperaimstocontribute totheliteratureintwo importantways.First, wechallengethe ratherstaticviewofburnoutthatdominatestheliterature, suggest-ingthatburnoutisasimpleresponsetotheworkingenvironment. Wepresentamoredynamicmodelthatelucidateshowburnout progressesovertime.Second,weemphasizetheroleofthe indi-vidualemployeeintheburnoutprocess.Whatcanemployeesdo themselvestobreakthroughthelossspiralofburnout?We intro-ducetheconceptsofself-underminingandjobcraftingasbehaviors thatmayhelptounderstandhowburnoutoftenpersistsandleads tomorejobdemands andless jobresourcesoverthecourseof time.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.burn.2014.04.003

2213-0586/© 2014 The Authors. Published by Elsevier GmbH. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/).

2. Burnout

Burnoutis a syndromecharacterizedby chronicexhaustion, cynicism, and a lack of personal accomplishment. It is usually definedas“...astateofexhaustioninwhichoneiscynicalabout thevalueof one’soccupationand doubtfulof one’scapacityto perform” (Maslach, Jackson, & Leiter, 1996, p. 20). Emotional exhaustionisthecentralstraindimensionofburnout,described as feelings of being emotionally drained by one’s work. Cyni-cismisanegativeorexcessivelydetachedresponsetothework itself and/orto theindividuals withwhomemployees’ interact whileperformingtheirjob.Finally,lackofpersonal accomplish-ment refers to a decline in one’s feelings of competence and ofsuccessfulachievementatwork(Maslach,Schaufeli,&Leiter, 2001;Schaufeli,Leiter,&Maslach,2009).Burned-outindividuals simultaneouslyexperiencehighlevelsofchronicfatigue,and dis-tance themselves emotionally and cognitively from theirwork activities.

Employees withhigher levelsof burnout aremore likely to report a range of psychological and physical health problems, includinganxiety,depression,sleepdisturbance,memory impair-ment, and neck pain (Peterson et al., 2008). In a study among a nationally representative sample of more than 3000 Finnish workers,Ahola(2007)reportedanincreasedprevalenceof depres-sive and anxiety disorders and of alcohol dependence among burned-outemployees.Similarly,intheirthree-wave,seven-year prospectivestudyof2000dentists,HakanenandSchaufeli(2012) founda positiverelationshipbetweenburnoutontheonehand anddepressivesymptomsandlifedissatisfactionontheother.In whatphysicalhealthisconcerned,Kim,Ji,andKao(2011)showed thatsocialworkerswithhigherinitiallevelsofburnoutreported morephysicalhealthcomplaintsoverthecourseoftheirthree-year study,includingsleepdisturbances,headaches,respiratory infec-tions,andgastrointestinalinfections.Higherlevelsofburnoutled toafaster rateofdeterioration in physicalhealth.The burnout syndromehas also been found tobe an independent risk fac-torforinfections (e.g.,commoncold;Mohren etal.,2003), and type2diabetes(Melamed,Shirom,Toker,&Shapira,2006). More-over,burnout isarisk factorforcardiovasculardiseases (Ahola, 2007).Aten-yearprospectivestudybyAhola,Väänänen,Koskinen, Kouvonen, and Shirom (2010) concluded, “burnout, especially work-related exhaustion, may be a risk for overall survival” (p.1).

Consequently,burned-outemployeesarelikelytodisplayone ormorewithdrawalbehaviors(Hanisch,1995)suchaslateness, absence,orturnover(Maslachetal.,2001).Clinicallyburned-out employeesmaygetjustifiedabsenceleavesfromwork.However, otherburned-out employeesremain atwork, which leadsto a formofpresenteeism.Presenteeismoccurswhenindividualsgo toworkwhentheyshouldinsteadbeoffsick,eitherbecausethey are ill or because theyare nolonger effective (Cooper, 1996). Individualperformanceiscompromisedbecauseburned-out work-ersneedtoinvestextratimeandeffortinperformingtheirjob. Additionally,collectiveperformancemaysufferbecausehealthy employees spend time in helping their sick colleagues, at risk of alsodamagingtheirown health (Roe, 2003).Moreover, pre-senteeismititselfariskfactorforburnout.Demerouti,LeBlanc, Bakker,SchaufeliandHox(2009),ina three-wavestudyamong staffnursesworkingingeneralhospitals,foundreciprocal relation-shipsbetweenburnout,jobdemands,andpresenteeism.Burnout (exhaustionanddepersonalization)predictedmorejobdemands andpresenteeism;presenteeism,inturn,predictedhigherlevels ofburnout.Inconclusion,employeeswhoareburned-outbytheir work,experiencemorepsychologicaland physical health prob-lems,andthis influencestheirbehavioratworkina significant way. Personal resources Job resources Work engagement Exhaustion Job demands Job performance Job crafting Job crafting + + + + + + + -+

-Fig.1. TheJobDemands–Resourcesmodel(Bakker&Demerouti,2014). 2.1. Causesofburnout

Thecausesofburnoutaregenerallydividedintwocategories: situationalfactorsandindividualfactors(Bakkeretal.,2014). Situ-ationalfactorsincludejobdemands and(lackof)jobresources. Jobdemandsareaspectsofthejobthatrequiresustainedeffort (Demeroutiet al.,2001).Therefore, jobdemands areassociated withphysiologicalandpsychologicalcosts,suchasanincreased heart rateand fatigue.Such symptoms maysettheground for theexperienceofburnout,becausejobdemandsleademployees tofeelexhaustedandtopsychologicallydistancethemselvesfrom work(Bakkeretal.,2000).Roleambiguity,roleconflict,rolestress, stressfulevents,workload,andworkpressureareamongthemost importantjobdemandsthatcauseburnout(Alarcon,2011;Lee& Ashforth,1996).

Jobresourcesarethephysical,psychological,social,or organi-zationalaspectsofthejobthatfacilitatetheachievementofwork goals, reduce job demands and itscosts, or stimulate personal growththroughmeaningfulwork(Bakker&Demerouti,2007).The relationship betweenjob resourcesand burnout is consistently negative,wherelowerlevelsofjobresourcesareassociatedwith higherlevelsofburnout,especiallyinwhatcynicismisconcerned (Demeroutietal.,2001).Moreover,JobDemands–Resources the-ory(Bakker&Demerouti,2007,2014;Demerouti&Bakker,2011) proposesthatjobresourcesplayabufferingroleintherelationship betweenjobdemandsandburnout(seeFig.1).Bakker,Demerouti, and Euwema (2005) found that when employees experienced autonomy,receivedfeedback,hadsocialsupport,orhada high-qualityrelationshipwiththeirsupervisor,beingsubjecttowork overload,emotionaldemands,physicaldemands,andwork–home interferencedidnotresultinhighlevelsofburnout.Thus,burnout ismorelikelytodevelopwhenhighjobdemandsarecombined withlowjobresources.

Inwhatindividualfactorsareconcerned,bothsocioeconomic statusandpersonalityvariableshavebeenanalyzedascreatinga predispositiontosufferfromburnoutsymptoms.Hakanenetal.’s (2011)cohortstudyamongFinnishemployeesfoundthat socioeco-nomicstatusandcognitiveabilityinadolescencewereassociated withjobburnout35yearslater,throughadulteducationandskill variety.Personalityinfluencesthewaypeopleperceivetheirwork environment,andthereforehowtheydealwithjobdemandsand resources. Strainmay arise, for example, when thework envi-ronment is not aligned with individual personality, leading to frustrationofindividualneeds.Forexample,whenanintroverted technicianbecomesaleader,hewillneedtoenactbehaviorshe

isnotusedto–forexamplegivepresentationsforlargergroups ofco-workers.Thismisfitbetweenpersonalityandjobdemands mayresultinseriousstressreactions,particularlywhen employ-eesareoftenexposedtodemandsthatdonotfitwiththeirskills andpreferences.Alarcon,Eschleman,and Bowling(2009)found thatfourof theBigFivefactorsofpersonality(Costa&McCrae, 1985)–emotionalstability,extraversion,conscientiousness,and agreeableness– wereconsistently negativelyrelated toeach of thethreedimensionsofburnout.Further,individualshighin self-efficacy,optimism,andself-esteemwerebetterabletodealwith jobdemands–mostlikelybecausetheybelievetheyhave con-trolovertheirworkenvironment,and,therefore,aremorelikely toproactivelysolveproblemsandseekresourceswhenfacingjob demands.

Itshouldbenotedthatthesesituationalandindividualfactors arerelativelystableand likelytopersistover extendedperiods oftime.Thismeansthatiftheworkenvironmentissuboptimal, orwhenemployeeshaveapersonalitythatdoesnotfitwiththe worksituation,eventually,chronicjobburnoutisapossiblerisk. However,researchsuggeststhatlevelsofwell-beingandjob per-formancemayalsofluctuatewithinshortertimeperiods,namely fromweektoweek,and even fromdayto day(Xanthopoulou, Bakker,&Ilies,2012).Howdosuchshort-termfluctuationsin well-beingrelatetochroniclevelsofburnout?Areemployeeswithhigh levelsofchronicburnouttired duringeveryday?Whatarethe possiblecausesofupsanddownsindailywell-being?Can burned-outindividualschangetheirownworksituation?Wewillanswer thesequestionsbelow.However,we willfirstexaminethelink betweenburnoutandjobperformance,becausethisliterature pro-videsimportantinformationabouttheworkbehaviorofemployees highinburnout.

2.2. Jobperformance

Researchhasindicatedthatburnoutisnegativelyrelatedto per-formance.In alargemeta-analyticstudyincludingnoless than 115differentstudies,SwiderandZimmerman(2010)foundthe threedimensionsofjobburnouthadmultiplecorrelationsof.23 withabsenteeism, .33 withturnover, and .36 withjob perfor-mance.Apreviousmeta-analysisbyTaris(2006)investigatedthe relationshipbetweenburnout and other-ratingsof performance (e.g.,supervisorreports).Heidentifiedsixteenstudiesdealingwith theburnout–performancerelationship,showingawidevarietyof approachesthatareusedtostudyburnoutandobjective perfor-mance.Themeta-analyticalcorrelationsbetweenexhaustionand in-rolebehavior(basedonfivestudies),organizationalcitizenship behavior (fivestudies), and customer satisfaction (twostudies) were−22,−19,and−55,respectively.Theevidenceforthe relation-shipsbetweendepersonalization,personalaccomplishment,and performancewasinconclusive.

Onepossibleexplanationforthenegativelinkbetweenburnout andperformanceisthatexhaustedemployeeslackthe concentra-tionneededtoperformwell,andthereforemakemoremistakes. Additionally, the negative emotions that are characteristic of burnoutnarrowthebreadthofthoughtprocessing(Fredrickson, 2001),diminishthefocusonneworglobalinformation(Derryberry & Tucker, 1994), and impair the quality of decision-making. Individualswhoexperience negativeemotional states and who arepsychologicallydetachedfromworkalsodemonstratefewer approachbehaviorstowardothers(Cacioppo,Gardner,&Berntson, 1999),andmorecounterproductiveworkbehaviorssuchas steal-ing,withholdingeffortandinformation,andtakinglongerbreaks (Penney&Spector,2008).Furthermore,burned-outemployeesare lesswillingtohelpothers(Swider&Zimmerman,2010),andless likelytoreceivehelpfromothers,whichmayresultinproductivity losses(Bakkeretal.,2014).

Burnout is not only negatively related to performance, but alsopositivelyrelatedtosicknessabsenteeism.Schaufeli,Bakker, and Van Rhenen (2009) showedthat burnout predicted future absencedurationbutnotabsencefrequencyoverthecourseofone year.Toppinen-Tanner,Ojajärvi,Väänänen,Kalimo,andJäppinen (2005)foundthatburnoutincreasedtheriskofmedically certi-fiedabsencesepisodesthatwerelongerthanthreedays.Similarly, Borritz, Rugulies, Christensen, Villadsen, and Kristensen (2006) foundthat an increase of burnout waspositively related toan increaseinsicknessabsencedaysperyear.Petersonetal.(2011) foundthattheexhaustiondimensionofburnoutpredicted long-termsickness(90 daysor more)atanyoccasion duringthe44 monthsoffollow-upinastudyamongmorethan6000employees workinginaCountyCouncilareainSweden.

Oneproblemthatisevidentfromtheliterature–andthat fol-lowslogicallyfromtheobservationthatburnoutcoincides with impaired jobperformance – is that burnout predicts increased jobdemandsovertime(Bakker&Demerouti,2014).Forexample, Demerouti,Bakker,andBulters(2004)performedalongitudinal studywithasampleof335employeesandfoundthatwork pres-sureandexhaustionhadcausalandreversedcausalrelationships overtime.Hence,notonlydidworkpressurepredictexhaustion; feelingexhaustedalsopredictedsubsequentlevelsofwork pres-sureinareciprocalrelationship(seealso,TenBrummelhuisetal., 2011).Thereason forthis reciprocal relationshipis mostlikely thatexhaustedemployeesneedmoretime tofinish theirtasks, makemoremistakes,andarelessabletomobilizetheirresources. Thismeansthatjobdemandsaccumulateovertime–causingeven higherlevelsofburnout.

3. Chronicburnoutanddailyfunctioning

Our reviewso farindicatesthatemployeeswithhighlevels ofburnout (exhaustion,cynicism,andreduced personal accom-plishment)aremostlikelytobefoundinworkingenvironments withhighjobdemandsandlowjobresources.Overthecourseof time,employees’experienceoffatiguemaytransformintochronic exhaustionandhealthproblemswhenthedemandsoftheirjob becomeoverwhelming,andwhenjobresourcesareconsistently lacking. Employees with burnout also do not manage to func-tionattheexpectedperformancelevel.Howdoestheexperience of chronic burnout affect daily experiences at work, and how doesitaffectemployees’workbehavior?Additionally,whatisthe impactofdailyworkactivitiesonthewell-beingof burned-out employees?

Unfortunatelyandparadoxically,mostresearchontheconcept ofburnouthasstudiedemployeeswithonlymildsignsofburnout, and ignoredthegroupof employeesthatis atrisk for burnout orthatprogressedintoclinicalburnout.Somedescriptivestudies investigatedburnoutamongemployeeswhoreceivedprofessional treatment(Schaufeli,Bakker,Hoogduin,Schaap,&Kladler,2001; Sonnenschein,Sorbi,VanDoornen,Schaufeli,&Maas,2007),butthe vastmajorityofstudieshavetreatedthefocalvariable(burnout)as acontinuousvariable.Suchastrategyisnotunusualinthefieldof appliedpsychology,andthisapproachhasresultedinawealthof knowledgeregardingthepredictorsofburnout.However,the ana-lyticalproblemisthatburnoutmayparticularlyhaveanadverse impactonfunctioningatworkwhenemployeesexperiencehigh levelsofexhaustionandcynicism.Indeed,recentresearchsuggests thatemployeeswithonlymildsymptomsofburnoutusearangeof strategies(e.g.,selection,optimization,compensation;Demerouti, Bakker,&Leiter,2014)tokeeptheirjobperformanceatacceptable levels.However,whathappensonceemployeeshavereachedhigh levelsofburnoutasaconsequenceofprolongedexposuretohigh jobdemandsandlowjobresources?

CHRONIC

BURNOUT

LOSS CYCLE (+)

LOST GAIN

CYCLE

(-)

Fig.2.Chronicburnout:alosscycleofdailyjobdemandsandalostgaincycleofdailyjobresources. Webelieveitistimethatourfieldmovesforwardand

investi-gateshowpeoplewithhigher(vs.lower)levelsof(chronic)burnout –butwho arestillatwork–functionona dailybasis.We use thetwocentralprocessesintheJobDemands–Resources(JD–R) model (Bakker & Demerouti, 2014;Demeroutiet al., 2001; see Fig. 1) to explain how employees withhigh levels of burnout maygettrapped ina losscycle ofhighdaily jobdemands and highdailyexhaustion,anddonotmanagetomobilizetheirdaily jobresources.However,whereaspreviousresearchwiththeJD–R modelhasgenerallyusedeithera between-personora within-personapproach,wedistinguishbetweentwolevelsofanalysis, namelytheleveloftheperson(chronicburnoutlevel),andtheday level(dailyfunctioning;seeFig.2).

3.1. Dailyjobdemandsandself-undermining

Animportantstartingpointistoacknowledgethatindividuals withhighlevelsofburnoutcopedifferentlywiththeirdailyjob demandsthanthoselowinburnout,whichmayexacerbatetheir problems.Morespecifically,ascanbeseeninFig.2,wepropose thatdailyjobdemandstranslateintodailyexhaustion(cf.Simbula, 2010),particularlyforhigh-burnoutemployees.Thereasonforthis isthatthelowlevelofdailyenergythatisapparentin employ-eeswithchronicburnout(Sonnenscheinetal.,2007)makesthem unfittodealadequatelywiththedailyjobdemands.Thesedaily jobdemands,forexample,complexproblemsthatmustbesolved, orademandingcustomerthatneedsalotofattention,willthen costsadditionaleffort,resultinginahighlevelofdailyexhaustion. Ifindividualshighinburnoutareoftenconfrontedwithhighdaily jobdemands,theymayendupinalosscycle(Hobfoll,2002)in whichmostenergyresourcesaredepletedandemployeesbecomes sick.

In his conservation of resources theory, Hobfoll (2002) has referred to “loss spirals” and suggested that people who lack resourcesaresusceptibletolosingevenmoreresources. Accord-ingtoHobfoll’sconservationofresourcestheory,individualsstrive to obtain things they value. These are called “resources” and includeobjects,conditions,personalcharacteristicsandenergies. Resourcesareentitiesthat“...eitherarecentrallyvaluedintheir

ownright,oractasmeanstoobtaincentrallyvaluedends”(Hobfoll, 2002,p.307).Peoplestrivetoprotectthemselvesfromresource loss,whichmakeslossmoresalientthangain.However,resources are relatedtoeach other ina “weblike” nature,which further suggeststhatresourcelossandgainoccursinspirals.Lossspirals willfollowinitiallosses,witheachlossresultingindepletionof resourcesforconfrontingthenextthreatorloss(Hobfoll,2002). Besides,resourcelossalsopreventstheswitchingofthesituation intogaincycles.Burnoutisaclassiccase,wherebytheemployees’ personalandjobresourcesarebeingprogressivelyeroded lead-ing toincreasedenergy depletion and furtherdiminishmentof resources.Demeroutietal.(2004)foundevidenceforsuchaloss spiralin whichworkpressure evokedwork–familyconflictand exhaustion.Thesefeelingsofchronicfatigue,consequently,gave risetomoreworkpressureandwork–familyconflictovertime.

Indeed,thereisconsiderableevidencesuggestingthat employ-eesatriskforburnoutcreatemorejobdemandsovertime.Wehave briefly mentioned somelongitudinal studiesthat provided evi-denceforthiscontention(Demeroutietal.,2004;Schaufeli,Bakker, etal.,2009;TenBrummelhuisetal.,2011),butthesestudiesdidnot explainhowandwhyburnoutispositivelyrelatedtojobdemands overtime.AscanbeseeninFig.2,weproposethatemployeeswith higherlevelsofdailyexhaustionshowself-undermining behav-ior.Ourconceptofself-underminingisbasedon–butdifferent from–thephenomenonofself-handicapping.Self-handicappingis definedasaself-defendingmaneuverreferringtoobstaclescreated, orclaimed,bytheindividualinanticipationoffailingperformance (Jones&Berglas, 1978). In thepresent theoretical analysis,we usetheterm‘self-undermining’forbehavior thatcreates obsta-clesthatmayundermineperformance.Wearguethatemployees withhigherlevelsofdailyexhaustionwillmakemoremistakes, whichthenneedtobecorrectedagain,addingtothealreadyhigh jobdemands.Thus,weexpandJD–Rtheory(seeFig.1),by argu-ingthatexhaustedemployeesshowself-underminingbehaviors, onadailybasis.Additionally,wearguethatchronically burned-outemployeesarelessabletomanagetheirownemotions,and morelikelytoencounterconflictsatwork.Theseself-undermining daily behaviors all contribute to higher daily job demands (seeFig.2).

Research hasprovided ampleevidence for self-undermining asaresultofexhaustion.Forexample,VanderLinden,Keijsers, Eling,andVanSchaijk(2005)comparedthreegroups:(a)agroup of burned-out individuals who stopped working due to their symptomsand soughtprofessionaltreatment; (b)teachers at a vocationaltraininginstitutewhoreportedhighlevelsofburnout symptomsbutcontinuedtowork;and(c)teachersfromthesame institutewhoreportednoburnoutsymptoms.Theresultsshowed thatburnout waspositively related tothenumber ofcognitive failuresin daily life, and to inhibition errors and performance variabilityinattentionaltaskscarriedoutinthelaboratory.Thus, burned-outindividualsmademoremistakes.Similarly,intheir lon-gitudinalfieldstudyamongfinancialconsultants,TenBrummelhuis etal.(2011)foundalosscycleofburnoutthroughadecreasein jobresourcesandanincreaseinjobdemands.Resourcelosswas mostlikelyforburned-outconsultantswhowerelowinintrinsic motivation.

Further,Sonnenscheinetal.(2007)asked60clinically burned-outparticipantsand40healthycontrolstorecordsymptomswith anelectronicdiaryfortwoweeksatrandomtimesperday.Their findingsindicated thatclinically burned-outindividuals didnot recoverasmuchthroughsleepashealthyindividualsdid,because burned-outindividuals experiencedallkindsofsleepproblems, particularlytroublefallingasleepandnonrefreshingsleep.Thisis onereasonwhyburned-outindividualsshowconsistenthighlevels ofdailyexhaustion.Thus,burned-outindividualsseemto under-minetheirowndailyfunctioningbecausetheydonotsleepvery well.

Inanotherdiarystudy,VanGelderen,Konijn,andBakker(2014) showedthatpoliceofficerswithhighlevelsofstrainatthestartof theirworkshiftweremorelikelytousesuboptimalemotional regu-lationstrategies(i.e.,‘surfaceacting’insteadof‘deepacting’)during theworkingdayininteractionswithcivilians/suspects.Daily sur-faceacting,inturn,resultedinimpairedperformanceandhigher dailystrainattheendoftheworkshift.Policeofficerswhofake theiremotionsduringinteractionswithciviliansareperceivedas lessauthenticbythesecivilians,andarethereforemorelikelyto exacerbatetheproblemstheyaimtosolve(VanGelderen,Konijn, &Bakker,2011).Hence,thisisonemoreexamplewherehigher levelsofstrainseemtoevokeself-underminingbehaviors.

Itshouldbenotedthatjobdemandsmightalsobeaffectedby employees’perceptionsofthesedemands(Zapf,Dormann,&Frese, 1996).Justlikethetendencyofdepressedpeopletoassesstheir environmentmorenegativelyandthuscontributingtoamore neg-ativeclimate(Demeroutietal.,2004),burned-outemployeesmay perceiverelativelyhighjob demands andcomplain more often abouttheirworkloadcreatinganegativeworkclimate (González-Morales,Peiró,Rodríguez,&Bliese,2012).Finally,itisconceivable thatnotonlydemandsincrease,butthatjobresourcesalsodecrease withincreasinglevelsofburnout.AsindicatedinFig.2,employees whoscorehigheronburnoutmayalsobelesslikelytomobilize theirjobresources.Indeed,Schaufeli,Bakker,etal.(2009)found thatmanagerswhoscoredhigheronT1burnoutwerelesslikely toreceiveperformancefeedback inthefollowing year;andTen Brummelhuisetal.(2011)foundthatemployeeswhoscoredhigher onT1burnoutwerelesslikelytoreceiveco-workerandsupervisor support;toexperiencejobautonomy;toparticipatein decision-making;andtohaveaccesstoinformationinthefollowingtwo years.

3.2. Dailyjobresourcesandjobcrafting

Employeeswithhighlevelsofchronicburnoutarenotonlymore likelytoendupinalosscycleofdailyjobdemands,exhaustion,and self-undermining.Theyaresimultaneouslyalsolesslikelytoprofit fromagaincycleofdailyjobresources,dailyworkengagement,

anddailyjobcrafting(seeFig.2).Injobcrafting,employees inde-pendentlymodifyaspectsoftheirjobstoimprovethefitbetween thecharacteristicsofthejobandtheirownabilities,needs,and preferences(Berg,Dutton, &Wrzesniewski,2010).Accordingto WrzesniewskiandDutton(2001),employeesmaycraftthetasks theymustfulfillatwork,theinterpersonalrelationshipsthey expe-riencewhenperformingtheirwork,ortheymaypositivelyreframe the way theythink about their work.Building on these ideas, Tims,BakkerandDerks(2013)showedthatemployeeswhocraft theirownjobdemandsandresourcesincreasetheirlevelsofwork engagementandreducetheriskofburnout.

Unfortunately,burned-outemployeesseemlesslikelytoprofit from thegain cycle of daily job resources, daily work engage-ment,anddailyjobcraftingputforwardbyJD–Rtheory(Bakker& Demerouti,2014;seeFigs.1and2).Thisisparticularlyproblematic becausedailyjobresourcessuchasperformancefeedback, train-ing,andsocialsupportareneededtocopewithdailyjobdemands. Additionally,giventhatjobresourceshavemotivationalpotential (Hackman&Oldham,1980),notbeingabletoprofitfromdailyjob resourcesmeanslowlevelsofworkengagementonadailybasis. Onceengaged, employeesaremore likely tomobilizetheirjob resourcesinordertostayengaged(Bakker,2011).Employeeswith chronicburnoutmisstheenergyandmotivationtostartsuchjob craftingbehavior.Thus,individualshighinburnoutmiss opportu-nitiestoprofitfromagaincycle(Hobfoll,2002)inwhichresources accumulateovertime(Hakanen,Perhoniemi,&Toppinen-Tanner, 2008).

Gainspiralsaretechnicallydefinedasamplifyingloopsinwhich cyclicrelationshipsamongconstructs buildoneachother posi-tivelyovertime(Lindsley,Brass,&Thomas,1995).Accordingto conservationofresourcestheory(Hobfoll,2002),theacquisition andaccumulationofresourcesisapivotaldrivethatinitiatesand maintainspeople’sbehavior.Accordingly,peoplearemotivatedto obtain,retain,fosterandprotectresources.Researchintherealmof organizationshasprovidedevidencefortheexistenceofgaincycles (notspirals)ofjobresourcesandengagement:jobresources pre-dictpersonalresourcesandworkengagement;personalresources andworkengagement,inturn,predictjobresourcesovertime(see Bakker&Demerouti,2014;Salanova,Schaufeli,Xanthopoulou,& Bakker,2010).

Furthermore, researchhas provided evidence for a negative relationshipbetweenburnoutandjobresources(seeFig.2),most probablybecauseofthewithdrawalbehaviorthatis characteris-ticofindividualshighinburnout.TenBrummelhuisetal.(2011) foundinatwo-yearfollowupstudythatbaselineburnoutpredicted futureburnoutdirectlyandindirectly,throughanincreaseinjob demandsandadecreaseinjobresources.Regardingjobresources, theauthorsfoundthatburnoutresultedinadecreaseinco-worker andsupervisorsupport,areductionofjobautonomyand informa-tion,andlessparticipationindecision-making.Inasimilarvein, DeBeer,Pienaar,andRothmannJr.(2013)conductedaone-year follow-upstudyintheminingsectorandfoundthatT1burnout wasnegativelyrelated toT2social supportfromcolleagues,T2 socialsupportfromsupervisors,andmarginallysignificantly, neg-ativelyrelatedtoT2roleclarity,alsosuggestingthatemployees withhigherlevelsofburnoutarelesslikelytohaveaccesstojob resources.

Jobresourcessuchassocialsupport,performancefeedback,and opportunitiesfordevelopmentaremotivatingbecausetheyhelp todealwithjobdemandsand reachwork-relatedgoals(Bakker &Demerouti, 2014).Employees high in burnout are less likely toprofitfromsuchjobresourcesbecausetheyareless opento newexperiences (Bakker,Van derZee, Lewig,&Dollard, 2006; Sandströmetal.,2011).Inaddition,burned-outemployeesmaybe lessabletofocusonavarietyoftasksbecauseoftheirhealth prob-lems, includinganxiety,depression, sleep disturbance, memory

impairment,andneckpain(Ahola,2007).Moreover,asalludedto before,burned-outemployeesarelesslikelytoproactivelychange theirownworkenvironment.Indeed,Tims,Bakker,&Derks,2012 foundthatburnoutwasnegativelyrelatedtoproactivebehavior atwork.In addition,employeeswhoscoredhigheroncynicism werelesslikelytocrafttheirsocialandstructuraljobresourcesor tocrafttheirchallengesatwork.Incontrast,engagedemployees weremorelikelytoincreasetheirchallenges,and,forexample,to seeksocialsupportandaskforfeedback.Thispositivelinkbetween engagementandjobcraftinghasalsobeenfoundonadailybasis (Demerouti&Bakker,2014;Petrou,Demerouti,Peeters,Schaufeli, &Hetland,2012).Dailyjobcraftingcan,inturn,haveapositive impactondailyjobresources(seeFig.2).

Finally,burned-outindividualsseemtofailtosatisfytheirbasic psychologicalneeds.Accordingtoself-determinationtheory, peo-plehavethreeinnatepsychologicalneeds,namelytheneedsfor autonomy,competence,andrelatedness(Deci&Ryan,2000).The needforautonomyimpliesthatpeoplehaveauniversalurgetobe causalagentsandtoexperiencevolition;theneedforcompetence concernspeople’sinherentdesiretobeeffectiveindealingwith theenvironment;andtheneedforrelatednessimpliestheuniversal propensitytointeractwith,beconnectedto,andexperiencecaring forotherpeople(Baumeister&Leary,1995).Researchofthepast decadeshasshownthatsatisfactionofthesethreeneedsfosters well-beingandperformance,whereasfrustrationoftheneeds fos-tersjobstrainandimpairedperformance(Gagne&Vansteenkiste, 2013).Inastudentsetting,fulfillmentoftheneedsforautonomy, competenceandrelatednesswasrelatedtowell-beingona day-to-daybasis(Reis,Sheldon,Gable,Roscoe,&Ryan,2000).Inarecent studyinanorganizationalsetting,BakkerandOerlemans(2014) foundthatthemoretimeburned-out(vs.healthy)individualsspent onwork-related activities(e.g.,core worktasks,administrative tasks,meetingswithclients,andinteractionswithcolleagues),the lowertheirmomentaryneedsatisfaction,andthelowertheirdaily happiness.Becauseburned-outemployeesseemunabletosatisfy theirdailybasicneedsforrelatedness,autonomyandcompetence throughwork,itislikelythattheirdailyworkengagementislow aswell.

4. Practicalimplications

Wehavearguedthatchronicburnouthasadetrimentaleffect on employees’ daily functioning, because burnout strengthens thelosscycleofdailydemands,dailyexhaustion,anddaily self-undermining.In addition,burnout underminesthegaincycleof dailyjobresources,dailyworkengagement,anddailyjobcrafting. Therefore,chronicallyburned-outemployeesorthoseatriskfor burnoutneedhelpfromothersinordertochangethestructural causesthatcontributetotheirimpairedhealthstatusandwork capacity.Organizations(e.g.,occupationalhealthprofessionalsor humanresourcemanagers)shouldplayacentralroleinthe preven-tionandreductionofburnout,simultaneouslypayingattentionto theorganizationalcontextandthepersonalneedsoftheindividual employee(Kompier,Cooper,&Geurts,2000).Managementshould developpoliciestooptimizestructuraljobdemandsandresources –particularlyforthosewhoareatriskforburnout.Discussingthe workingconditionswithindividualemployees,afteranassessment ofpersonaljobdemandsandresources,isonepossible interven-tion.Togetherwiththeemployee,leadersmayidentifyandtryto reducehindrancejobdemands,suchasroleambiguityorrole con-flict(Crawford, LePine,&Rich,2010).Simultaneously,theymay trytoidentifyanddevelopjobresourcesthatfosterwork engage-mentandhelpcopingwiththejobdemands.Leaderscanalsobe trainedtobettersupervisetheiremployees,bylearninghowto offeradequate,constructivefeedbackandhowtoestablishclear

goalsfortheiremployees.Thisisnotaneasypursuit,butresearch suggeststhatstructuralburnoutinterventionscanhavefavorable effects(Leiter&Maslach,2014).

Additionally, recentresearch suggeststhat jobcrafting isan important‘bottom-up’approachthatcanbeusedtotrain employ-eestooptimizetheirownworkenvironmentthemselves,sothat theystayengaged(VandenHeuvel,Demerouti,&Peeters,2012). Inthetraining,employeeswhoareatriskforburnoutmaylearn toidentifythedemandsandresourcesintheirworkenvironment. Consequently,theylearntheprinciplesofjobcrafting,andmake theirpersonaljobcraftingplan.Thisplanincludesgoalsetting,such asseekingspecificjobresources(e.g.,askingforfeedbackandsocial support),andreducingworkpressureandroleconflicts(Demerouti &Bakker,2014).Jobcraftingshould,ofcourse,notbecomean addi-tionaldemandthat needstobedealtwith, becausethatwould increasedailyexhaustion.Managerswhohelpemployeesatrisk forburnoutallocatetimetojobcrafting.Futureresearchshould testwhetherjobcraftingcanreallyworkforemployeeswhoare highonchronicburnout.

Thepresenttheoreticalanalysisclearlyindicatesthatemployee well-beingandworkbehaviorfluctuatesonadailybasis. Employ-eesmayeithercrafttheirdailyworkenvironment andmobilize theirjobresources,orrunintotroublebecauseoftheirhighlevelof exhaustion,creatinghigherjobdemandsthroughaprocessof self-undermining.Dailyinterventionsmayinterrupttheselosscycles. First,inourprojects,weprovidefeedbacktoourparticipantsabout theirdailyactivitiesanddailyexperiences(e.g.,Breevaartetal., 2014).On thebasis ofthisfeedback,employees(highorlowin burnout)learnwhatthepossibledailycausesareoftheirfatigue. Thisinformationcanbeusedasastartingpointforbehaviorchange. Anotheroptionistheuseofsmartphoneapplicationsthatofferthe possibilitytomonitorthedailyfluctuationsin engagement,and offerfeedbacktotheusersregardingthepossiblecausesof the peaksandlowsinengagementfromdaytoday,oreven within theday. Additionally, researchhasindicated that recovery is a crucialstrategy.Recoveryactivities,suchassocialactivities(e.g., havingdinnerwithfriends),low-effortactivities(reading,listening tomusic,surfingontheinternet),andphysicalactivities(e.g.,sport, exercise,dancing)mayfosterrelaxationandpsychological detach-mentfromwork,whichmay,inturn,facilitatenextday’swork engagement(see,alsoregardingmethodology;Bakker,Demerouti, Oerlemans,&Sonnentag,2013;TenBrummelhuis&Bakker,2012). Employeesmayalsolearnhowtobettercopewiththeirexhaustion bymasteringtheactivitiesthataremosthelpfulforrecoveryfrom theirwork-relatedefforts(Hahn,Binnewies,Sonnentag,&Mojza, 2011),includingtheactivitiesmentionedabove.

5. Conclusion

Burnoutisacombinationofchronicexhaustionandnegative attitudestowardworkwithdamagingconsequencesforemployee health and productivity.In this article, we developed an over-allmodelofburnout inwhichchronicburnoutis consideredas animportantmoderatorofdailyemployeefunctioning.Wehave arguedandshownthatchronicburnoutstrengthensthelosscycle ofdailyjobdemands,dailyexhaustion,anddailyself-undermining, whereas chronic burnout weakens the gain cycle of daily job resources,dailyworkengagement,anddailyjobcrafting.Future researchshouldtestthesepropositionsincross-levelresearch,in whichemployeeshighinchronicburnoutarecomparedwiththose lowinburnoutregardingtheirmanagementofdailyjobdemands andresources.Employeeswithhighlevelsofburnoutneedhelpin structurallychangingtheirworkingconditionsandhealthstatus, andwehopethatthepresentarticleoffersaframeworkwithwhich thiscanbeachieved.

Conflictofinterest

Theauthorsdeclarethattherearenoconflictsofinterest.

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