European food safety: mapping critical food practices and cultural differences in France, Norway, Portugal, Romania and the UK

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CONSUMPTION RESEARCH SIFO

European food safety

Mapping critical food practices and cultural differences

in France, Norway, Portugal, Romania and the UK

Editor: Silje Elisabeth Skuland

Authors (alphabetical): Borda, D., Didier, P., Dumitraşcu, L., Ferreira, V.,

Foden, M., Langsrud, S., Maître, I., Martens, L. Møretrø, T., Nguyen-The, C.,

Nicolau, A. I. Nunes, C., Rosenberg, T. G., Skuland, S. E., Teigen, H. M.,

Teixeira, P., and Truninger, M.

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Title

European food safety: Mapping critical food practices and cultural differences in France, Norway, Portugal, Romania and the UK

Antall sider

809

Dato

April 2020

Tittel

Mattrygghet i Europa: En kartlegging av kritiske matpraksiser og kulturelle forskjeller i Frankrike, Norge, Portugal, Romania og Storbritannia

ISBN: 978-82-7063-506-1

Editor: Silje Elisabeth Skuland Authors

(alphabetical): Borda, D., Didier, P., Dumitraşcu, L., Ferreira, V., Foden, M., Langsrud, S., Maître, I., Martens, L. Møretrø, T., Nguyen-The, C., Nicolau, A. I. Nunes, C., Rosenberg, T. G., Skuland, S. E., Teigen, H. M., Teixeira, P., and Truninger, M.

Grant number:

H2020 – SFS – 2016 – 2017: Project no. 727580

Faglig ansvarlig sign.

Funder: European Commision Horizion 2020, Programme: Sustainable Food Security - Resilient and

resource-efficient value chains and the specific topic "SFS – 37 – 2016 The impact of consumer practices in food safety: risks and mitigation strategies"

Summary: How is food handled in safe and unsafe ways from retail to fork in European households? This is the

overall research question raised in this report. The aim of this report is to contribute to an in-depth, detailed, empirical and nuanced analysis of how food is handled in everyday life in five European countries: France, Norway, Portugal, Romania and the UK. The first chapters (Part 1) describe the food cultural difference and food safety variation between the five countries, theories of practices that underpin the study and the transdisciplinary methods employed for studying shopping, transportation, storage and cooking a meal with chicken and raw vegetables in 75 European households. The first empirical chapters (Part 2) introduce the households in this study (chapter 2.1), discuss the everyday food life the households (chapter 2.2) and describe food anxieties and experiences with foodborne illnesses (chapter 2.3). Part 3 concentrates on food procuring and organising practices in the households and includes three empirical discussions of shopping (chapter 3.1), transportation (chapter 3.2) and storage (chapter 3.3). Part 4 discusses food preparation and comprises five chapters discussing the order of cooking (chapter 4.1), chicken preparation (chapter 4.2), vegetable preparation (chapter 4.3), determining doneness (chapter 4.4) and washing hands (chapter 4.5). Finally, Part 5 discusses the main findings in the report and suggests further research steps.

Sammendrag: Hvordan håndteres mat på trygge og utrygge måter fra butikk til bords i europeiske husholdninger?

Dette er det overordnede forskningsspørsmålet som studeres i denne rapporten. Målet med denne rapporten er å bidra til en grundig, detaljert, empirisk og nyansert analyse av hvordan mat håndteres i hverdagen i fem europeiske land: Frankrike, Norge, Portugal, Romania og Storbritannia. De første kapitlene (Del 1) beskriver matkulturelle forskjeller og mattrygghet i de fem landene, praksisteorien som ligger til grunn for studien og den transdisiplinære metoden for å studere innkjøp, transport og oppbevaring av mat og tillaging av et måltid med kylling og rå grønnsaker i 75 europeiske husholdninger. De første empiriske kapitlene (Del 2) introduserer husholdningene i studien (kapittel 2.1), diskuterer hverdagsliv og matforbruk I husholdningene (kapittel 2.2) og beskriver matbekymringer og erfaringer med matbårne sykdommer (kapittel 2.3). Del 3 konsentrerer seg om matinnkjøp og organiseringspraksiser i husholdningene og inkluderer tre empiriske diskusjoner om matinnkjøp (kapittel 3.1), transport (kapittel 3.2) og matoppbevaring (kapittel 3.3). Del 4 diskuterer tilberedning av mat og består av fem kapitler som diskuterer rekkefølgen på matlaging (kapittel 4.1), tillagning av kylling (kapittel 4.2), tillagning av salat (kapittel 4.3), avgjørelse om at maten er ferdig (kapittel 4.4) og vaske hender (kapittel 4.5). Til slutt diskuterer Del 5 hovedfunnene i rapporten og foreslår videre forskning.

Keywords: Food safety* Retail-to-fork* Shopping* Transport* Storage* Cooking* Chicken and vegetable

consumption* Kitchen infrastructure* Critical consumer handling* Practice theory* Transdisciplinary methods* France* Norway* Portugal* Romania* UK*

Stikkord: Mattrygghet* Butikk-til-bords* Matinnkjøp* Transport* Matoppbevaring* Matlaging* Kylling og

grønnsaksforbruk* Kjøkken* Kritiske forbrukerhandlinger* Praksisteori* Transdisiplinær metode* Frankrike* Norge* Portugal* Romania* Storbritannia*

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Langsrud, S., Maître, I., Martens, L. Møretrø, T., Nguyen-The, C., Nicolau, A. I. Nunes, C., Rosenberg, T. G., Teigen, H. M., Teixeira, P., and Truninger, M. (2020). European food safety: Mapping critical food practices and cultural differences in France, Norway, Portugal, Romania and the UK. SIFO Report 6. ISBN:

978-82-7063-506-1. URL: _{http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12199/3112. Oslo: Oslo} Metropolitan University

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Mapping critical food practices and cultural differences

in France, Norway, Portugal, Romania and the UK

Editor: Silje Elisabeth Skuland

Authors (alphabetical): Borda, D., Didier, P., Dumitraşcu, L., Ferreira, V., Foden, M., Langsrud, S., Maître, I., Martens, L. Møretrø, T., Nguyen-The, C., Nicolau, A. I.

Nunes, C., Rosenberg, T. G., Skuland, S. E., Teigen, H. M., Teixeira, P., and Truninger, M.

ISBN: 978-82-7063-506-1 SIFO report-6

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Europe. The report contributes to an empirical analysis of how food is handled from retail to fork, in France, Norway, Portugal, Romania and the UK. It draws upon fieldwork employing observational and conversational methods, and includes screenshots from food preparation of chicken and vegetables, photographs of shopping, transporting and storing food, and transcripts of conversations and observation of how food is handled. It contributes to better understanding of safe and unsafe food handling in European households, a comprehensive collection of qualitative data from domestic life of consumers from different countries and transdisciplinary understandings of critical food handling in private homes.

The Horizon 2020 project – SafeConsume

This report is a part of the Horizon 2020-funded project, SafeConsume, Safer food through changed consumer behavior: Effective tools and products, communication strategies, education and a food safety policy reducing health burden from foodborne illnesses. SafeConsume is coordinated by Dr. Solveig Langsrud at Nofima, Norway, and is a large research and innovation project with 32 partners, including researchers from various disciplines, market actors, authorities and NGOs from 14 countries. The project started on the 1st_{of May 2017 and lasts for 60 months (2017 – 2022). SafeConsume is} divided into nine work packages, where this report describes the results of the first WP1 Characterization of consumer behaviours and barriers. WP1 is led by Dr Silje Elisabeth Skuland at SIFO/Oslo Metropolitan University, Norway.

The main objective of SafeConsume is to reduce the health burden from foodborne illnesses by changing consumer behaviour through effective and convenient tools and products, communication strategies, education and an inclusive food safety policy. As such, the project builds on the hypothesis that consumer behaviour is both a core problem and solution in this part of the food chain. In this context, behaviour is defined as the consumer actions affecting the risks of foodborne infection at all stages from retail to consumption including food choice, storage and preparation. As existing strategies for risk mitigation through changing consumer behaviour seem to fall short, the intention of the project is to supplement the methodologies and existing paradigms with an improved approach, which is to describe and understand consumer behaviour using a methodology based on theories of practices and combine this insight with microbial risk assessment. SafeConsume is thus a transdisciplinary project aiming to link consumer behaviour and microbiological risks.

Transdisciplinary projects are those in which researchers from different fields not only work closely together on a common problem over an extended period but also create a shared conceptual model of the problem that integrates and transcends separate

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and perspectives from different scientific disciplines as well as knowledge from societal stakeholders, are integrated.1_{In SafeConsume, a transdisciplinary methodology for} field studies employing qualitative sociological methods, such as walking-with video interviews and semi-structured observation has been combined with HACCP methodology.

This report is a comprehensive first-step analysis of the transdisciplinary fieldwork conducted in the spring of 2018 in a total of 75 households in France, Norway, Portugal, Romania and the UK; 15 households in each country. The aim of this report is to contribute to a detailed, empirical and nuanced analysis of how food is handled in everyday life in these five European countries. The overall research question raised in this report is: How is food handled in safe and unsafe ways from retail to fork in European households?

Fieldwork data and methods

Most studies comparing food risks at the consumer stage make use of statistical survey methodology. There are few qualitative comparisons of food consumption across national borders in Europe. This report thus contributes to a better understanding of everyday life of the food consumer in Europe – and the differences and similarities between Southern, Northern, Western and Eastern European food cultures in relation to food safety. Furthermore, despite the practical nature of food consumption, most qualitative studies of food consumption employ conversational methods such as interviews and focus group, relying on consumers’ statements of what and how they shop, transport, store and cook food.

In order to study food safety as a part of food handling activities in mundane life, this study reports from a comprehensive fieldwork combining on-site observational and conversational methods in food stores (supermarkets, groceries, open markets), on the move (walkways, private cars, public transport) and in homes (kitchens, fridges, freezers, cellars, garages, backyards). Researchers from each of the countries have observed and interviewed people during shopping, transportation, storage and preparation of food.

The advantage of this approach has been to study the material, social and cultural context of food consumption and how it is carried out in domestic lives. The approach taken has produced a large and detailed dataset including 300 hours of audio records, 75 hours of cooking videos and 2500 pictures, combined into 75 data summary documents including transcripts of audio and video recording (100-250 pages each). Working with large sets of qualitative data, and in particular analysing visual data such

1_{H2020 2015-2017, SCF 3, Work program, p. 13 URL:}

https://ec.europa.eu/research/participants/data/ref/h2020/wp/2016_2017/main/h2020-wp1617-food_en.pdf

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complete within the timeframe set out for developing this report. The process of developing the report

The fieldwork data described in this report had multiple purposes within the SafeConsume project. First, the fieldwork data was used for determining the impact of certain consumer behaviour on microbial hazards from retail to fork. Second, it was used for developing a pan-European survey of 10 000 households in ten Europeans countries. Third, it was used for developing opportunities for design solutions. All these purposes meant following a strict time schedule. The process of recruiting households started in December 2017. The fieldwork started in February 2018 and was finalised at the end of July 2018. Writing the report started in September 2018 and was finished in February 2019.2

The first step in the analysis and data contribution

This report is a first-step analysis defined as ‘mapping critical food practices and cultural differences of safe and unsafe food handling in European households’. This has been informed by the transdisciplinary approach employed in SafeConsume, integrating HACCP analysis and practice theory to define the main research objective as ‘critical consumer handling’ (CCH). SafeConsume’s particular focus is on foods such as poultry, raw vegetables, fruits, berries, eggs, seafood (scallops and mussels) and ready to eat foods (included cheese, ham and deli-products not cooked before eating) as these are associated with the health risks posed by Salmonella enterica, Campylobacter spp, Toxoplasma gondii, Norovirus and Listeria monocytogenes. The report concentrates on the critical consumer handling of poultry, vegetable and fruit from retail to fork. It is structured around defined critical food handling steps (CCHs), which are:

1. Shopping and food choice of poultry and fresh vegetables and fruit 2. Transportation and storage

3. Washing fresh vegetables and fruit (before or after handling raw poultry) 4. Handling and preparing fresh vegetables (before or after handling raw poultry) 5. Handling and preparing poultry

6. Cooking poultry

These critical food handling steps are broad categories of actions. This report thus describes the multiple doings of the research participants under each defined step and their socio-material context. Thus, as a first-step analysis, this report is empirical in nature by describing the doings observed and the meanings expressed by the research participants and by associating these observations to the foods, the material environment, the tools, and the practical skills involved. A complete practice

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handling that welcomes reuse and reanalysis. Furthermore, the report fulfils the overall aim of SafeConsume to provide open-access data for the larger scientific community, for the policy developers and for the public.

The collaborative effort

This report is a result of a collaborative effort of 17 researchers from various scientific backgrounds working together to better understand safe and unsafe food handling in domestic kitchens.

The authors contributing to writing the report (in alphabetical order) are: Prof. Daniela Borda, PhD Industrial Engineering, Faculty of Food Science and

Engineering from the "Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati, Romania. Dr. Pierrine Didier, (PhD) anthropologist and post-doctoral fellow at INRAE (the

French National Institute for Agricultural Research), France.

Dr. Loredana Dumitraşcu, PhD Industrial Engineering, lecturer at Food Science and Engineering, “Dunarea de Jos”, University of Galati, Romania.

Dr. Vânia Ferreira, Microbiologist and Researcher at Escola Superior de Biotecnologia, Universidade Católica Portuguesa, Portugal

Dr. Mike Foden, Research Associate in the School of Social Science and Public Policy, Keele University, UK.

Dr. Solveig Langsrud, Senior Research scientist, PhD Microbiology, Nofima, Norway Dr. Isabelle Maître, lecturer researcher in sensory analysis and consumer science.

École Supérieure d’Agricultures (ESA)-INRA, France.

Prof. Lydia Martens, Professor of Sociology, School of Social Science and Public Policy, Keele University, UK.

Dr. Trond Møretrø, Research scientist, PhD Microbiology, Nofima, Norway

Dr. Christophe Nguyen-The, research director at INRAE, PhD agricultural sciences (the French National Institute for Agricultural Research), France.

Prof. Anca Ioana Nicolau, PhD, Industrial Biotechnology, Faculty of Food Science and Engineering from the “Dunarea de Jos” University of Galati, Romania.

Dr. Cristina Nunes. Sociologist and Research Associate at the Instituto de Ciências Sociais da Universidade de Lisboa, Portugal.

Thea Grav Rosenberg, Master degree, Media Science and researcher at Consumption Research Norway (SIFO), Oslo Metropolitan University, Norway.

Dr. Silje Elisabeth Skuland, Sociologist and Researcher at Consumption Research Norway (SIFO), Oslo Metropolitan University, Norway.

Helene Maria Fiane Teigen, Master degree, Media Science and Researcher at

Consumption Research Norway (SIFO), Oslo Metropolitan University, Norway. Prof. Paula Teixeira, Associate Professor in Microbiology at Escola Superior de

Biotecnologia, Universidade Católica Portuguesa, Portugal

Dr. Mónica Truninger, Sociologist and Researcher at Instituto de Ciências Sociais da Universidade de Lisboa, Portugal.

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contributed to various parts in the introduction and the summaries. The social scientists had the responsibility of developing the analysis in this report. This was done by developing the empirical chapters by writing examples chapters for the other teams to follow, writing summaries of each chapter, the methodology and the final discussion.

Below is an overview of the five teams, persons involved and contribution to the_report:

Dr. Mónica Truninger Dr. Cristina Nunes

Writing country-specific sub-chapters Writing chapters (1.5 and part 5) Developing example chapters (4.2)

University of Galati, Romania

Dr. Loredana Dumitraşcu Prof. Anca Ioana Nicolau

Writing country-specific sub-chapters Copy-editing INRAE3 _and ESA4_{, France} Dr. Pierrine Didier Dr. Christophe Nguyen-The Dr. Isabelle Maître

Writing country-specific sub-chapters Copy editing

Writing chapter summaries (3.2 and 3.3)

Keele University

Dr. Mike Foden Prof. Lydia Martens

Writing country-specific sub-chapters Writing chapter 1.4

Developing example chapters (2.2, 2.3 and 3.1) Writing chapter summaries (4.2 and 4.3) Copy editing Consumption Research Norway, Oslo Metropolitan University

Dr. Silje Elisabeth Skuland Helene Maria Fiane Teigen

Writing country-specific sub-chapters Writing chapters (1.1 and 1.3)

Developing example chapters (3.2, 3.3, 4.1, 4.4 & 4.5)

Writing chapter summaries (2.2, 2.3, 3.1, 4.1, 4.4, 4.5)

Copy editing, formatting and putting together the report

University of Lisbon, Portugal

_______________________________________________________________ 3 _{French National Institute for Agricultural Research}

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List of acknowledgements:

Portugal Ana Delicado Data Documents, Literature Review

Nadia Nunes Data Documents

Margarida Paulos Data Documents

Ana Sofia Ribeiro Data Documents

Rui Maia Fieldworker

Maria João Cardoso Luís Junqueira Alexandre Silva

Fieldworker, Microbiology Copy editing Copy editing

Joana Feio Fieldworker, Data Documents

Romania Corina Neagu Fieldworker, Microbiology, Data Documents, Transcriber Valerica Celmare Fieldworker, Data Documents, Transcriber Răzvan Dinică Fieldworker, Data Documents, Transcriber

Florentina Bucur Transcriber, Microbiology

Elena Bujor Transcriber

Augustin Mihalache Preliminary analysis

France Flore Lourtioux Fieldworker, Microbiology and transcriber

Anaïs Roger Transcriber

Charline Cocandeau Transcriber

Isolde Lebouc Transcriber

UK Phil Voysey Microbiology

Lotika Singha Data Documents

Norway Therese Hagtvedt Fieldworker, Microbiology

Janina Berg Microbiological analyses

Maria Støle Microbiological analyses

Stine Thøring Data analysis

Tove Husabø Preliminary analysis, Data Documents

Anine K. Frykholm Preliminary analysis, Data Documents

Inger E. Øien Transcriber

Julia P. Skuland Transcriber

Institute Director at Consumption Research Norway (SIFO), Eivind Jacobsen has quality assured this report.

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provided various ways of handling food, each of the country specific sub-chapter varies with regards to some themes addressed.

PART ONE (Chapter 1.1-1.5) introduces the study and the five countries with an emphasis on the food cultures, food market and shopping patterns and the food safety situation in each of the countries. Furthermore, it describes prior research and understanding of food safety, the practice theoretical approach framing the study of food handling in this report. Finally, the last chapter (1.5) describes the methodology, including research ethical issues and concerns, data storage and protection, the transdisciplinary research design, description of the study areas, the recruitment and sample in all five countries, the socio-demographic characteristics of the sample across and within all five countries. Finally, it describes how the fieldwork was carried in the five countries, how it was organised, including piloting and meetings with households and the research tools used.

PART TWO provides an introduction of the households in the study for each of the countries (2.1). Chapter 2.1 describes their everyday food life, including food provisioning activities, role division and responsibility for food provisioning, general food preferences and dietary requirements, how and where the research participants learned to cook and changes over life course. The chapter ends with a summary of differences and similarities in food provisioning activities in the five countries. Chapter 2.3 gives examples of food anxieties and food safety issues as these were described by the research participants and how and where they had learnt about hygiene and safe food handling. After describing experiences with food-related illnesses, the chapter ends by comparing and summarising the food anxieties and food safety issues in the five countries.

PART TREE: Includes three chapters on shopping (3.1), transportation (3.2) and storage (3.3). Chapter 3.1 starts off by describing the shopping experience, general shopping routines, the route taken and how the research participants selected chicken, vegetables and salad and fruit. Chapter 3.2 takes us through transporting food from shop to home, including distance, time, means of transportation and temperature, packing and carrying and challenges and strategies for transporting foods. Chapter 3.3 describes storage routines such as unpacking groceries, storage locations, storage devises and includes information about fridge temperature and age as well as meanings of what kinds of food can be kept in room temperatures or the fridge. All the chapters in part three end with a summary.

PART FOUR includes four chapters on food preparation and one chapter on washing The first chapter, Chapter 4.1, describes the order of cooking and show how cooking might intermingle, overlap or done in separate steps. The chapter provides examples of the process of cooking, how caring for children influence food preparation, and sums

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preparing chicken from unpacking chicken products and tools used, cutting and trimming the chicken, washing the chicken or not, washing hands while handling the chicken and seasoning the chicken. Finally, the summary discusses how and why the handling of chicken varies between the countries, for instance why washing the chicken is common in some countries but not all, and why opening the chicken package is a challenge in some countries but not all. Chapter 4.3 describes how salad and raw vegetables are handled and prepared in the households, including various ways of washing, chopping, peeling or tearing, seasoning. The chapter includes overviews of tools used namely knifes, chopping boards, bowls, salad spinners, and scissors and ends with a summary of ways of dealing with raw vegetables. Chapter 4.4 describes the heating process of chicken and discusses the ways of determining when the chicken is ready to eat. The chapter describes using recipes, checking or monitoring the colour visually, checking firmness and timing cooking based on experience. The chapter summarises how determining if the chicken is ready to eat is depended on the cooking method and the type of chicken cooked. Chapter 4.5 describes hand washing routines in Romania, France and Norway, and provides examples of when and how hands are washed during cooking. Furthermore it provides examples of how to dry hands, rinsing or washing and the meanings attached to washing hands. It also describes how hands are moved (or not moved) when they are greasy.

PART FIVE: Sums up and discusses the main findings. It also provides some concluding reflections, future research steps and concerns about the study in this report.

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List of figures ... 24

PART ONE: INTRODUCTION, THEORY & METHODOLOGY ... 36

Chapter 1.1 Introduction ... 37

Outline of the report ... 38

Chapter 1.2: Introduction to the five countries ... 41

The food culture in Portugal ... 41

Chicken and vegetables in Portuguese food culture ... 41

The food market and shopping patterns ... 43

Food safety authorities ... 46

The food culture in Romania ... 52

Food market – and patterns of shopping ... 52

The food culture in France ... 59

Food market and patterns of shopping ... 59

Food culture in the UK ... 64

Patterns of shopping and eating ... 65

The food culture in Norway ... 71

The food marked and shopping patterns ... 72

Comparing the food cultures and food safety in five countries ... 79

Chapter 1.3: European comparison and food research ... 71

Chapter 1.4: Theories of practices: framing the complexities of domestic food handling ... 75

Chapter 1.5: Methodology ... 79

Research ethical issues and concerns ... 79

Data storage and protection ... 81

Transdisciplinary research design ... 82

Description of the study area, the recruitment and sample in all five countries ... 87

The recruitment process in Portugal ... 93

The recruitment process in Romania ... 96

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Socio-demographic characteristics of the sample across all five countries ... 103

Description of sample and household’s characterization in Portugal ... 103

Description of sample and household’s characterization in Romania ... 105

Description of sample and household’s characterization in France ... 109

Description of sample and household’s characterization in the UK ... 113

Description of sample and household’s characterisation in Norway ... 115

Doing the fieldwork in the five countries ... 118

Organizing fieldwork: piloting and meetings with households ... 118

Research tools and conducting fieldwork ... 120

Conclusions ... 135

PART TWO: THE PARTICIPANTS AND THEIR HOUSEHOLDS ... 136

Chapter 2.1: Introducing the households ... 137

The households from Portugal ... 138

The households from Romania ... 141

The households from France ... 145

The households from the UK ... 147

The households from Norway ... 150

Chapter 2.2: Introducing the households and their everyday food life ... 143

Food provisioning activities among the Portuguese participants ... 144

Role division and responsibility for food provisioning ... 147

Food provisioning activities among the Romanian participants ... 159

General food preferences and dietary requirements ... 163

Learning to cook and changes over life course ... 164

Food provisioning activities among the French participants ... 169

Challenges faced in food provision ... 180

Food provisioning activities among the UK participants ... 182

Challenges faced in food provisioning ... 188

Learning to cook ... 191

Food provisioning activities among the Norwegian participants ... 193

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Differences and similarities in the food provisioning activities in the five countries ... 204

Household routines ... 204

Learning to cook and changes over life course ... 207

Responsibility for food provisioning activities in the household ... 208

Chapter 2.3: Food anxieties and food safety issues ... 214

Food anxieties and food safety issues addressed by the Portuguese participants .. 215

Learning about hygiene and safe food handling... 216

Experiences with food-related illnesses ... 218

Food anxieties and food safety issues addressed by the Romanian participants .. 223

Food anxieties and food safety issues addressed by the French households ... 227

Food anxieties and food safety issues addressed by the UK participants ... 237

Experiences of food-related illness ... 239

Food anxieties and food safety issues addressed by the Norwegian participants .. 242

Comparing and summarising the food anxieties and food safety issues in five European countries ... 251

Food anxieties ... 251

Issues relating to children/vulnerable people and pets ... 252

Learning about hygiene and food safety ... 253

PART TREE: FOOD PROCURING AND ORGANISING ... 258

Chapter 3.1: Shopping ... 261

Shopping in Portugal ... 262

Shopping routines ... 262

The shopping experience: route taken, ability to find things, physical constraints ... 265

Selecting fresh, raw chicken in Portugal ... 268

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Shopping in Romania ... 280

Shopping routines ... 280

The shopping experience: route taken and ability to find things ... 282

Selecting fresh, raw chicken in Romania ... 285

Selecting fruit ... 290

Selecting vegetables and salads ... 292

Shopping in France ... 296

The shopping experience: shopping lists, time taken to shop, use of trolleys and physical constraints ... 296

Three considerations: price, organic and local, and expiry dates ... 299

Selecting fresh, raw chicken ... 301

Selecting fruit and vegetables ... 305

Selecting salad - narrowing down options (e.g. particular varieties) ... 313

Shopping in the UK ... 317

Shopping patterns and routines... 318

Selecting fresh, raw chicken in the UK ... 320

Selecting fruit, vegetables and salad in the UK ... 326

Shopping in Norway ... 333

Selecting chicken ... 333

Selecting lettuce ... 335

Selecting vegetables and fruit ... 339

Summary shopping in Norway ... 343

Summary – shopping habits in 5 countries ... 344

Chapter 3.2: Transportation ... 352

Transportation in Portugal ... 353

Distance, time, means of transportation and temperature ... 353

Packing and carrying the shopping ... 354

Challenges and strategies for transporting food ... 358

Transportation in Romania ... 360

Transportation in France ... 367

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Practical challenges and strategies for transporting food ... 377

Transportation in Norway ... 380

Practical challenges and strategies for transporting food ... 385

Summary – transportation routines in five ... 390

Means of transport ... 390

Bags and cooler bags ... 391

Chapter 3.3: Storage ... 393

Storage in Portugal ... 394

Unpacking food: priorities ... 394

Storage locations ... 395

Storage in Romania ... 407

Storing food at home ... 409

Storage in France ... 419

Unpacking order ... 419

Storing devices ... 421

Storage in the UK ... 433

Storage in Norway ... 443

Summary – storage habits in 5 countries ... 455

PART FOUR: FOOD PREPARATION ... 462

Chapter 4.1: The order of cooking ... 463

The cooking order among the Portuguese research participants ... 464

Intermingled cooking ... 465

Overlapping cooking practices ... 467

The cooking order among the Romanian research participants ... 470

Preparing chicken and salad separately ... 470

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Summing up the order of cooking among the Romanian households ... 478

The cooking order among the French research participants ... 479

Preparing chicken and salad in separate steps ... 479

Preparing salad/vegetables while cooking chicken ... 487

Cooking while tending to children ... 490

Summing up the order of cooking and heating among the French households 491 The heating the chicken and cooking order among the UK research participants 494 Cooking the chicken and preparing the salad separately ... 495

“Multi-tasking”: cooking the chicken while preparing the vegetables ... 497

Preparing vegetables alongside other methods of cooking chicken ... 498

Extended down time ... 501

Caring responsibilities and other kitchen activities ... 501

Summing up the UK order of cooking and heating ... 502

The cooking order among the Norwegian research participants ... 503

Preparing the chicken and the vegetables in separate steps ... 503

Preparing the chicken while preparing the vegetables ... 506

Frying chicken while tending to children ... 511

Summing up heating and the order of cooking among the Norwegian research participants ... 513

The order of cooking in five countries – a summary ... 514

Chapter 4.2: Handling and preparing chicken ... 516

Handling and preparing chicken in Portugal ... 517

Unpacking chicken ... 517

Tools used for unpacking and handling chicken: Unpacking chicken ... 520

Handling chicken: cutting and trimming ... 520

Chicken and cleanliness practices: washing or not washing chicken ... 525

Seasoning chicken ... 532

Washing hands while preparing chicken ... 533

Handling and preparing chicken in Romania ... 535

The ways of unpacking chicken and the tools used ... 535

Not washing chicken before cooking ... 540

Seasoning the chicken ... 551

Summary of how chicken was prepared in Romania ... 555

Handling and preparing chicken in France ... 556

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Removing chicken from packaging ... 563

Washing chicken ... 568

Trimming and cutting chicken ... 569

Seasoning chicken ... 572

Handling and preparing chicken in Norway ... 576

Washing or not washing chicken ... 579

Preparation of chicken before heating ... 580

Summary of how chicken was prepared in Norway ... 584

Handling chicken in the five countries – summary and comparison ... 585

The type of chicken that is used for cooking and associated practices ... 585

Unpacking chicken ... 586

Is raw chicken washed, and if so, how is this done? ... 587

The chicken between the unpacking and the cooking/heating stages ... 588

Performing pathogenic awareness ... 589

The value of sequence analysis, and short and protracted work processes ... 591

Chapter 4.3: Handling and preparing salads and vegetables ... 594

Handling vegetables/salads in Portugal ... 595

Washing salad ... 596

Handling vegetables/salads in Romania ... 609

Washing salad (including washing of hands) ... 609

Summary of how vegetables were prepared in Romania ... 624

Handling vegetables/salads in France ... 626

Handling vegetables/salads in the UK ... 632

Washing and peeling ... 632

Chopping salad/vegetables ... 634

Handling vegetables/salads in Norway ... 637

Three ways of preparing vegetables ... 648

Handling salad and vegetables in the five countries – summary and comparison 667 Chapter 4.4: Cooking chicken and checking for doneness ... 676

The ways the Portuguese research participants determined if the poultry was done ... 677

The ways the Romanian participants determined if the poultry was done ... 683

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Checking surface colour ... 692

Checking inside colour ... 693

Poking the chicken ... 694

Summary of the Romanian ways of proper heating of chicken ... 696

The ways the French participants determined if the poultry was done ... 698

Mix methods: checking colour and firmness ... 698

Timing cooking based on experience and colour ... 700

Summary of the French ways of proper heating of chicken ... 702

The ways the UK participants determined if the poultry was done ... 703

Using a recipe ... 706

Timing cooking based on experience ... 707

Using other senses ... 716

Summary of the UK ways of proper heating of chicken ... 717

The ways the Norwegian participants determined if the poultry was done ... 718

Using a recipe ... 721

Timing cooking based on experience ... 723

Using a thermometer ... 729

Summary of the Norwegian ways of proper heating of chicken ... 731

Risky encounters after asserting that the chicken was properly cooked ... 732

The undercooked chicken served with lukewarm vegetables and ruccola leaves ... 732

Risk of cross contamination during serving the chicken ... 736

Determining if the chicken was properly cooked in the five countries – summary and comparison ... 739

Chapter 4.5: Washing hands during food preparation – an example for further analysis ... 738

Washing hands or not during and between preparing chicken and vegetable salad in Romania ... 739

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Washing hands before cooking? ... 752

Washing hands after touching raw chicken? ... 753

Hand towels and paper towels ... 756

Washing hands or not during and between preparing chicken and salad vegetables in Norway ... 760

Washing or rinsing? ... 763

Hand towels and paper towels ... 767

Summary of hand wash in three countries ... 773

Summary of washing hands in Romania ... 773

Summary of washing hands in France ... 774

Summary of washing hands in Norway ... 774

PART FIVE: CONCLUSION ... 775

Chapter 5: Discussion, concluding reflections and future research steps ... 776

Concluding reflections ... 778

Future research steps ... 789

Visual Data and Risk Behaviour Map: improving and developing transdisciplinary research tools with the aid of software Observer XT ... 790

Consolidating transdisciplinary research analysis ... 792

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Chapter 1.2: Introduction to the five countries

Table 1.2.1: Number of outbreaks and cases of food poisoning from 2008 to 2016. ... 50 Table 1.2.2: Microbiological foodborne diseases, number of cases reported in Romania, 2000-2015 ... 57 Table 1.2.3: Risk factors for sporadic cases of Campylobacteriosis in Norway 2010-2011 ... 76 Table 1.2.4: Ranking frequencies (1=most frequent) and risks (1=highest score

frequency*severity) of behaviours that can lead to foodborne infection ... 77 Table 1.2.5: Number of food-borne (including waterborne) outbreaks, human cases and deaths reported by five countries (EFSA/ECDC reports) ... 79 Table 1.2.6: Food cultural and institutional information in the five countries and variation in food risks ... 80 Chapter 1.5: Methodology

Table 1.5.1: Combining HACCP and Social practice theory ... 84 Table 1.5.2: Sociodemographic profile of the proposed study area ... 90 Table 1.5.3: Classification of neighbourhoods within the proposed study area, by urban/rural status and level of deprivation ... 90 Table 1.5.4: General recruitment criteria for all five countries ... 93 Table 1.5.5: Detailed criteria for the Portuguese sample ... 94 Table 1.5.6: Detailed criteria for the Romanian sample ... 96 Table 1.5.7: Detailed criteria for the UK sample ... 98 Table 1.5.8: Detailed criteria for the French sample... 99 Table 1.5.9: Detailed criteria for the Norwegian sample ... 101 Table 1.5.10: Kitchen statements across the three study groups ... 101 Table 1.5.11: Full overview of Portuguese households’ socio-demographic characteristics ... 104 Table 1.5.12: Full overview of Romanian households’ characteristics ... 107 Table 1.5.13: Information about the Romanian households’ living situation ... 108 Table 1.5.14: Full overview of French households’ characteristics ... 111 Table 1.5.15: Information about the French households’ living situation ... 112 Table 1.5.16: Profile of British participating households ... 114 Table 1.5.17: Norwegian’s household characteristics ... 116 Table 1.5.18: Information about the Norwegian households’ living situation ... 117 PART TWO

Chapter 2.2: Introducing the households and their everyday food life

Table 2.2.1: Overview of cooking responsibilities among the couples (married or

cohabitants) by country ... 210 Table 2.2.2: Overview of shared food work among the couples (married or cohabitants) by country ... 210 Table 2.2.3: Mentioned or observed challenges that makes it difficult to do food work the way they wished, differentiated on household types and country ... 213 Chapter 2.3: Food anxieties and food safety issues

Table 2.3.1: Overview of food anxieties and experience of foodborne illnesses mentioned by study group and country ... 254

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Table 3.1.1: Frequency of shopping ... 282 Table 3.1.2: Shopping habits in selecting chicken among the Romania households ... 288 Table 3.1.3: Overview of selecting chicken in France ... 304 Table 3.1.4: Summary table of mentioned and observed criteria for selecting salad &

vegetables ... 351 Chapter 3.2: Transportation

Table 3.2.1: Overview of distance, time spent, means of transportation and outdoor

temperature among the Portuguese households ... 353 Table 3.2.2: Type of carrying devices among Portuguese households ... 355 Table 3.2.3: Carrying devices’ contact with other surfaces during transportation among the Portuguese households ... 356 Table 3.2.4: Overview of distance, time spent, means of transportation and outdoor

temperature among the Romanian households ... 360 Table 3.2.5: Number of carrying devices among the Romanian households ... 361 Table 3.2.6: Carrying devices’ contact with other surfaces during transportation among the Romanian households ... 365 Table 3.2.7: Overview of distance, time spent, means of transportation and outdoor

temperature among the French households ... 367 Table 3.2.8: Number of carrying devices and their contact with other surfaces among French households ... 368 Table 3.2.9: Overview of distance, time spent, means of transportation and outdoor

temperature among the UK households ... 374 Table 3.2.10: Number of bags used, by mode of transport ... 376 Table 3.2.11: Overview of distance, time spent, means of transportation and outdoor

temperature among the Norwegian households ... 380 Table 3.2.12: Number of carrying devices among the urban and rural households ... 382 Table 3.2.13: Type and number of carrying device among Norwegian households ... 383 Table 3.2.14: Carrying devices’ contact with other surfaces during transportation ... 384 Chapter 3.3: Storage

Table 3.3.1: Storage locations among Portuguese households ... 396 Table 3.3.2: Fridge information among Portuguese households ... 400 Table 3.3.3: Fridge temperatures among Portuguese households ... 402 Table 3.3.4: Storage of chicken among the Portuguese households ... 405 Table 3.3.5: Ways of unpacking among the Romanian households ... 409 Table 3.3.6: List of storage devices in the Romanian households ... 412 Table 3.3.7: Fridge temperatures and kitchen size in the Romanian households ... 413 Table 3.3.8: Food in the fridges in the Romanian households ... 414 Table 3.3.9: Food stored at room temperature/kitchen in the Romanian households ... 415 Table 3.3.10: Number of Romanian households storing leftovers in the fridge ... 418 Table 3.3.11: The ways of unpacking food among French households ... 420 Table 3.3.12: Storing devices in the French households ... 421 Table 3.3.13: Fridge temperatures in French households ... 422 Table 3.3.14: Storage of food in the fridges of the French households ... 424 Table 3.3.15: Food stored at room temperature in the kitchens of the French households .. 428

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Table 3.3.18 Fridge temperatures in the Norwegian households ... 449 Table 3.3.19: Fridge temperatures, kitchen size and kitchen statements in the Norwegian households ... 450 Table 3.3.20: Food in fridge in the Norwegian households ... 451 Table 3.3.21: Food stored in cooling cupboards in the Norwegian households ... 452 Table 3.3.22: Storage at room temperature (in the kitchen) in the Norwegian households .. 453 Table 3.3.23: Ranges of temperatures in refrigerators ... 457 PART FOUR

Chapter 4.1: The order of cooking

Table 4.1.1: Number and type of dishes prepared by French research participants ... 493 Table 4.1.2: Overview of cooking order differentiated on household types and country ... 518 Table 4.1.3: Cooking order - stepwise and intermingled cooking - where the chicken was cooked by country ... 518 Chapter 4.2: Handling and preparing chicken

Table 4.2.1: Features and storage of chicken in the Portuguese households ... 519 Table 4.2.2: Methods and tools for handling and preparing chicken in Portugal ... 523 Table 4.2.3: Overview of unpacking of chicken among the Romanian households and tools used ... 536 Table 4.2.4: Ways of seasoning the chicken in Romania ... 552 Table 4.2.5: Methods and tools for handling and preparing chicken in Romania ... 553 Table 4.2.6: Overview of unpacking of chicken among the French participants and tool used ... 557 Table 4.2.7: Methods and tools for handling and preparing chicken in France ... 562 Table 4.2.8: length of time chicken is kept at room temperature before heating, including all preparatory work (nearest minute) ... 563 Table 4.2.9: UK overview table of handling chicken before heating, and including the cooking method ... 575 Table 4.2.10: Overview of unpacking chicken in the Norwegian households and tool used.. 577 Table 4.2.11: Overview of type of chicken product prepared differentiated on the study groups and country ... 593 Chapter 4.3: Handling and preparing salad and vegetables

Table 4.3.1: Salad and vegetables (features and storage) among the Portuguese households ... 595 Table 4.3.2: Handling and preparing salad/vegetables in the Portuguese households ... 597 Table 4.3.3: Ways of washing lettuce in the Romanian households ... 610 Table 4.3.4: Protocol used by Sorina for washing lettuce and vegetables ... 614 Table 4.3.5: Overview of salad preparation among the French research participants ... 627 Table 4.3.6: Overview over unpacking vegetables in the Norwegian households ... 639 Table 4.3.7: Overview over vegetable preparation in the Norwegian households ... 650 Table 4.3.8: Salad seasoning among the Norwegian households ... 658 Table 4.3.9: Socio-technological configurations associated with preparing vegetables for salads and cooking ... 671

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check if the chicken was properly cooked in the Portuguese households ... 681 Table 4.4.2: Overview over chicken products, heating method, cooking time, and how to check if the chicken was properly cooked in the Romanian households ... 684 Table 4.4.3: Summary of the main ways of checking if chicken is done for different kinds of cooking procedures and chicken products ... 697 Table 4.4.4: Overview over chicken products, heating method, cooking time, and how to check if the chicken was properly cooked in the French households ... 699 Table 4.4.5: Overview over chicken products, heating method, cooking time, and how to check if the chicken was properly cooked in the UK households ... 704 Table 4.4.6: Overview over chicken products, heating method, cooking time, and how to check if the chicken was properly cooked in the Norwegian households ... 720 Table 4.4.7: Overview of cooking steps and the type of chicken cooked ... 742 Table 4.4.8: Overview of the cooking steps and where chicken was cooked ... 743 Table 4.4.9: Overview over the ways of determining doneness across countries and household group ... 746 Chapter 4.5: Washing hands during food preparation – an example for further analysis Table 4.5.1: Overview of the order of how many times, when and where the Romanian

research participants washed and rinsed their hands ... 739 Table 4.5.2: Types of towels found in the kitchens in the Romanian households and how they were used ... 743 Table 4.5.3: Overview of the order of how many times, when and where the French research participants washed and rinsed their hands ... 750 Table 4.5.4: Overview of the order of, how many times, when and where the Norwegian research participants washed and rinsed their hands ... 760

List of figures

PART ONE

Chapter 1.1: Introduction

Figure 1.1.1: The five countries discussed in this report ... 39 Figure 1.1.2: Flowchart CCHs: Poultry with fresh vegetables and fruit (PVF) ... 39 Chapter 1.2: Introduction to the five countries

Figure 1.2.1: Daily Meat Availability per Capita (Average: 2012-2016) (INE 2017) ...42 Figure 1.2.2: Chicken Meat (production by tonnes) (GPP 2019) ... 44 Figure 1.2.3: Poultry meat – Import and export (by tonnes) (GPP 2019) ... 45 Figure 1.2.4: Vegetables (production by tonnes) (GPP 2019) ... 45 Figure 1.2.5: Frozen Vegetables (production by tonnes) (GPP 2019) ... 46 Figure 1.2.6: Figure 1.1.6: Frozen Vegetables – Import and Export (by tonnes) (GPP 2019) . 46 Chapter 1.4: Theories of practices: framing the complexities of domestic food handling Figure 1.4.1: The elements of practice-as-entity: meanings, materialities and competences .. 76

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Chapter 1.5: Methodology

Figure 1.5.1: Flowchart CCH: Poultry with fresh Vegetables and Fruits (PVF) ... 83 Figure 1.5.2: Sketch of Simon’s shopping tour (France)... 123 Figure 1.5.3: Sketch of Fabrice’s shopping tour (France) ... 124 Figure 1.5.4: Sketch of Linalia’s shopping tour in a food shop in the village (Romania) ... 124 Figure 1.5.5: Sketch of Ionel’s shopping tour in a supermarket (Romania) ... 125 Figure 1.5.6: Sketch of Ionel’s kitchen organisation ... 130 PART THREE

Figure 3.1: HACCP flowchart with the relevant CCHs ... 260 Chapter 3.1: Shopping

Figure 3.1.1: Vanessa’s shopping list on a Post-It note: chicken breasts, carrots, mushrooms, soya sauce, courgette, lettuce (Portugal) ... 264 Figure 3.1.2: Filipa always did a shopping list on her mobile phone, while Augusto’s shopping list was on piece of paper (Portugal) ... 265 Figure 3.1.3: Having coffee with Sonia while she is looking at the weekly promotions

(Portugal) ... 266 Figure 3.1.4: Odete carrying the products in her electric scooter (Portugal) ... 267 Figure 3.1.5: Carlo’s basket with a few products (Portugal) ... 268 Figure 3.1.6: Chicken chosen by Marta from the packaged section without the use-by date label (Portugal) ... 269 Figure 3.1.7: Filipa searching the use-by date label and selected package with the longer date (Portugal) ... 270 Figure 3.1.8: Chicken on sale with various discounts and promotions (Portugal) ... 271 Figure 3.1.9: Lettuce is labelled ‘Pingo Doce - Always fresh Salads’ (Portugal) ... 272 Figure 3.1.10: Augusto picking the watercress packages (Portugal) ... 273 Figure 3.1.11: Products without a specific order on the conveyor belt (Portugal) ... 276 Figure 3.1.12: Andreia uses a paper bag (Portugal) ... 277 Figure 3.1.13: Example of shopping and packing fresh products in Portugal ...278 Figure 3.1.14: Bernardo carrying his shopping (Portugal) ... 279 Figure 3.1.15: Layout of Kaufland market and the route followed by Ionel when shopping (Romania) ... 284 Figure 3.1.16: Sorina scanning alternatives when selecting chicken (Romania) ...287 Figure 3.1.17: Sylviane’s trolley with products directly placed in cooler and grocery bags (France) ... 298 Figure 3.1.18: Bernard’s & Hélène’s trolley with yogurts in their cooler bag and other

groceries directly in the trolley (France) ... 298 Figure 3.1.19: Mathilde selecting apples at the organic shop (France) ... 307 Figure 3.1.20: Vincent tested firmness of pears (France) ... 309 Figure 3.1.21: Bernard selected his parsley, looking for firmness (left); Mylène inspected the appearance of apples (right) (France) ... 310 Figure 3.1.22: Simon choosing prewashed packaged Lamb’s lettuce (France) ... 314 Figure 3.1.23: Etienne inspecting lettuce leaves (France) ... 315 Figure 3.1.24: Shopping lists in use: Kate Buckley, left and Jean Higgins, right (UK) ... 319

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Figure 3.1.27: Mary inspects two packs of chicken breasts, comparing their colour (left); Tricia searches for fresher-looking chicken, avoiding any with signs of discolouration (right) (UK) ... 326 Figure 3.1.28: Chicken fillets selected by Norwegian households ... 334 Figure 3.1.29: Anna told that she would select grilled chicken if she wanted something fast to cook (Norway) ... 334 Figure 3.1.30: Left shows Nils’ selected fresh lettuce. Hanne found lettuce with poor quality (Norway) ... 336 Figure 3.1.31: Petter read the information of a package of pre-rinsed lettuce for the first time. It said ‘washed and ready to eat’ (Norway) ... 338 Figure 3.1.32: A selection of sweet potatoes inspected by Georg (Norway) ... 340 Figure 3.1.33: Bananas in plastic bag (Norway) ... 342 Figure 3.1.34: Loose apples (Norway) ... 342 Figure 3.1.35: Fruits and cucumbers wrapped in plastic bag (Norway) ... 342 Chapter 3.2: Transportation

Figure 3.2.1: Odete with her electric scooter (Portugal) ... 354 Figure 3.2.2: Sónia put the groceries at the back seat of the car (Portugal) ... 357 Figure 3.2.3: Vanessa put the shopping bag in the car boot (Portugal) ... 357 Figure 3.2.4: Andreia unpacked the food on the kitchen counter (Portugal) ... 357 Figure 3.2.5: Filipa used the shopping bag to hold the lift door open, while she goes back to the car to pick up more items (Portugal) ... 358 Figure 3.2.6: Andreia with the baby stroller to help with shopping (Portugal) ... 359 Figure 3.2.7: Examples of types of food transported in a bag (Romania) ... 362 Figure 3.2.8: Examples of types of reusable bags used by participants (Romania) ... 363 Figure 3.2.9: Example of transporting food in the luggage compartment (Romania) ... 364 Figure 3.2.10: Example of transporting the bag containing food (Romania) ... 364 Figure 3.2.11: Grocery transportation among French research participants (France) ... 369 Figure 3.2.12: Use of cooler bag while shopping (France)... 370 Figure 3.2.13: Separating groceries in different bags while shopping, left Hélène (and right Sylviane (France) ... 371 Figure 3.2.14: Grocery transportation among French research participants (France) ... 371 Figure 3.2.15: Grocery transportation among French research participants (France) ... 372 Figure 3.2.16: Amandine needed room to store the stroller (France) ... 372 Figure 3.2.17: Grocery transportation among French research participants (France) ... 373 Figure 3.2.18: Shopping packed in the boot of the car (left: Ryan; below: Kate) and the back seat (right: Paul) (UK) ... 377 Figure 3.2.19: Pictures show different transportation means: top left shows rural-living Emma and her car, top right is rural-living Petter’s bike. Down to the left is urban-living Camilla walking with baby stroller, and down to the right is Anna (Norway) ... 381 Figure 3.2.20: Left: Bag resting on bench while packing groceries. Right: Bag placed on the floor (Norway) ... 385 Figure 3.2.21: Bag placed on the countertop in the kitchen (Norway) ... 385 Figure 3.2.22: Picture of Kari with two tote bags and a backpack with groceries (Norway) 386

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(Norway) ... 389 Chapter 3.3: Storage

Figure 3.3.1: Putting the shopping bag on the kitchen counter when arriving home was

common in the Portuguese households ... 395 Figure 3.3.2: Spoiled chorizo in the Filipa’s fridge (Portugal) ... 397 Figure 3.3.3: Fridge organized according to temperatures and categories (Portugal) ... 398 Figure 3.3.4: Space organization of fridges: (Portugal) ... 399 Figure 3.3.5: Storage outside the fridge (Portugal) ... 404 Figure 3.3.6: Leftovers inside a metal pan in Emilia’s fridge (Portugal) ... 406 Figure 3.3.7: Examples of storing food on the floor (Romania) ... 417 Figure 3.3.8: Cellar type storage place improvised in the water pump house (Romania) ... 417 Figure 3.3.9: Yvette’s fridge adjusted to the minimum refrigeration power to keep butter soft and easy to spread on toast (France) ... 423 Figure 3.3.10: Little pieces of butter in Bernard & Hélène’s cupboard to keep it soft without having to increase the fridge temperature (France) ... 423 Figure 3.3.11: Bernard and Hélène’s fridge with delicatessen (in their paper package) in the plastic box on the coolest shelf of the fridge (France) ... 425 Figure 3.3.12: Aurélien fridge shared with his roommates (France) ... 425 Figure 3.3.13: Fruits and vegetables in Mathilde’s garage (France) ... 426 Figure 3.3.14: Spices in one of Odile’s drawers (France) ... 427 Figure 3.3.15: Fruit storage (France) ... 429 Figure 3.3.16: Storage of leftovers (France) ... 429 Figure 3.3.17Figure 3.3.17: Storage of Sweet leftovers (France) ... 430 Figure 3.3.18: Storage of avocado and melon (France) ... 431 Figure 3.3.19: Figure 3.3.19: Leftover from the day before in the garage in winter (March) (Yvette & François,) ... 432 Figure 3.3.20: Jean (left) and Alicia (right) lay out their items on the worktop (UK) ... 434 Figure 3.3.21: Defrosting chicken sits close to spinach and butter (UK) ... 439 Figure 3.3.22: Inside Liam’s chest freezer ... 440 Figure 3.3.23: Figure 3.3.23: Varied approaches to storing potatoes and onions: Chloe (top left), Archie (top right), Paul (bottom left) and Tricia (bottom right) (UK) ... 441 Figure 3.3.24: Picture of Emma leaving the shopping bags on the heated floor to care for baby Eric (Norway) ... 444 PART FOUR

Chapter 4.1: The order of cooking

Figure 4.1.1: Stew chicken made by Carlos (Portugal) ... 464 Figure 4.1.2: Andreia preparing “frango à brás” with raw eggs beaten (Portugal) ...465 Figure 4.1.3: Emília preparing the chicken’s sauce (Portugal) ...465 Figure 4.1.4: Odete cleaned the sink while she cooked (Portugal) ... 466 Figure 4.1.5: While waiting for the chicken to be ready, Emília stored some products in the fridge (Portugal) ... 466 Figure 4.1.6: Sílvia fills up a glass of water to give her son (Portugal) ... 467 Figure 4.1.7: Andreia emptied the dishwasher while cooking the meal (Portugal) ... 468 Figure 4.1.8: Fanica prepared chicken schnitzels (Romania) ... 471

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Figure 4.1.10: Mica, Minodora’s neighbour, helped rinsing the slaughtered chicken

(Romania) ... 473 Figure 4.1.11: Mica finalised the chicken rinsing and protected the chicken from flies by covering it with a plate (Romania) ... 473 Figure 4.1.12: Mica moved the chicken pieces in the pan and turning sides (Romania) ... 474 Figure 4.1.13: While Sorina was stewing chicken, she went to the garden to fetch some

vegetables. In between cutting the vegetables, she turned the chicken in the pan (Romania) ... 475 Figure 4.1.14: Sorina finalised preparing the vegetables (Romania) ... 476 Figure 4.1.15: Sorina carried her baby girl in her arms (Romania) ... 476 Figure 4.1.16: Minodora had both her children in the kitchen while cooking. Her toddler was sitting by table playing, while her baby was on her arms (Romania) ... 477 Figure 4.1.17: Mylène checked the ingredients she needs for her recipe (France) ... 479 Figure 4.1.18: Mylène’s “Thermomix” cooking robot (France) ... 480 Figure 4.1.19: Mylène fed the rabbit on with some ruccola leaves (France) ... 480 Figure 4.1.20: Visualization of Fabrice’s cooking preparation, with The Observer XT (France) ... 480 Figure 4.1.21: Hélène gently pushed her husband to access a drawer (France) ... 482 Figure 4.1.22: Cleaning salad in the sink arrière cuisine and the served meal in Yvette & François’ household (France) ... 483 Figure 4.1.23: Gérard was doing outdoor garden activities as part of food preparation

(France) ... 484 Figure 4.1.24: When Gérard came back from the garden, his wife took over; by washing the salad indoors (France) ... 485 Figure 4.1.25: Sylviane was picking lettuce from her garden, which she washed in the arrière

cuisine (France) ... 485

Figure 4.1.26: Sylviane used a scissor to cut the chicken (France) ... 486 Figure 4.1.27: Visualization of Charles’s cooking preparation, with The Observer XT

(France) ... 486 Figure 4.1.28: Visualization of Etienne’s cooking preparation, with The Observer XT (France) ... 487 Figure 4.1.29: Elodie prepared different chicken dishes, chicken pieces in a pan and chicken fillets cooking in paper “papillotes” in another one (France) ... 490 Figure 4.1.30: Visualization of Julie’s cooking preparation, with The Observer XT (France) ... 490 Figure 4.1.31: Julie gave a cup of water to her young son (France) ... 491 Figure 4.1.32: alternative cooking technologies: Daniel’s Remoska minicooker (left); Chloe’s Instant Pot pressure cooker (right) (UK) ...495 Figure 4.1.33: Susan stir-fries her chicken (left) and then leaves it to simmer while she

prepares the salad (right) (UK) ... 496 Figure 4.1.34: Kate stir-fries chicken and bacon (left), leaves it to simmer briefly (middle) and then returns to frequent stirring (right) (UK) ... 496 Figure 4.1.35: Sahib attends to chicken (left), tomato sauce (middle) and avocado (right) (UK) ... 498 Figure 4.1.36: Alicia very briefly pauses salad prep to open the oven door (UK) ... 499

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Figure 4.1.38: Nils used the spatula to scope the chicken pieces into the plastic bowl when they were fried enough (Norway) ... 505 Figure 4.1.39: Chris prepared avocado for the salad while stirring the frying chicken pieces (Norway) ... 507 Figure 4.1.40: Chris tossed the avocado skin, turned to stir the chicken followed by cutting a mango for the salad (Norway) ... 507 Figure 4.1.41: Chris stirred the chicken again, continued cutting the mango and did yet

another stirring of the chicken (Norway) ... 508 Figure 4.1.42: Chris found a lime in the fridge, cut it on the cutting board and with the knife used for chicken, squeezed the lime juice on the salad (Norway) ... 508 Figure 4.1.43: Gantt chart of Georg’s cooking activities (06.20-13.00) (Norway) ... 510 Figure 4.1.44: Lena strapped 7-month-old, Line, to her chest when cooking (Norway) ... 511 Figure 4.1.45: Gantt chart from Emma’s cooking and caring activities ... 512 Figure 4.1.46: Emma carried 3-months-old, Erik, while stirring vegetables for the chicken dish (Norway) ... 512 Chapter 4.2: Handling and preparing chicken

Figure 4.2.1: When Emília arrived home, she put the chicken on the kitchen counter

(Portugal) ... 518 Figure 4.2.2: After shopping, Carlos stored the chicken inside the fridge for a few minutes before meal preparation (Portugal) ... 518 Figure 4.2.3: Marta unpacked chicken with a knife (Portugal) ... 520 Figure 4.2.4: Andreia’s chicken accident (Portugal)... 521 Figure 4.2.5: Augusto bought a whole chicken and cut it at home (Portugal) ... 522 Figure 4.2.6: Filipa cut the chicken near the bread she was eating (Portugal) ... 526 Figure 4.2.7: Andreia put the sliced chicken in the pan with the help of a wooden fork

(Portugal) ... 527 Figure 4.2.8: Vanessa’s careful handling of chicken without touching (Portugal) ... 527 Figure 4.2.9: Emilia washed chicken under running water and took the skin off. During this process she touched the water tap constantly (Portugal) ... 529 Figure 4.2.10: Augusto washed the chicken with cold water to remove little bits of bones (Portugal) ... 529 Figure 4.2.11: Celeste washed each piece of chicken one by one and rubbed the chicken in her hands (Portugal)... 530 Figure 4.2.12: Sónia washed chicken in running cold water (Portugal) ... 531 Figure 4.2.13: Sónia seasoned chicken with a barbecue sauce directly on the oven tray

(Portugal) ... 532 Figure 4.2.14: Odete washed her hands with cold running water and soap for 8 seconds and dried them with a cloth she used several times to clean the kitchen counter (Portugal) ... 533 Figure 4.2.15: Handling a whole chicken and chicken breast fillets, Florinel seemed to

overlook the packaging (Romania) ... 538 Figure 4.2.16: Bogdan unpacked the whole chicken and threw away the wrapping (Romania) ... 539 Figure 4.2.17: Zoltan left the chicken on the brim of the sink and transferred the chicken from the package into the bowl by hands (Romania) ... 539

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Figure 4.2.19: Dumitra scalded off the chicken on the gas top before washing it in bowl of water (Romania) ... 542 Figure 4.2.20: Minodora scalded off the chicken over a gas flame (Romania) ... 543 Figure 4.2.21: Minodora rinsed the chicken she had slaughtered out on the porch (Romania) ... 543 Figure 4.2.22: Amalia washed carefully the whole chicken with running water (Romania) .544 Figure 4.2.23: Dumitra used a hand towel and a paper towel to wipe chicken surface

(Romania) ...544 Figure 4.2.24: Sorina’s sink (Romania) ... 547 Figure 4.2.25: Sorina left the washed chicken into the fridge close to an open pot containing soup (Romania) ... 547 Figure 4.2.26: Domnica filled a bowl with water and placed the chicken legs in it to wash them (Romania) ... 548 Figure 4.2.27: Zoltan cut anatomically the chicken (Romania) ...549 Figure 4.2.28: Bogdan’s chicken preparation, cutting before and after cooking (Romania) .549 Figure 4.2.29: Various ways of cutting the chicken fillets (Romania) ... 550 Figure 4.2.30: Using hands to transfer chicken to the pots (Romania) ... 550 Figure 4.2.31: Bogdan used cling foil to cover the plate with chicken that was further moved in the fridge (Romania) ... 551 Figure 4.2.32: Ionel’s procedure of marinating the chicken in a zip-lock bag (Romania) ... 551 Figure 4.2.33: Fabrice cut the chicken fillets into slices with a scissor and trimmed the fat (France) ... 558 Figure 4.2.34: Mathilde mixed chicken with oil and spices the bowl (France) ... 559 Figure 4.2.35: Simon added the cut vegetables into the glass bowl (one bowl used for all foods) with the chicken pieces (France) ... 559 Figure 4.2.36: Transferring chicken by hands (France) ... 560 Figure 4.2.37: Transferring chicken with utensils: Mathilde pushed the chicken pieces into the pan with the spatula (France) ... 560 Figure 4.2.38: Opening the chicken packaging: Alicia pierces the film lid (left); Josh cuts open the freezer bag (middle); Liam unwraps cling film from a plate (right) (UK) ...564 Figure 4.2.39: Transferring chicken with one hand or two (Paul, left; Chloe, right) (UK) .... 565 Figure 4.2.40: Avoiding hand contact while transferring chicken (Kate, top left; Josh, top right; Archie, bottom left; and Mary, bottom right) (UK) ... 565 Figure 4.2.41: Mary used the same knife for piercing the lid of the chicken packet and

preparing salad vegetables (UK) ... 567 Figure 4.2.42: Contact between hands and the inside surfaces of chicken packaging was difficult to avoid (UK) ... 568 Figure 4.2.43: Three approaches to cutting chicken: Susan used scissors; Ryan used a knife; Laura used both hands and a knife to flatten out her chicken breast fillets (UK) ... 570 Figure 4.2.44: Avoiding touching things with raw chicken hands (UK) ... 571 Figure 4.2.45: Susan handled raw chicken before touching the handle of the slotted spoon and the tap (UK) ... 572 Figure 4.2.46: ‘Hands-off’ approaches to seasoning chicken (UK) ... 573 Figure 4.2.47: ‘Hands-on’ approaches to seasoning chicken: Archie picked black pepper out of a jar; Alicia mixed her chicken portions with marinade in a bowl (UK) ... 573